ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES(UNIT-2)

Chapter 4
Biodiversity and Conservation
INTRODUCTION
The term Biodiversity is commonly used to describe the number, variety and variability of living
organisms on earth. Biodiversity includes not only the world's species with their unique evolutionary histories,
but also genetic variability within and among populations of species and the distribution of species across local
habitats, ecosystems, landscapes, and whole continents or oceans.

Definition:
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) defines biodiversity as “the variability among living organisms
from all sources including, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of
which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.

LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

1. Genetic Diversity
2. Species Diversity
3. Ecosystem Diversity

1. Genetic Diversity
 Genetic diversity is defined as genetic variability present within species. E.g. Different breeds of dogs,
different varieties of rose flower, wheat, rice, mangoes, etc.
 Genetic diversity is the product of recombination of genetic material in the process of inheritance. It
changes with time and space.
 Mutation of genes, genetic drift and gene flow are also responsible for genetic diversity.
 Mango has many wild and cultivated varieties like thothapuri, mundappa, Ratnagiri, Badami, Neelam,
appemidi, etc.
 More than 80,000 traditional varieties existed in rice all of which belong to the same species called
Oryza sativa
 Hallikar, malenadu gidda, jersey are some of the cattle breeds which are different from each other.
2. Species Diversity
 Species diversity is the number of different species present in geographical region or a habitat. It is the
measure of diversity at the level of species.
 Species is a group of similar looking organisms. For example, all human together makeup one species
called Homo Sapiens, all breeds of cattle together form one species, all variety of mangoes constitute a
single species called Mangifera indica.
 Species diversity is the easiest method of measuring biodiversity.
 Species diversity is caused by evolution. About 1.7 million species exist on earth. Species diversity of
india is about 1.2 lakh and of Karnataka are about 22,000.

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3. Ecosystem Diversity
 Ecosystem or Habitat diversity refers to the differences in ecosystems found within a given geographic
area, as well as their overall impact on human life and the environment.
 An ecosystem is made up of a population of living species as well as physical elements like water, soil,
and climate.
 Waterscapes and landscapes like ponds, rivers, forests, grasslands, deserts, mountains, etc. are examples
for distinctive ecosystems. Each of these ecosystems has its own set of species.
 The set of species found in a pond ecosystem is different from the set of species in a forest.
 The region supporting many different ecosystems will be richer in biodiversity than another area where
only one or two ecosystems exist.

BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES OF INDIA

 India has a rich heritage of bio-diversity and also occupied 10 th position among biodiversity rich nations.
 Biogeography comprise of
zoogeography and phytogeography
concerning distribution of plants and
animals.
 Biogeographic regions are areas
identified based on nature of geography,
climatic conditions and types of
biodiversity like vegetation and animals.
 India has ten biogeographical zones
including the Trans-Himalaya,
Himalayan, Indian Desert, Semi-arid,
Western Ghats, Deccan Plateau,
Gangetic Plain, Coastal Region, North
East Region, and Islands.

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1. Trans-Himalayan Zone

 It accounts for 5.6% of the total geographical area.

 Indian part of it includes the high altitude, cold, and arid mountain areas of
o Ladakh,
o Jammu and Kashmir,
o North Sikkim,
o Lahaul, and Spiti areas of Himachal Pradesh.
 This zone's cold, dry desert is an extremely vulnerable ecosystem.
 Sparse vegetation.
 Has richest goat community in world.
 Snow leopard is found here, also the migratory bird Black Necked erane.

2. Himalayan Zone

 It accounts for 6.4% of the total geographical area and contains some of the highest peaks in the world.
 Location: East, northwest, west, and central Himalayas
 Evergreen tall trees- oak, chestnut, conifer, pine, deodar etc.
 No vegetation above snow line.
 Chief species- wild sheep, mountain goats, ibx, shrew and tapir.
 Panda and snow leopard is also found here.

3. Indian Desert Zone

 The extremely arid region west of the Aravalli hill range, which includes both Gujarat's salty desert and
Rajasthan's sand desert.
 It is 350-450 metres above sea level in the east at the Aravalli range, 100 metres in the south and west.
 It has large expanses of grassland that support several endangered species.
 Plants are Xerophylic – babul, kikar, wild palm etc
 Supports wolf, caracal, desert cat, birds like houbara bustard, great indian bustard etc.

