EM

Chapter 9: Electromagnetic Waves Tsun-Hsu Chang

9.1 Waves in One Dimension 9.1.1 The Wave Equation

What is a “wave”?

A start: A wave is a disturbance of a continuous medium that

propagates with a fixed shape at constant velocity.
⚫ In the presence of absorption, the wave will diminish in
size as it moves;
⚫ If the medium is dispersive, different frequencies travel at
different speeds;
⚫ Standing waves do not propagate;
⚫ Light wave can propagate in vacuum;…
1
 The Wave Equation
How to represent such a “wave” mathematically?
Hint: The wave at different times, once at t = 0, and again at
some later time t --- each point on the wave form simply shifts
to the right by an amount vt, where v is the velocity.
initial shape f ( z,0) = g ( z)
subsequent form f ( z, t ) = ?
(capture (mathematically) the
f ( z, t ) = f ( z − vt , 0) = g ( z − vt ) essence of wave motion.)

The function f(z, t) depends on them only in the very special

combination z − vt;
When that is true, the function f(z, t) represents a wave of
fixed shape traveling in the z direction at speed v.
2
 The Wave Equation (II)
−b ( z −vt )2
f1 ( z , t ) = Ae

Examples: f 2 ( z , t ) = A sin[b( z − vt )]
A
f3 ( z , t ) =
b( z − vt ) 2 + 1

How about these functions?

−b ( z 2 +vt )
f 4 ( z , t ) = Ae

f5 ( z , t ) = A sin(bz ) cos(bvt )
A
= [sin(b( z + vt )) + sin(b( z − vt ))] a standing wave
2

3
 The Wave Equation of a String
From Newton’s second law we have
2 y
F[sin(  +  ) − sin(  )] = ( x) 2
t
the force on the segment the mass per unit length

Small angle approximation:

y
sin   tan  =
x
2 y 2 y
= ( / F ) 2
x 2
t

4
 The Wave Equation
Derive the wave equation that a disturbance propagates
without changing its shape.
f ( z, t ) = g ( z − vt ); Let u  z − vt
f df u dg 2 f  dg d 2
g
= = −v  = − v ( )=v 2

t du t du t 2
t du du 2
f df u dg  2 f  dg d 2 g
= =  = ( )= 2
z du z du z 2
z du du
d 2 g 1 2 f 2 f 2 f 1 2 f
= 2 2 = 2  − 2 2 =0 qed
du 2
v t z z 2
v t
+v or − v
f ( z, t ) = g ( z − vt ) + h( z + vt ) the wave equation is linear.
5
 9.1.2 Sinusoidal Waves
wave speed
(i) Terminology
f ( z, t ) = A cos[k ( z − vt ) +  ]

amplitude wave number phase constant

f ( z, t ) = A cos[k ( z − vt ) +  ] = A cos(kz − t +  )
2
k= , : wave length

v
 = kv = 2 =2 f

 : angular frequency

 f : frequency
6
 Sinusoidal Waves
(ii) Complex notation
Euler’s formula ei = cos  + i sin 
[oi-ler; German]
f ( z , t ) = A cos[k ( z − vt ) +  ] = Re[ Aei ( kz −t + ) ]
= Re[ Aei ei ( kz −t ) ] = Re[ Aei ( kz −t ) ]

f  Aei ( kz −t ) complex wave function

A  Aei complex amplitude; phasor
f ( z, t ) = Re[ f ( z, t )] : tilde

The advantage of the complex notation is that exponentials

are much easier to manipulate than sines and cosines.
7
 Example 9.1
The advantage of the complex notation.
Suppose we want to combine two sinusoidal waves:

f3 = f1 + f2 = Re[ f1 ] + Re[ f 2 ] = Re[ f1 + f 2 ] = Re[ f3 ]

Simply add the corresponding complex wave functions, and
take the real part.
In particular, when they have the same frequency and wave
number
f3 = A1ei ( kz −t ) + A2ei ( kz −t ) = A3ei ( kz −t )
where A3 = A3ei3 = A1ei1 + A2ei 2

Try doing this without using the complex notation.

8
 Sinusoidal Waves (III)
(iii) Linear combinations of sinusoidal waves


f ( z, t ) =  A(k )ei ( kz −t ) dk , where  =  (k )
−

A(k ) can be obtained in terms of the initial conditions.

f ( z,0) and f ( z,0) from the theory of Fourier transforms.

Any wave can be written as a linear combination of

sinusoidal waves.

So from now on we shall confine our attention to sinusoidal

waves.

9
 9.1.3 Boundary Conditions:
Reflection and Transmission
Incident wave: f I ( z , t ) = AI ei ( k1z −t )
Reflected wave: f R ( z , t ) = AR ei ( − k1z −t )
Transmitted wave: fT ( z , t ) = AT ei ( k2 z −t )
* All parts of the system are oscillating at the same frequency .

The wave velocities are different in two v1 k2 1

regimes, which means the wave lengths = =
and wave numbers are also different.
v2 k1 2

The waves in the two regions:

 AI ei ( k1z −t ) + AR ei ( − k1z −t ) for z  0
f ( z, t ) = 
i ( k2 z −t ) for z  0
 AT e
10
 Boundary Conditions
Mathematically, f(z, t) is continuous at z = 0.
f (0− , t ) = f (0+ , t )
The derivative of f(z, t) must also be continuous at z = 0.
df df
= Why?
dz 0− dz 0+

The complex wave function obeys the same rules:

− + df df
f (0 , t ) = f (0 , t ); =
dz 0−
dz 0+ 11
 Boundary Conditions Determine the Complex
Amplitudes
f (0− , t ) = f (0+ , t )  AI + AR = AT
df df
=  k1 ( AI − AR ) = k2 AT
dz 0−
dz 0+

 k1 − k2 v2 − v1
 AR = ( ) AI = ( ) AI
AI + AR = AT   k1 + k2 v2 + v1

k1 ( AI − AR ) = k2 AT   2k1 2v2
AT = ( ) AI = ( ) AI
 k1 + k2 v2 + v1
When v2  v1, all three waves have the same phase angle.
When v2  v1 the reflected wave is out of phase by 180.

