The same process happens with the organisms on Earth.
Sunlight is the main energy source for life on Earth. Only plants, some algae,
and certain bacteria can capture energy from the sunlight or chemicals and
use the energy to produce food. These organisms are called autotrophs.
Because they make their own food, they are also called producers.
References;
Miller, K & Levine, J. (2002). Biology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Education, Inc.
Bioenergetics. Retrieved July 28, 2014 from: [Link]
[Link]/dictionary/bioenergetics
Cellular Respiration. Retrieved July
30, 2014 from: [Link]
.htm
Two types of Autotrophs
Organisms that get energy from the sun – the best-known autotroph that
harness solar energy through the process of [Link]
photosynthesis, these autotrophs use light energy to power chemical
reactions that convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and energy-rich
carbohydrates such as sugars and starches.
Organisms that use energy from chemicals – these autotrophs produce
energy without light. They rely on energy within the chemical bonds of
inorganic molecules such as hydrogen sulfide. Chemosynthesis is the process
where organisms use chemical energy to produce carbohydrates. This
process is performed by several types of bacteria. Some chemosynthetic
bacteria live in very remote places on Earth, such as volcanic vents on the
deep ocean floor and hot springs. Others live in more common places, such
as tidal marshes along the coast
There are many organisms such as animals, fungi, and many bacteria, which
cannot harness energy directly from the physical environment as autotrophs
do. These organisms rely on other organisms for their energy and food
supply. They are called heterotrophs or consumers.
Heterotrophs are classified according to their food preference in the same
way that you prefer iPhone over Samsung or Secosana over Loui Vuitton.
See the types of heterotrophs below.
Herbivores – eat only plants. Examples are cows, caterpillars and deer.
Carnivores - eat animals. Examples are snakes, owls and dogs.
Omnivores – eat both plants and animals. Examples are bears, crows and
humans.
Detritivores – feed on plant and animal remains and other dead matter.
Examples are mites, earthworms, snails and crabs.
Decomposers – breaks down organic matter. Examples are bacteria and
fungi.
Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and some other eukaryotic
organisms, Aside from conducting photosynthesis, they also carry out almost
all fatty acid synthesis in plants, and are involved in a plant's immune
response. A chloroplast is a type of plastid which specializes in
photosynthesis.
The chloroplasts contain saclike photosynthetic membranes
called thylakoids. Thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana (singular:
granum). Thylakoids contain clusters of chlorophyll and other pigments and
protein called photosystems that are able to capture the energy from the
sunlight.
Photosynthesis is one of the most vital biochemical processes since almost
all the living organisms depend on it for nutrition directly or indirectly. It is
the process by which several living organisms utilize solar energy (that is,
sunlight) for growth and metabolism. By definition, photosynthesis is
described as the process of converting light energy into chemical energy by
living organisms.
The process of photosynthesis uses raw materials like carbon dioxide, water,
and solar energy to produce oxygen and carbohydrates. Higher plants,
phytoplankton, algae, as well as some bacteria carry out the process of
photosynthesis.
Because photosynthesis usually produces 6-carbon sugars (C6H12O6) as its
final products, the overall equation for photosynthesis can be shown as
follows:
To understand photosynthesis, scientists break the reaction into two stages:
the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions, or Calvin
cycle. Before going to details of the stages of photosynthesis, let's learn first
about electron carriers:
NADP+ and NADPH
When sunlight excites electron in chlorophyll, the electrons gain a great deal
of energy. These high-energy electrons require a special carrier. Think of a
high-energy electron as being similar to a red-hot coal from a fireplace or
campfire. If you wanted to move the coal from one place to another, you
wouldn’t want to pick it up with your own hands. You would use a pan or
bucket, a carrier, to transport it. Cells treat high-energy electrons the same
way. Cells use electron carriers to transfer high-energy electrons to other
molecules.
One of these carrier molecules is a compound known
as NADP+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate). NADP+ accepts
and holds two high energy electrons along with the hydrogen ion (H+). This
converts the NADP+ to NADPH. The conversion of NADP+ into NADPH is one
way in which some of the energy from the sunlight can be trapped in
chemical form.