4. Semi-arid Zone

 The semi-arid region accounts for 16.6% of the total geographical area.
 This zone includes the Punjab plains, Delhi, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir's fringes, Himachal Pradesh's
western edges, eastern Rajasthan, eastern Gujarat, and northwest Madhya Pradesh.
 Transtional zone between desert and western ghats.
 Discontinuous vgetation –thorny scrubs, grasses and some bamboos.
 Chief species – lion , caracal, wold etc.
 Cervid species like Sambar and Chital are restricted to better wooded hills and moister valleys.

5. Western Ghats

 The Western Ghats account for 4% of the total geographical area.

 Southrn tip of gujarat to kanyakumari
 It is one of India's major tropical evergreen forest regions.
 The Western Ghats zone is one of the world's 25 biodiversity 'hotspots'.

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 The region is home to nearly 4000 species of flowering plants, accounting for nearly 27% of India's total
flora.
 Endemic species – nilgiri langur, lion tailed macaque, nilgiri tahr, malabar grey hornbill.
 travancore tortoise, cane turtle are two endangered species found here.

6. Deccan Plateau

 The Deccan Plateau is India's largest biogeographic region, accounting for 42% of the total
geographical area.
 It is a semi-arid region located in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats.
 The majority of the forests are deciduous.
 Chital, sambar, nilgai, chousingha, barking deer. Gaur , elephants, wild buffalo, swamp deer etc are
chief species.
7. Gangetic Plain
 The Gangetic Plain accounts for about 10.8 percent of the total geographical area.
 The Gangetic divide, the Upper Gangetic Plain, the Middle Gangetic Plain, and the Lower Gangetic
Plain are all part of this zone.
 Between south himalayas and tropic of cancer.
 Formed by ganges river systems.
 Characteristic fauna – Rhino, Elephants, Buffalo, Swamp Deer, Hog Deer, Hispid Hare etc.
 The trees in forests – teak , sal, shisham , mahua, khair etc.
8. North East Region

 The North East Region accounts for 5.2 percent of the total geographical area.
 This region is a transition zone between the Indian, Indo-Malayan, and Indo-Chinese bio-geographical
regions
 Gateway for much of India's fauna and flora
 Biodiversity hotspot –eastern himalayas
 Several species of orchids, bamboos, ferns.
 Wild relatives of banan, mango, citrus and pepper can be found.
9. Islands

 This zone, which accounts for 0.3% of India's total geographical area
 The islands are divided into two major groups: the Lakshadweep Islands and the Andaman Islands.
 Andaman Islands
o The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a 348-island group in the Bay of Bengal.
o The Great Andaman (300 km long) is made up of five islands.

o The Nicobar groups of islands are separated from the Andamans and from one another by 800 m
deep channels.
o Some of the endemic fauna of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands include the Narcondam
hornbill and the South Andaman krait.

 Lakshadweep Islands
o The Lakshadweep Islands are a group of 27 small islands located in the Arabian Sea.

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o They are 320 kilometers from Kerala's coast.

o The Lakshadweep is made up of 25 coral islets.
o Lakshadweep islands have almost no natural vegetation.

10. Coastal Region

 The coastal region accounts for 2.5 percent of total geographical area,
 its sandy beaches, mangroves, mud flats, coral reefs, and marine angiosperm pastures make it India's
wealth and health zone.
 The coastline from Gujarat to the Sundarbans is estimated to be 5,423 kilometers long.
 Rice is main crop, coconut trees are grown more along coasts.

BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL, NATIONAL AND LOCAL LEVELS

Global Biodiversity
 It is estimated that there are 5 to 30 million species of living forms on the earth, of these, only 1.7
million species have been identified so far.
 The species include 3,00,000 species of green plants and fungi, 9,00,000 species of insects, 40,000
species of microorganisms.
 The number of insects is expected to be as high as 10 millions. Only 1.7 million species are known,
which is just 2% of the actual number.
 The tropical rain forests are the earths largest storehouse of biodiversity and are inhabited by millions of
species of plants, animals, birds, insects, micro-organisms, etc.
 According to the opinion of the scientists, about 80% of global diversity is present in tropical forests,
which is only 7% of the total land surface.
 The top 12 countries which are highly rich in biodiversity and considered as the mega-diversity nations
are Australia, Brazil, China, Columbia, Ecuador, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mexico, Peru,
Zaire and India.