Consider two extreme cases, fixed end and open end.

12
 The Fixed End and Open End
Superposition of the actual pulse and an imaginary pulse.

13
 9.1.4 Polarization
Transverse waves: the displacement of the wave is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation, e.g., EM waves.
Longitudinal waves: the displacement of the wave is along
the direction of propagation, e.g., sound waves.

Transverse waves occur in two independent states of polarization:

i ( kz −t ) i ( kz −t )
fv ( z , t ) = Ae ˆ xf ( z , t )
h = Ae yˆ
i ( kz −t )
General form: f ( z, t ) = Ae nˆ , where nˆ = cos  xˆ + sin  yˆ

14
Right and Left Hand Circular Polarizations

15
 EM
9.2 Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum Tsun-Hsu Chang
9.2.1 The Wave Equation for E and B
In regions of space where there is no charge or current,
Maxwell’s equations read
B
(i)   E = 0 (iii)   E = −
t
E
(ii)   B = 0 (iV)   B = 0 0
t
 (  B)  2
E
  (  E) = −  (  E) −  E = − 0 0 2
2
t t
 (  E)  2
B
  (  B) = 0 0  (  B) −  2B = − 0 0 2
t  2 t
 2E
 E = 0 0 2
  E = 0  t
since  
  B = 0  2  2B
 B = 0 0 2
 t 16
 The Wave Equation for E and B
In vacuum, each Cartesian component of E and B satisfies
the three-dimensional wave equation
 2  2E
 E = 0 0 2
 t 1  2
f
   f = 2 2
2
 2  B
2 v t
 B = 0 0 2
 t
Maxwell’s equations imply that empty space supports the
propagation of electromagnetic waves, traveling at a speed

1
v= = 3 108 m/s the speed of light
0 0

17
 Hertz’s Experiment
When Maxwell’s work was published in 1867 it did not
receive immediate acceptance. It is Hertz who conclusively
demonstrated the existence of the electromagnetic wave.

18
 9.2.2 Monochromatic Plane Waves
Since different frequencies in the visible range correspond to
different colors, such waves are called monochromatic.
This definition can be applied to the whole spectrum. A wave
of single frequency is called a monochromatic wave.

19
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic waves span an immerse range of
frequencies, from very long wavelength to extremely high
energy with frequency 1023 Hz. There is no theoretical limit to
the high end.

20
Mainly Heating Effect in Micro/mm-Wave Spectrum

21
Windows for Research and Application Opportunities

22
 Spectrum to Be Exploited
--- Significance of the Electron Cyclotron Maser

one photon multiple-photon multiple photon

per excitation, per electron, per electron,
large interaction large interaction interaction space
space space ~ wavelength
  

THz gap

23
 Monochromatic Plane Waves
Consider a monochromatic wave of frequency  and the
wave is traveling in the z direction and has no x or y
dependence, called plane waves.
Plane waves: the fields are uniform over every plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Are these waves common? Yes, very common.
E( z , t ) = E0ei ( kz −t )
 i ( kz −t )
where E0 and B0 are the complex amplitudes.
B( z , t ) = B0e

24
 Transverse Electromagnetic Waves
Q: What is the relation between E and B?
Ez
E = 0 = ( E0 ) z ikei ( kz −t ) = 0  ( E0 ) z = 0
z
Bz
B = 0 = ( B0 ) z ikei ( kz −t ) = 0  ( B0 ) z = 0
z
That is, electromagnetic waves are transverse: the electric
and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. Moreover, Faraday’s law   E = − B
 t
Ez E y Bx
ˆx : − =−  k ( E0 ) y = − ( B0 ) x
y z t
Ex Ez B y
yˆ : − =−  k ( E0 ) x =  ( B0 ) y
z x t
E y Ex B
zˆ : − =− z  0=0
x y t 25
 Transverse Electromagnetic Waves (II)
E
Ampere’s law with Maxwell’s correction:   B = 0 0
t
Bz B y Ex
ˆx : − = 0 0  k ( B0 ) y = 0 0 ( E0 ) x
y z t
Bx Bz E y
yˆ : − = 0 0  k ( B0 ) x = − 0 0 ( E0 ) y
z x t
B y Bx E
zˆ : − = 0 0 z  0=0
x y t
 1
In free space, the speed of light is c = =
k 0 0
More compactly, B0 = k (zˆ  E0 ) = 1 (zˆ  E0 )  E ⊥ B
 c
1
amplitude relation: B0 = E0
c
26
 Example 9.2
Prove: If E points in the x direction,
then B points in the y direction.

Sol: E( z , t ) = E0ei ( kz −t ) xˆ

k 1 i ( kz −t ) 1
B0 = (zˆ  E0 ) = E0e (zˆ  xˆ ) = E0ei ( kz −t ) yˆ
 c c

Take the real part:

E( z , t ) = E0 cos(kz − t +  )xˆ
1
B( z , t ) = E0 cos(kz − t +  )yˆ
c
Q: Why not use sine function?

