MODULE 2: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Atoms and Molecules

Democritus (Ancient Greece):

Long before Dalton, the Greek philosopher Democritus proposed the idea of atoms as the smallest, indivisible
particles of matter. However, his ideas were philosophical and not based on scientific experimentation.

"atomos," meaning indivisible particles - Democritus

DALTON ATOMIC THEORY

John Dalton (early 1800s):

Dalton's atomic theory proposed that:

All matter is composed of atoms:

This means that everything around us is made up of tiny, fundamental particles.

Atoms are indivisible and indestructible:

Dalton believed atoms were the smallest particles and could not be broken down further, nor could they be
created or destroyed.

Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties:

This implies that all atoms of a specific element (like all oxygen atoms) are exactly the same, regardless of
where they are found.

Atoms of different elements have different masses and properties:

This explains the differences between elements, as their atoms have distinct characteristics.

Atoms of different elements combine in a fixed whole number ratio to form compounds:

This explains the formation of molecules, where atoms from different elements combine in specific
proportions to create new substances.

Atoms are rearranged, separated, or combined in chemical reactions:

Chemical reactions involve the reorganization of atoms, but the atoms themselves remain unchanged.

Dalton's Solid Sphere Model (early 1800s):

John Dalton proposed that atoms are indivisible, solid spheres, and that atoms of a given element are identical.

Thomson's Plum Pudding Model (1897):

J.J. Thomson discovered the electron and proposed a model where negatively charged electrons were embedded in
a positively charged sphere, like plums in a pudding.

Rutherford's Nuclear Model (1911):

Ernest Rutherford's experiments with alpha particles led to the discovery of the atomic nucleus. He proposed a
model with a small, dense, positively charged nucleus and electrons orbiting around it.

Bohr's Model (1913):

Niels Bohr refined Rutherford's model by introducing the concept of quantized electron orbits, where electrons orbit
the nucleus in specific energy levels.
Modern Atomic Model (Schrödinger Model, 1926):

The modern model, also known as the quantum mechanical model, describes electrons as existing in orbitals,
regions of probability, rather than fixed orbits.

DIFFERENTS ATOMIC MODELS

QUANTITATIVE LAWS

1. The Law of Definite Proportions, also known as Proust's Law or the Law of Constant Composition, states
that a chemical compound always contains the same elements in the same proportions by mass,
regardless of the source or method of preparation. In simpler terms, the ratio of the masses of the
elements in a compound is always fixed.
2. The Law of Multiple Proportions states that if two elements combine to form more than one
compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element will be in a
ratio of small whole numbers. This law, proposed by John Dalton in the early 1800s, is a cornerstone of
Dalton's atomic theory and helps explain how atoms combine to form compounds.
3. The Law of Conservation of Mass dates from Antoine Lavoisier's 1789 discovery that mass is neither
created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.

STRUCTURE OF ATOM
Nucleus: The atom's core, containing protons and neutrons.

Protons: Positively charged particles within the nucleus.

Neutrons: Neutrally charged particles within the nucleus.

Electrons: Negatively charged particles orbiting the nucleus.

Mass and Charges of Sub-atomic Particles

Atomic number = number of protons

Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

Atomic mass = sum of the masses of isotopes of an element each multiplied by its natural abundance

Neutral atom. Number of protons = Number of electrons

Isotopes. Atoms of the same element with different number of neutrons

• Number of protons = 79
• Number of neutrons = mass number − number of protons = 195 − 79 = 116
• Number of electrons = 79

Example No. 2
Copper, a metal known since ancient times, is used in electrical cables and pennies, among other things. The atomic
masses of its two isotopes, ⁶³₂₉Cu (69.09%) and ⁶⁵₂₉Cu (30.91%), are 62.93 amu and 64.9278 amu, respectively.
Calculate the average atomic mass of copper.

• average atomic mass = (62.93 amu)(0.6909) + (64.9278 amu)(0.3091) =

Definition of Terms
• Allotrope is one of two or more distinct forms of an element.
• Anion A negatively charged atom or group of atoms.
• Cation A positively charged atom or group of atoms.
• Group/Family The elements in a vertical column of the periodic table.
• Ion An atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or negative charge.
• Metalloid An element with properties intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals.
• Metals Elements that are good conductors of heat and electricity and have the tendency to form positive
ions in ionic compounds.
• Nonmetals Elements that are usually poor conductors of heat and electricity.
• Period A horizontal row of the periodic table.
• Periodic Law: when properly arranged, the elements display a regular and periodic variation in their
chemical properties.
• Periodic Table A chart in which elements having similar chemical and physical properties are grouped
together.

History and development of the periodic table Johann Dobereiner (1780 - 1849)
• In 1829, a German chemist, Johann Dobereiner (1780 - 1849), placed various groups of three elements into
groups called triads. One such triad was lithium, sodium, and potassium. Triads were based on both physical
as well as chemical properties.
• Dobereiner found that the atomic masses of these three elements, as well as other triads, formed a pattern.
• While Dobereiner's system would pave the way for future ideas, a limitation of the triad system was that not
all of the known elements could be classified in this way.
John Newlands (1838 - 1898)
• John Newlands (1838 - 1898) ordered the elements in increasing order of atomic mass and noticed that
every eighth element exhibited similar properties. He called this relationship the "Law of Octaves".
Unfortunately, there were some elements that were missing and the law did not seem to hold for elements
that were heavier than calcium.
• Newlands' work was largely ignored and even ridiculed by the scientific community in his day. It was not
until years later that another, more extensive periodic table effort would gain much greater acceptance and
the pioneering w ork of John Newlands would be appreciated.
Dmitri Mendeleev (1836 - 1907)
• In 1869, Russian chemist and teacher Dmitri Mendeleev (1836 - 1907) published a periodic table of the
elements.
• The following year, German chemist Lothar Meyer independently published a very similar table.
• Mendeleev is generally given more credit than Meyer because his table was published first and because of
several key insights that he made regarding the table.
The Modern Periodic Table of Elements
• Column 1. Alkali Metals (Group 1A) Column 2. Alkali Earths (Group 2A) Columns 3- 12. Transition Metals
• Column 17. Halogens (Group 7A) Column 18. Noble Gases (Group 8A) Row 8. Lanthanides
• Row 9. Actinides

The elements can be divided into three categories—metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. A metal is a good
conductor of heat and electricity while a nonmetal is usually a poor conductor of heat and electricity. A
metalloid has properties that are intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals.

• Common monatomic ions arranged according to their positions in the periodic table