The NADPH can carry high-energy electrons produced by light absorption in
chlorophyll to chemical reactions elsewhere in the cell. The high-energy
electrons are used to build variety of molecules the cell needs, including
carbohydrates like glucose.
Two Stages of Photosynthesis
I. Light-dependent Reactions
The light-dependent reaction use energy from the sunlight to produce
oxygen gas and convert ADP and NADP+ into the energy carriers ATP and
NADPH. The light-dependent reactions take place within the thylakoid
membranes of the chloroplasts.
Steps in Light-dependent Reactions:
1. Photosystem II (The first photosystem in the light-dependent reaction
is called photosystem II because it was discovered after photosystem I)
- Light is absorbed by chlorophyll or other pigments in photosystem II.
The energy from this light is transferred to electrons, which are then
passed on to the electron transport chain. Separately, enzymes break
up water molecules into electrons, hydrogen ions (H+), and oxygen.
2. Electron Transport Chain – High energy electrons from photosystem II
move through the electron transport chain to photosystem I. The
molecules in the electron transport chain use energy from electrons to
transport hydrogen ions from the stroma into the inner thylakoid.
3. Photosystem I – As in photosystem II, pigments add energy from light
to the electrons. The high-energy electrons are then picked up by
NADP+ to form NADPH.
4. Hydrogen Ion Movement – As a result of the H+ ions released during
water-splitting and electron transport, the inside of the thylakoid
membranes becomes positively charged and the outside of becomes
negatively charged. The difference in the charges across the
membrane provide energy to make ATP.
5. ATP Formation – Hydrogen ions will pass through ATP synthase. ATP
synthase binds ADP and converts it to ATP.
II. Light-independent Reactions or Calvin Cycle
The ATP and NADPH formed by light-dependent reactions are not stable
enough to store energy for more than a few minutes. The Calvin cycle uses
ATP and NADPH from the light reactions to form high-energy sugars that can
be stored for a long time. The Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma. This cycle is
named after the American scientist Melvin Calvin, who worked out the details
of this remarkable cycle. Because the Calvin cycle does not require light, this
is also called the light-independent reactions.
Steps in Calvin cycle:
1. CO2 Enters the Cycle – Six carbon dioxide molecules enter the cycle
from the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide molecules combine with six
5-carbon molecules. The result is twelve 3-carbon molecules.
2. Energy Input – The twelve 3-carbon molecules are then converted into
higher energy forms. The energy for this conversion comes from ATP
and high-energy electrons from NADPH.
3. 6-Carbon Sugar Produced – Two of the twelve 3-carbon molecules are
converted into two similar 3-carbon molecules. These 3-carbon
molecules are used to form various 6-carbon sugars and other
compounds
4. 5-Carbon Molecules Regenerated – The remaining ten 3-carbon
molecules are converted back into the 5-carbon molecules to begin the
next cycle.
The Calvin cycle uses six molecules of carbon dioxide to produce a single 6-
carbon sugar molecule. As photosynthesis proceeds, the Calvin cycle works
steadily, turning out energy-rich sugars and removing carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere.
The plant uses sugars for energy and to build more complex carbohydrates
such as starches and cellulose, which is important form plant growth and
development. When other organisms eat plants, they can also use the
energy stored in carbohydrates.
What is the main product of the Calvin cycle and its effect to our
atmosphere?
What is the relevance of the elimination of carbon dioxide from our
atmosphere?
The Calvin cycle produces sugar for plant energy, growth and development.
It removes carbon dioxide from our atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases trap heat in the trophosphere, the part of the atmosphere
where weather occurs, and the global warming they cause affects the Earth's
climate. This is true of carbon dioxide. Scientists recognized that carbon
dioxide levels were increasing. Since carbon dioxide is the only gas that can
be produced through human activities, we can also do something to
eliminate it.
How can you help in the elimination of carbon dioxide from our atmosphere?