27
 Plane Waves Traveling in an Arbitrary Direction
There is nothing special about the z
direction---we can generalize to
monochromatic plane waves traveling in
an arbitrary direction.

The propagation (or wave) vector, k: pointing in the

direction of propagation.
Generalization of kz: using the scalar product k·r.

E(r, t ) = E0ei (kr −t )nˆ  the polarization vector

1 i (k r −t ) ˆ ˆ 1ˆ
B(r, t ) = E0e (k  n) = k  E
c c
Q: Can you write down the real electric and magnetic fields?

28
 EM
9.2.3 Energy and Momentum in Tsun-Hsu Chang
Electromagnetic Waves
The energy per unit volume stored in the electromagnetic
field is
1 1 2
u = ( 0 E +
2
B )
2 0
1
Monochromatic plane wave: B 2 = 2 E 2 = 0 0 E 2
c
1 1 2 1
u = ( 0 E +
2
B ) = ( 0 E 2 +  0 E 2 ) =  0 E 2
2 0 2
Their contributions are equal.

u =  0 E 2 =  0 E0 2 cos 2 (kz − t +  )
As the wave travels, it carries this energy along with it.
Q: How about the momentum? See next slide.
29
 Energy Transport and the Poynting Vector
Consider two planes, each of area A, a distance dx apart,
and normal to the direction of propagation of the wave. The
total energy in the volume between the planes is dU = uAdx.
The rate at which this energy passes through a unit area
normal to the direction of propagation is
1 dU 1 dx
S= = uA = uc
A dt A dt
EB
S = uc =
0
EB
S= (the vector form)
0
1 1 1
g = 2 S = uzˆ =  0 E02 cos 2 (kz − t +  )zˆ
c c c
30
 Average Effect
In the case of light, the period is so brief, that any
macroscopic measurement will encompass many cycles.
All we want is the average value.
1
u =  0 E02
2
1
S = c 0 E02 zˆ = u czˆ
2
1 1
g = 2 S =  0 E02 zˆ
c 2c

The average power per unit area transported by an

electromagnetic wave is called the intensity:
2
1 E
I  S = c 0 E02 = 0
2 2 0 c
Sav 31
 Example
A radio station transmits a 10-kW signal at a frequency of 100
MHz. For simplicity, assume that it radiates as a point source.
At a distance of 1 km from the antenna, find: (a) the amplitude
of the electric and magnetic field strengths, and (b) the energy
incident normally on a square plate of side 10 cm in 5 min.
Solution:
Average power E02
(a) Sav = =
4 r 2 2 0 c
10000 −7
  2  4  10  3  108
= E0
2
4 1000 2

 E0 = 0.775 V/m

 E0 −9
B
 0 = = 2.58  10 T
c
(b) U = Sav At = 2.4 10−3 J
32
 Momentum and Radiation Pressure
An electromagnetic wave transports linear momentum.
The linear momentum carried by an electromagnetic wave is
related to the energy it transports according to
U
p=
c
If surface is perfectly reflecting, the momentum change of
the wave is doubled, consequently, the momentum imparted
to the surface is also doubled.
The force exerted by an electromagnetic wave on a surface
may be related to the Poynting vector
F p U SA S
= = = = =u
A At Act Ac c
33
 Momentum and Radiation Pressure (II)
The radiation pressure at normal incident is
F S
= =u
A c
Examples: (a) the tail of comet, (b) A “solar sail”

34
 Homework of Chap.9 (I)
Problem 9.2 Show that the standing wave f ( z, t ) = A sin(kz ) cos(kvt ) satisfies
the wave equation, and express it as the sum of a wave traveling to the left and a
wave traveling to the right (Eq. 9.6).

Problem 9.6
(a) Formulate an appropriate boundary condition, to replace Eq. 9.27, for the case
of two strings under tension T joined by a knot of mass m.
(b) Find the amplitude and phase of the reflected and transmitted waves for the case
where the knot has a mass m and the second string is massless.

Problem 9.10 The intensity of sunlight hitting the earth is about 1300 W/m 2 . If
sunlight strikes a perfect absorber, what pressure does it exert? How about a perfect
reflector? What fraction of atmospheric pressure does this amount to?

35
 Homework of Chap.9 (I)
Problem 9.8 Equation 9.36 describes the most general linearly polarized wave on
a string. Linear (or "plane") polarization (so called because the displacement is par-
allel to a fixed vector nˆ ) results from the combination of horizontally and vertically
polarized waves of the same phase (Eq. 9.39). If the two components are of equal
amplitude, but out of phase by 90 (say,  v = 0,  h = 90 ), the result is a circularly
polarized wave. In that case:
(a) At a fixed point z, show that the string moves in a circle about the z axis. Does it
go clockwise or counterclockwise, as you look down the axis toward the origin?
How would you construct a wave circling the other way? (In optics, the clock-
wise case is called right circular polarization, and the counterclockwise, left
circular polarization.)3
(b) Sketch the string at time t = 0.
(c) How would you shake the string in order to produce a circularly polarized wave?

Problem 9.12 In the complex notation there is a clever device for finding the
time average of a product. Suppose f (r , t ) = A cos (k  r − t +  a ) and g (r, t)=
B cos (k  r − t +  b ). Show that fg = (1/ 2) Re( fg * ), where the star denotes
complex conjugation. [Note that this only works if the two waves have the same k
and  , but they need not have the same amplitude or phase.] For example,
1 
u = Re   0E  E* +
4 
1
0

B  B*  and S =

1
2 0
(
Re E  B* . ) 36
 EM
9.3 Electromagnetic Waves in Matter Tsun-Hsu Chang

9.3.1 Propagation in Linear Media

In regions where there is no free charge and free current,
Maxwell’s equations become
B
D = 0 E = −
t
D
B = 0  H =
t
1
If the medium is linear, D =  E and H = B

B
If the medium is linear and E = 0 E = −
homogeneous ( and  do t
not vary from point to point),   B = 0   B =  E
t
37
 The Index of Refraction
Electromagnetic waves propagate through a linear
homogeneous medium at a speed
1 c
 2 E2
v = =
  E =   n
t 2
1  2
f
   2
f = 2 2 
 2B =   2
B v  t n
 t 2 0 0

The index of refraction of the material


For most materials,  is very close to 0, so n  = r
0
Since r is almost always greater than 1, light travels
more slowly through matter.
Q: What happens when r is less than 1 or negative?
38
Applications: low power

THz Meta-materials

eff ( ) =1− F  2
 2 − 02 + i
= 'eff ( ) + i''eff ( )

T. J. Yen, et. al., “Terahertz magnetic response from artificial materials”, Science, 303, 1494 (2004).
39
 Energy Density, Poynting Vector, and Intensity in
Linear Media
All of our previous results carry over, with the simple
transcription
1 1 2 1
0 →  u = ( E + B )
2
g = uzˆ
2  v
0 → 
EB  =
1
 2
c→v S= I S v E0
 2

Q: What happens when a wave passes from one

transparent medium into another? Boundary conditions.

D1⊥ − D2⊥ =  f E1// − E2// = 0

B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0 H1// − H 2// = (K f  nˆ )

40
9.3.2 Reflection and Transmission at Normal Incidence
A plane wave of frequency , traveling in the z direction and
polarized in the x direction, approaches the interface from the
left.

Incident wave:
E I ( z , t ) = E0 I ei ( k1z −t ) xˆ
1
B I ( z , t ) = E0 I ei ( k1z −t ) yˆ
v1

Reflected wave: Transmitted wave:

i ( − k1z −t )
E R ( z , t ) = E0 R e xˆ ET ( z , t ) = E0T ei ( k2 z −t ) xˆ
1
1
B R ( z , t ) = − E0 R ei ( − k1z −t ) yˆ BT ( z , t ) = E0T ei ( k2 z −t ) yˆ
v1 v2
41
 The Boundary Conditions
Normal incident: no components perpendicular to the surface.
E1// − E2// = 0 E0 I + E0 R = E0T
1 1 //
H1// − H 2// = (K f  nˆ )  B1// − B2 = 0
1 2
1 1
k 1
B0 = (z  E0 ) = (zˆ  E0 )
ˆ
( E0 I − E0 R ) = E0T
 v 1v1 2v2
1v1
 ( E0 I − E0 R ) =  E0T , where  =
2v2
In terms of the incident amplitude:
1−  v2 − v1
E0 R =( ) E0 I E0 R =( ) E0 I
1+  v1 + v2
if  0 
2 2v2
E0T =( ) E0 I E0T =( ) E0 I
1+  v1 + v2
42
 Comparison: The Complex Amplitudes of a String

Incident wave: f I ( z , t ) = AI ei ( k1z −t )

Reflected wave: f R ( z , t ) = AR ei ( − k1z −t )
Transmitted wave: fT ( z , t ) = AT ei ( k2 z −t )
Boundary df df
− +
f (0 , t ) = f (0 , t ) =
conditions: dz 0−
dz 0+

 k1 − k2 v2 − v1
 AR = ( ) AI = ( ) AI
AI + AR = AT   k1 + k2 v2 + v1
 
k1 ( AI − AR ) = k2 AT   2k1 2v2
AT = ( ) AI = ( ) AI
 k1 + k2 v2 + v1
When v2  v1, all three waves have the same phase angle.
When v2  v1, the reflected wave is out of phase by 180. 43
 Reflection and Transmission Coefficients
The reflected wave is in phase if v2  v1
and is out of phase if v2  v1
v2 − v1 n1 − n2
E0 R =( ) E0 I = ( ) E0 I
v1 + v2 n1 + n2
2v2 2n1
E0T =( ) E0 I = ( ) E0 I
v1 + v2 n1 + n2
1
The intensity (average power per unit area) is: I  S = v E02
2
IR n1 − n2 2
Reflection coefficient R  =( )
II n1 + n2
IT  2v2 2n1 2 4n1n2
Transmission coefficient T  = ( ) =
II 1v1 n1 + n2 (n1 + n2 ) 2
44
 EM
9.3.2 Reflection and Transmission Tsun-Hsu Chang
at Oblique Incidence
Suppose that a monochromatic plane wave of frequency ,
traveling in the kI direction

Incident wave:

E I (r, t ) = E0 I ei (k I r −t )
1 ˆ
B I (r, t ) = (k I  E I )
v1

Reflected wave: Transmitted wave:

E R (r, t ) = E0 R ei (k R r −t ) ET (r, t ) = E0T ei (kT r −t )
1 ˆ 1 ˆ
B R (r, t ) = (k R  E R ) BT (r, t ) = (k T  ET )
v1 v2
45
 Boundary Conditions
All three waves have the same frequency .
v2 n1
 = k I v1 = k R v1 = kT v2 or k I = k R = kT = kT
v1 n2
Using the boundary conditions

1 E1⊥ −  2 E2⊥ = 0 E1// − E2// = 0

1 // 1 //
B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0 B1 − B 2 = 0
1 2

A generic structure for the four boundary conditions.