Elimination of carbon dioxide helps save the Earth. As a student you can help
reduce carbon dioxide through:
1. turning off the lights (in school or at home) during daytime most
especially if the light that comes from the sun is enough to light an
area
2. using paper bags when buying stuffs from the grocery
3. using bike or walk when going to school
The next topic is about the process of releasing energy by breaking down
food molecules in the presence of oxygen: Cellular Respiration.
Cellular Respiration
Before we proceed to cellular respiration, try the breathing exercise which
involves three times of “inhale” and “exhale”.
What are the gases involved as you inhale and exhale?
We all need energy to function and we get this energy from the food we eat.
The most efficient way for cells to harvest energy stored in food is through
cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is the process that releases energy by
breaking down food molecules in the presence of oxygen.
The equation for cellular respiration is:
There are three main stages of cellular respiration: glycolysis which takes
place in the cytoplasm, the citric acid cycle (Krebs Cdycle), and electron
transport which both take place inside the mitochondria.
Glycolysis
Literally means “splitting sugars”. Glucose, a six carbon sugar, is split into
two molecules of a three carbon sugar. In the process, two molecules of ATP,
two molecules of pyruvic acid and two “high energy” electron carrying
molecules of NADH are produced. Glycolysis can occur with or without
oxygen. In the presence of oxygen, glycolysis is the first stage of cellular
respiration. Without oxygen, glycolysis allows cells to make small amounts of
ATP. This process is called fermentation.
ATP production – to get glycolysis going, the cell uses energy in the
form of 2 ATP. When glycolysis is complete, 4 ATP molecules are
produced. This gives the cell a net gain of 2 ATP molecules.
NADH production – one of the reactions in glycolysis removes 4 high-
energy electrons and passes them to an electron carrier called NAD+
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide). Like NADP+ in photosynthesis,
each NAD+ accepts a pair of high energy electrons. This molecule,
known as NADH, holds the electrons until they can be transferred to
other molecules.
Pyruvic acid production – during glycolysis, glucose is broken down into
two molecules of pyruvic acid.
Fermentation – when oxygen is not present, glycolysis is followed by a
different pathway. The combined process of this pathway and
glycolysis is called fermentation. Because fermentation does not
require oxygen, it is also referred to as anaerobic respiration. The term
anaerobic means “not in air”. The two main types of fermentation are:
Alcoholic Fermentation – used by yeast and a few other
microorganisms that forms ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxides as
wastes. When yeast in dough runs out of oxygen, it begins to ferment,
giving off bubbles of carbon dioxide which form the air spaces in a slice
of bread. The small amount of alcohol produced in dough evaporates
when the bread is baked.
Lactic Acid Fermentation – an acid that accumulates as a result of
glycolysis are converted to lactic acid. Lactic acid is produced in your
muscles during rapid exercise when your body cannot supply enough
oxygen to the tissues. Your muscles rapidly begin to produce ATP by
lactic acid fermentation. The buildup of lactic acid causes a painful,
burning sensation. This is why your muscles may feel sore after only
a few seconds of intense activity.
Citric Cycle
The Citric Cycle also referred as Krebs cycle is named after Hans Krebs, the
British biochemist who demonstrated its existence in 1937. In the presence
of oxygen, pyruvic acid produced in glycolysis passes through the Krebs
cycle. During the cycle, pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a
series of energy extracting reactions. The first compound formed in this
series of reactions is citric acid, thus the term citric acid cycle.
Citric acid production – As pyruvic acid enters the mitochondrion, a carbon is
removed, forming CO2, and electrons are removed, changing NAD+ to
NADH. Coenzyme A joins the 2-carbon molecule, forming acetyl-CoA. Acetyl-
CoA then adds the two carbon acetyl group to a 4-carbon compound, forming
citric acid.
Energy extraction – Citric acid is broken down into a 5-carbon compound,
then into a 4-carbon compound. Along the way, two more molecules of CO2
are released, and electrons join NAD+ and FAD (flavine adenine
dinucleotide), forming NADH and FADH2. In addition, one molecule of ATP is
generated. The energy tally from one molecule of pyruvic acid is four NADH,
one FADH2, and one molecule of ATP.