( )0 I ei (k I r −t ) + ( )0 R ei (k R r −t ) − ( )0T ei (kT r −t ) = 0
1 2
46
 Laws of Reflection and Refraction
k I  r = k R  r = kT  r
 I ,  R , and T are angles
k Ix x + k Iz z = k Rx x + k Rz z = kTx x + kTz z
of incidence, reflection,
at z = 0  k Ix x = k Rx x = kTx x and refraction, respectively.
 k I sin  I = k R sin  R = kT sin T
p = k momentum conservation

The law of reflection: I = R

sin T k I v2 n1
The law of refraction: = = =
(Snell’s law) sin  I kT v1 n2

Common properties of waves: These equations are

obtained from their generic form.
47
 Boundary Conditions (ii)
( )0 I ei (k I r −t ) + ( )0 R ei (k R r −t ) − ( )0T ei (kT r −t ) = 0
1 2
We have taken care of the exponential factors—they cancel.
The boundary conditions become:
(i) 1 (E0 I + E0 R ) z =  2 ( E0T ) z Normal D
(ii) (B0 I + B0 R ) z = (B0T ) z Normal B
(iii) (E0 I + E0 R ) x, y = ( E0T ) x, y Tangential E
1 1
(iv) (B 0 I + B 0 R ) x , y = (B0T ) x, y Tangential H
1 2
1 ˆ
where B0 (r, t ) = (k  E0 )
v
48
 E-Parallel to the Plane of Incidence
Q: If the polarization of the incident wave is parallel to the
plane of incidence, are the reflected and transmitted
waves also polarized in this plane? Yes.

Normal D (i) 1 (− E0 I sin  I + E0 R sin  R ) =  2 (− E0T sin T )

Tangential E (iii) ( E0 I cos  I + E0 R cos  R ) = ( E0T cos T )
Normal B (ii) 0=0
1 1
Tangential H (iv) ( E0 I − E0 R ) = ( E0T )
1v1 2v2
49
 E-Parallel to the Plane of Incidence (ii)
cos T
(iii) ( E0 I + E0 R ) =  ( E0T ) 
cos  I
1v1
(iv) ( E0 I − E0 R ) =  ( E0T ) 
2v2
 − 2
 E0 R =( ) E0 I E0T =( ) E0 I Fresnel’s equations
 +  +

How about the first boundary condition?

Does this condition contribute anything new?

 2 sin T  2 sin T 1v1

(i) ( E0 I − E0 R ) = ( E0T ) = ?
1 sin  I 1 sin  I 2v2

50
 Brewster’s Angle
  −
 E0 R = (  +  ) E0 I cos T 1v1

 where   and  
 E = ( 2 )E cos  I 2v2
 0T  + 0I

When  = , there is no reflected wave. E0 R = 0

cos T 1v1
= , then  I is called Brewster's angle,  B .
cos  I 2v2
1 − sin 2 T n1 2 2
=  and sin T = ( ) sin  B (Snell's law)
2 2
1 − sin  B
2 n2
n1 2 2 1 −  2
1 − ( ) sin  B =  2 −  2 sin 2  B  sin 2 B =
n2 (n1 / n2 ) 2 −  2

51
 Brewster’s Angle (II)
If 1  2 ,   n2 / n1 and sin 2  B   2 /(1 +  2 )
n2
 tan  B 
n1

52
 Transmission and Reflection
1
I I  S  zˆ = v11E02I cos  I IR  − 2
2 R =( )
1  − 2 II  +
I R = v11E0 R cos  R = (
2
) II
2  + T
IT
=  (
2 2
)
1 2 2 II  +
IT = v2 2 E0T cos T =  (
2
) II
2  +

53
 E-Perpendicular to the Plane of Incidence
Q: If the polarization of the incident wave is perpendicular
to the plane of incidence, are the reflected and transmitted
waves also polarized in this plane? Yes.

See Problem 9.16

54
 EM
9.4 Absorption and Dispersion Tsun-Hsu Chang
9.4.1 Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors
When wave propagates through vacuum or insulating
materials such as glass or teflon, assuming no free charge
and no free current is reasonable.
But in conductive media such as metal or plasma, the free
charge and free current are generally not zero.
The free current is proportional to the electric field: Ohm’s law
conductivity
J f =E
Maxwell’s equations for linear media assume the form
f B
E = E + =0
 t
E
B = 0   B −  =  E
t
55
 Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors (II)
 f
The continuity equation for free charge: = −  J f
conductivity t
J f =E  f f 
= − (  E) = − = − f
 f =   E t  

− t
For a homogeneous linear medium:  f (t ) = e  f (0)

where  =
Classification of conductors: 

superconductor  = ,  = 0 What’s the difference?

perfect conductor  = ,  = 0 See Prob. 7.42
good conductor   1   10−19 s for copper
poor conductor   1  c 10−14 s collision time
56
 Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors (III)
Omitting Transient Effect
Omit the transient behavior.
Assume no charges accumulation:  f = 0
B
E = 0 E + =0
t
E
  B = 0   B =  +  E
t
B  (  B)
  (  E + ) =   (  E) +
t t
 ( E) = (  E) −  2E = − 2E
=0
 (  B)  2E E
=  2 + 
t t t
 2E E  2B B
 E =  2 + 
2
,  B =  2 + 
2
(likewise)
t t t t 57
 Electromagnetic Waves in Conductors (IV)
Complex Wave Number
These equations still admit plane-wave solutions,
 2
E E
 E =  2 + 
2
E( z , t ) = E ei ( kz −t )
t t  0

 2
B B B( z , t ) = B0ei ( kz −t )
 2 B =  2 + 
t t
Note this time the "wave number" k is complex:
k 2 =  2 + i
    2 
1/2

k    1 + ( ) + 1
 2   
k = k + i , where  1/2
    2 
    1 + ( ) − 1
 2   
58
 The Real Parts of The Fields
− z i ( kz −t ) k
E( z , t ) = E 0 e e ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
→ B( z , t ) = E0e − z ei ( kz −t )
Faraday's law 
i
k = k + i = Ke
 2
K  k +  =   1 + ( ) and   tan −1 ( / k )
2 2


k Kei
B( z , t ) = E  B0ei B = E0ei E
 
B0 K  2
 B −  E =  and = =  1 + ( )
E0   skin depth
E( z , t ) = E0e − z cos(kz − t +  E ) xˆ 1 1 2  2
d =
K     
B( z , t ) = E0e − z cos(kz − t +  E +  )yˆ
 59
 9.4.2 Reflection at a Conducting Surface
1E1⊥ −  2 E2⊥ =  f E1// − E2// = 0
1 1
B1⊥ − B2⊥ =0 B1// − B 2// = K f  nˆ
1 2
Where f is the free surface charge, Kf is the free surface
current, and n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the surface,
pointing from medium (2) into medium (1).

Normal
incident

(1) nonconducting (2) conductor

linear medium

60
 Reflection at a Conducting Surface (II)
Incident wave:
i ( k1z −t ) 1
E I ( z , t ) = E0 I e xˆ , B I ( z , t ) = E0 I ei ( k1z −t ) yˆ 
v1
Reflected wave:
i ( − k1z −t ) 1
E R ( z , t ) = E0 R e xˆ , B R ( z , t ) = − E0 R ei ( − k1z −t ) yˆ
v1
Transmitted wave:
k2
E( z , t ) = E0T e − z ei ( k2 z −t ) xˆ , B( z , t ) = E0T e − z ei ( k2 z −t ) yˆ


Normal components of the fields

1E1⊥ −  2 E2⊥ =  f  because electric field polarized 
 f = 0  ⊥ ⊥ 
B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0  in x direction, so E1 = E2 = 0. 
61
 Reflection at a Conducting Surface (III)
Tangential components of the fields at z = 0:
E1// − E2// = 0 E0 I + E0 R = E0T
1 // 1 // 1 k2
B1 − B 2 = K f  nˆ ( E0 I − E0 R ) − E0T = K f
1 2 1v1 2
Case (i) K f = 0, the simplest case. 1− 
E0 R = ( ) E0 I
E0 I + E0 R = E0T 1+ 
1v1 E0T = (
2
( E0 I − E0 R ) =  E0T , where   k2 ) E0 I
2 1+ 
For a perfect conductor ( = ), k2 =  ➔ E0 R = − E0 I and E0T = 0
That’s why excellent conductors make good mirrors.
Case (ii) K f  0, EM field manipulation (interesting subject.)
62
 EM
9.4.3 The Frequency Dependence of Permittivity Tsun-Hsu Chang

When the speed of a wave depends on its frequency, the

supporting medium is called dispersive.

63
 The Group Velocity and Phase Velocity
When two waves of slightly different frequencies are
superposed, the resulting disturbance varies periodically in
amplitude.
A sin((k0 + k ) z − (0 +  )t ) + A sin((k0 − k ) z − (0 −  )t )
= A sin((k0 z − 0t ) + (kz − t )) + A sin((k0 z − 0t ) − (kz − t ))
= 2 A cos[(kz − t )]sin[(k0 z − 0t )]
0
Phase velocity v p =
k0
 d
Group velocity vg = =
k dk
1 k0 
Phase delay  p =  dz =  dz =
vp 0 0
1 dk d ( )
Group delay  g =  dz =  dz =
vg d d
64
 Interference in Time: Beats
When two waves of slightly different frequencies are
superposed, the resulting disturbance varies periodically in
amplitude.
y = y1 + y2 = A sin(2 f1t ) + A sin(2 f 2t )
f1 − f 2 f1 + f 2
= 2 A cos[2 ( )t ]sin[2 ( )t ]
2 2
Beat frequency (|f1 − f2|): frequency of the amplitude
envelope

65
 Simplified Model for the Frequency Dependence of
Permittivity in Nonconductors
The electrons in a nonconductor are
bound to specific molecule or atom.

The simplified binding force: Fbinding = −kspring x = −m02 x

dx
The damping force on the electron: Fdamping = −m
dt
(rate of change of electron momentum due to collision)

The driving force on the electron: Fdriving = qE = qE0 cos(t )

d 2x
Newton's law: m 2
= Ftot = Fbinding + Fdamping + Fdriving
dt
66
 Permittivity in Nonconductors
The equation of motion
d 2x dx
m 2 + m + m02 x = qE0 cos(t )
dt dt
 d 2 x dx 
−it 
Re m 2 + m + m0 x = qE0e
2

 dt dt 
Let the system oscillates at the driving frequency 
−it q/m
x = x0e , where x0 = 2 E0
0 −  − i
2

The dipole moment is the real part of p = qx(t )

q2 1 −it
p= E0 e
m 0 −  − i
2 2

67
 Permittivity in Nonconductors (II)
N molecules per unit volume; each molecule contains fj
electrons with frequency j and damping j.
The polarization P is given by the real part of:
Nq 2  fj 
P=   E =  0 eE
m  j  j −  − i j 
2 2
 
Nq 2  fj 
e =    the complex susceptibility
 0 m  j  2j −  2 − i j 
 
the complex permittivity  =  0 (1 +  e )
the complex dielectric constant
Nq 2  fj 
 r = (1 +  e ) = 1 +  
 0 m  j  2j −  2 − i j 
 
68
 Waves in a Dispersive medium
The wave equation for a given frequency reads
2 
 2
E Nq f
 2E =  2  = 0 (1 +  e ) =  0 +  j

t m  j  j −  − i j 
2 2
 
k  0  = k + i E( z , t ) = E0e − z ei ( kz −t )

I  S = I 0e −2 z ,   2 (absorption coefficient)

For gases, the second term of  is small, i.e.  e 1.