The Krebs cycle spins round and round, generating high energy electrons
that are passed to NADH and FADH2.
Electron Transport
The electron transport chain uses high energy electrons from the Krebs cycle
to convert ADP into ATP.
High energy electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed into and along the
electron transport chain. In eukaryotes, the electron transport chain is
composed of a series of carrier proteins that is located in the inner
membrane of the mitochondrion. In prokaryotes, the same chain is in the cell
membrane. High energy electrons are passed from one carrier protein to the
next. At the end of the electron transport chain is an enzyme that combines
electrons from the electron chain with hydrogen ions and oxygen to form
water. Oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor of the electron transport
chain. It is essential for getting rid of low-energy electrons and hydrogen
ions, the wastes of cellular respiration.
Every time two high energy electrons transport down the electron transport
chain, their energy is used to transport hydrogen ions (H+) across the
membrane. During electron transport, H+ ions build up in the
intermembrane space, making it positively charged. The other side of the
membrane, from which those H+ ions have been taken, is now negatively
charged.
The inner membranes of the mitochondria contain protein spheres called ATP
synthases. As H+ ions escape through channels into these proteins, the ATP
synthases spin. Each time it rotates, the enzyme grabs a low-energy ADP and
attaches a phosphate, forming high energy ATP. On an average, each pair of
high-energy electrons that moves down the electron transport chain provides
enough energy to convert 3 ADP molecules into 3 ATP molecules.
As a review, try to enumerate the main stages of cellular respiration.
Did you know that the total chemical energy that cellular respiration yield
from a single molecule of glucose in the presence of oxygen is 36 ATP in
total? Recall that glycolysis produces just 2 ATP molecules per glucose. In the
absence of oxygen, that is all the energy that a cell can extract from each
molecule of glucose. In the presence of oxygen, the Krebs cycle and electron
transport enable the cell to produce 34 more ATP molecules per glucose
molecule in addition to the 2 ATP molecules obtained from glycolysis.
The 36 ATP molecules the cell makes per glucose represent 38 percent of the
total energy of glucose. The 62 percent is released as heat, which is one of
the reasons your body feels warmer during vigorous exercise. See the figure
below.
Now, compare and contrast photosynthesis and respiration using an
illustration.
Does it look like the illustration below?
Below is a summary of the difference between photosynthesis and cellular
respiration.
So, you see that photosynthesis and cellular respiration are almost opposite
processes for the following reasons:
Photosynthesis stores energy and cellular respiration withdraws
energy.
The equations of photosynthesis and cellular respiration are the
reverse of each other.
Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the environment and
cellular respiration puts it back.
Photosynthesis releases oxygen into the atmosphere and cellular
respiration uses that oxygen to release energy from food.
Products of photosynthesis are similar to the reactants of cellular
respiration and vice versa.
Cellular respiration takes place in all eukaryotes and some prokaryotes
while photosynthesis only occurs in plants, algae and some bacteria.
The next topic will be about one of the most important factors that
determines the ecosystem’s capacity to sustain life: The Energy Flow
Energy flows through an ecosystem in one direction, from the sun (sunlight is
the main energy source for life on earth, remember?) or inorganic
compounds to autotrophs (producers) and then to various heterotrophs
(consumers). The relationships between producers and consumers connect
organism into feeding networks based on who eats whom.
Feeding Relationships
Food Chain – illustrates that energy stored by producers can be passed
through an ecosystem. This is a series of steps in which organisms transfer
energy by eating and being eaten.
Food Webs – show feeding relationships among various organisms in an
ecosystem form a network of interactions. A food web links all the food
chains in an ecosystem together.
Trophic Level – refers to each step in a food chain or food web. Producers
make up the first level. Consumers make up the second. Third, or higher
trophic levels. Each consumer depends on the trophic level below it for
energy. Only about 10 percent of the energy available within one trophic
level is transferred to organisms at the next trophic level.