  1   Nq 2 

fj 

k  r  (1 +  e ) = 1 +
c c 2 c  2m 0  j  2j −  2 − i j  
  
The binomial expansion

69
 Anomalous Dispersion
The index of refraction:

ck Nq 2  f j ( 2j −  2 ) 
n=  1+  
 2m 0  j ( 2j −  2 ) 2 +  2j  2 
Nq 2 2  f j 2j 
 = 2   2 2 2 
m 0c  j ( j −  ) +  j  
2 2

In the immediate neighborhood of a resonance, the index of

refraction drops sharply (n<1).  called anomalous dispersion.

Faster Than Light (FTL):

Can we find cases where the waves propagate at a speed
faster than the speed of light (v/c=1/n)? Superluminal effect.
70
 EM
9.5 Guided Waves Tsun-Hsu Chang
9.5.1 Wave Guides
Can the electromagnetic waves propagate in a hollow metal
pipe? Yes, they can.
Waveguides generally made of good
conductor, so that E = 0 and B = 0 inside
the material.

The boundary conditions at the inner wall

are: E// = 0 and B ⊥ = 0
The generic form of the monochromatic waves:
E( x, y, z , t ) = E ( x, y )ei ( kz −t ) = ( E xˆ + E yˆ + E zˆ )ei ( kz −t )
 0 x y z

 B( x, y, z , t ) = B0 ( x, y )ei ( kz −t ) = ( Bx xˆ + B y yˆ + Bz zˆ )ei ( kz −t )

The confined waves are not (in general) transverse.
71
 General Properties of Wave Guides
In the interior of the wave guide, the waves satisfy Maxwell’s
equations: B
E = 0 E + = 0 Why  = 0 and J = 0?
t f f

1 E where v = 1
B = 0 B = 2
v t 
B 1 E
We obtain   E + =0 B = 2
t v t
E y Ex By Bx i
(i) − = i Bz (iv) − = − 2 Ez
x y x y c
Ez E y Bz By i
(ii) − = i Bx (v) − = − 2 Ex
y z y z c
Ex Ez Bx Bz i
(iii) − = i By (vi) − = − 2 Ey
z x z x c 72
 TE, TM, and TEM Waves
Determining the longitudinal components Ez and Bz, we could
quickly calculate all the others.
i Ez Bz
Ex = (k + )
( / c) − k
2 2 x y
i Ez Bz
Ey = (k − )
( / c) − k
2 2 y x
i Bz  Ez
Bx = (k − 2 )
( / c) − k
2 2 x c y
i Bz  Ez
By = (k + 2 )
We obtain ( / c) − k
2 2 y c x
 2 2  2 
 2 + 2 + 2 − k  Ez = 0 If Ez = 0  TE (transverse electric) waves;
2
 x y v 
If Bz = 0  TM (transverse magnetic) waves;
 2
 2
 2 
 2 + 2 + 2 − k  Bz = 0 If Ez = 0 and Bz = 0  TEM waves.
2
 x y v  73
 No TEM Waves in a Hollow Wave Guide
Proof: A hollow wave guide cannot support the TEM wave.

Ez = 0, Ampere’s law says t  B = 0  B = −tB

Bz = 0, Faraday’s law says t  E = 0  E = −tE
  E = 0  t2E = 0
E and B are potentials. 
  B = 0  t B = 0
2

The boundary condition on E requires that the surface be an

equal-potential. E = 0
//

Laplace’s equation admits no local maxima or minima.

➔ the potential is constant throughout. E = 0 — no wave at
all.

Can a metal wire support a wave? Yes.

74
 A Diagram of the Optical Setup

K. Wang and D. M. Mittleman, “Metal wires for terahertz wave

guiding”, Nature, vol.432, No. 18, p.376, 2004.
75
 9.5.2 TE Waves in a Rectangular Wave Guide
Ez = 0, and Bz ( x, y ) = X ( x)Y ( y )  separation of variables

1  2 X 1  2Y  2
+ + ( − k 2
)=0
X x 2 Y y 2
v 2

1 2 X 1  2Y
= − k 2
x and = − k 2
y
X x 2 Y y 2
2
with = k 2 + k x2 + k y2
v2

X ( x) = A sin k x x + B cos k x x
Y ( y ) = C sin k y y + D cos k y y

76
 TE Waves in a Rectangular Wave Guide (II)
Bz
Ex   C cos k y y − D sin k y y
y
Ex (@ y = 0) = 0  C = 0
n
Ex (@ y = b) = 0  sin k y b = 0, k y = (n = 0,1, 2,...)
b
Bz
Ey   A cos k x x − B sin k x x
x
E y (@ x = 0) = 0  A = 0
m
E y (@ x = a ) = 0  sin k x a = 0, k x = (m = 0,1, 2,...)
a

Bz ( x, y ) = B0 cos(m x / a ) cos(n y / b)  the TE mn mode

k = ( / v) 2 −  2 [(m / a) 2 + (n / b) 2 ]
77
 TE Waves in a Rectangular Wave Guide (III)
Bz ( x, y ) = B0 cos(m x / a ) cos(n y / b)
In vacuum,  =  0 and  = 0 , v = c. the cutoff frequency
1
k=  2 − mn2
, where mn
2
= c 2 2 [(m / a )2 + (n / b) 2 ]
c
If   mn , the wave number is imaginary.

The lowest cutoff frequency of TE10 mode is: 10 = c / a

The wave velocities are:

 c
vp = =  c phase velocity
k 1− 2 2 mn
d
vg = = c 1 − mn
2
 2  c group velocity
dk
78
 Why the Phase Velocity Greater Than
The Speed of Light
 c
vp = =  c phase velocity
k 1 − mn
2
2
d
vg = = c 1 − mn
2
 2  c group velocity
dk
v p vg = c 2

79
The Field Profiles: Examples

80
 9.5.3 The Coaxial Transmission Line
A hollow wave guide cannot support the TEM wave,
but a coaxial transmission line can.

E y Ex By Bx

(i) − = i Bz (iv) − = − i Ez
x y x y c2

(ii) Ez − ikE y = i Bx (v) Bz − ikBy = − i Ex

y y c2
(iii) ikEx − Ez = i By (vi) ikBx − Bz = − i E y
x x c2

t  E = 0  E = −tE , t 2E = 0 electrostatic

 
t  B = 0  B = −  ,  2 = 0 magnetostatic
 t B t B
E and B are potentials.
81
 The Coaxial Transmission Line (II)
The problem is reduced to two dimensions.

Electrostatic: the infinite line charge;

Magnetostatic: an infinite straight current.
A A ˆ
E0 ( s,  ) = s, B0 ( s,  ) = 
ˆ
s cs

Taking the real part:

A cos(kz − t )
E( s,  , z, t ) = s sˆ
A cos(kz − t ) ˆ
B( s,  , z , t ) = 
cs
(a) TEM (b) TE11

82
 Homework of Chap.9 (II)
Problem 9.17 Analyze the case of polarization perpendicular to the plane of in-
cidence (i.e. electric fields in the y direction, in Fig. 9.15). Impose the boundary
conditions (Eq. 9.101), and obtain the Fresnel equations for E0 R and E0r . Sketch
( E0 R / E0 I ) and ( E0T / E0 I ) as functions of  I , for the case  = n2 / n1 = 1.5. (Note
that for this  the reflected wave is always 180 out of phase.) Show that there is no
Brewster's angle for any n1 and n2 : E0 R is never zero (unless, of course, n1 = n2
and 1 = 2 , in which case the two media are optically indistinguishable). Confirm
that your Fresnel equations reduce to the proper forms at normal incidence. Com-
pute the reflection and transmission coefficients, and check that they add up to 1.
Problem 9.20
(a) Show that the skin depth in a poor conductor (  ) is (2/ )  /  (inde-
pendent of frequency). Find the skin depth (in meters) for (pure) water. (Use the
static values of  ,  , and  ; your answers will be valid, then, only at relatively
low frequencies.)
(b) Show that the skin depth in a good conductor (  ) is  /2 (where  is the
wavelength in the conductor ). Find the skin depth (in nanometers) for a typical
metal (  107 (m) −1 ) in the visible range (  1015 / s ). assuming    0 and
  0 . Why are metals opaque?
(c) Show that in a good conductor the magnetic field lags the electric field by 45 ,
and find the ratio of their amplitudes. For a numerical example, use the "typical
metal" in part (b).
83
Homework of Chap.9 (II)
Problem 9.19
(a) Suppose you imbedded some free charge in a piece of glass. About how long
would it take for the charge to flow to the surface?
(b) Silver is an excellent conductor, but it's expensive. Suppose you were designing
a microwave experiment to operate at a frequency of 1010 Hz. How thick would
you make the silver coatings?
(c) Find the wavelength and propagation speed in copper for radio waves at MHz.
Compare the corresponding values in air (or vacuum).

Problem 9.30 Confirm that the energy in the TE mn mode travels at the group veloc-
ity. [Hint: Find the time averaged Poynting vector S and the energy density u
(use Prob. 9.12 if you wish). Integrate over the cross section of the wave guide to
get the energy per unit time and per unit length carried by the wave, and take their
ratio.]

84
Homework of Chap.9 (II)
Problem 9.31 Work out the theory of TM modes for a rectangular wave guide. In
particular, find the longitudinal electric field, the cutoff frequencies, and the wave
and group velocities. Find the ratio of the lowest TM cutoff frequency to the lowest
TE cutoff frequency, for a given wave guide. [Caution: What is the lowest TM
mode?]

Problem 9.37 A microwave antenna radiating at 10 GHz is to be protected from

the environment by a plastic shield of dielectric constant 2.5. What is the minimum
thickness of this shielding that will allow perfect transmission (assuming normal
incidence)? [Hint: Use Eq. 9.199.]

Problem 9.40 Consider the resonant cavity produced by closing off the two ends
of a rectangular wave guide, at z = 0 and at z = d , making a perfectly conducting
empty box. Show that the resonant frequencies for both TE and TM modes are
given by
lmn = c (l / d )2 + (m / a )2 + (n / b)2 , (9.204)
for integers l , m, and n. Find the associated electric and magnetic fields.

85