Diversity At National Level:

 India has a rich biological diversity of flora and fauna.
 Overall six percent of the global species are found in India.
 It is estimated that India ranks 10th among the plant rich countries of the world.
 India ranks 11th in terms of number of endemic species of higher vertebrates.
 India ranks 6th place among the centers of diversity and origin of agricultural crops.
 The total number of living species identified in our country is 1,50,000.
 Indian is also one of the 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the world.
 Out of a total of 25 biodiversity hot-spots in the world, India possesses 2, one in the Eastern
Himalayas and second one in the western ghats.

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India as a mega-diversity nation

 India occupies 2.4% of the total land area of the world, but India contributes 8.22% of the known
global biodiversity.
 India ranks 10th in the world in terms of number of mammalian species.
 In terms of number of species contributed to agriculture and animal husbandry, it ranks 7 th in the
world.
 India can be divided into ten biogeographic zones and 26 biotic provinces which represent the major
ecosystems of the world.
 India has all the different types of ecosystems ranging from the evergreen tropical forests to the dry
deserts.
 India is one of the 12 centers of origin of cultivated plants and is the homeland of 165 cultivated
species and 320 wild relatives of crop plants.
 India has 40 World heritage sites, 18 Biosphere reserves and 75 Ramsarsites. Amongst the protected
areas, India has 106 National parks and 565 Sanctuaries.
 About 33% of the country’s recorded plants are endemic to India which means they are found
exclusively in India and nowhere else in the world.
 About 62% of the known amphibian species and 50% of the lizards are endemic with the majority
occurring in the Western Ghats.

BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS
 The idea of hotspots was first proposed by a British ecologist Norman Myers in 1988.
 According to him, hotspots are areas of exceptional plant, animal and microbial wealth which is
under threat.
 Two Criteria for designating an area as hotspot.
o It must contain at least 1500 species of vascular plants (>0.5 percent of the world’s total)
o It has to have lost at least 70% of its original habitat.
 Myers introduced this term, at that time 25 Hotspots were identified out of which 2 were in India.
Later 11 were added more bringing a total to 36.
 Together constitute only 1.4% of the world’s total geographical areas.
 About 40% terrestrial & 25 % vertebrate are endemic found in this hotspot.
 Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas are included amongst the top eight most important hotspots.

BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS OF INDIA

1. Eastern Himalayas
 In India it covers Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh and
Meghalaya.
 There are more than 10,000 plant species, 300 mammals, 970 birds, 105 amphibians, 170 reptiles
and 270 fresh water fishes.

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 Among these, 3100 endemic plant species and 8 birds, 4 mammals and 4 amphibians are
threatened species.
 Himalayan Tigers, Snow leopard, Asiatic Elephant, One-horned Rhinoceros, Red Panda,
Swamp deer, Water Buffalo, Indian Hornbill, Black-necked Crane, etc. are endemic but treated
animals.
 Therapeutic plants like Himalayan Yew, Blue-Poppy, Snow Lotus are over exploited.
 The primary threat to the Himalayan biodiversity is anthropogenic activity. Whereas deforestation
and overgrazing are secondary causes.

2. Western Ghats

 Western Ghats (The Sahayadri range) is one of the latest additions to the list of biodiversity
hotspots in India.
 The Western Ghats span over an area of 1.6 lakh km2, running parallel to the Western Coastline of
India, from Gujarat to Kerala.
 There are over 7,000 plant species in the Western Ghats, of which about 5,600 are endemic.
 The endangered and vulnerable species include Nilgiri Tahr, Lion-tailed Macaque, Parakeets,
Laughing Thrush Birds and more.
 Human interference is the primary cause for the depletion of vegetation. However, deforestation,
commercial plantation and overgrazing are the major causes too.

3. The Indo-Burma Region

 Covers the North-eastern states of India.

 It stretches across 23 Lakh km2 of area. However, the area left for vegetation is merely 1.18 L km2.
 There are more than 13,500 plant species, over 430 mammals, 1,260 birds, 520 reptiles, 290
amphibians and 1,260 freshwater fishes.
 Around 7,000 plant species and almost half of each category of animals are endemic in nature.
 The reason for depletion of diversity is mainly due to agricultural activities, commercial plantations.
Also, fisheries have led to a decrease in mangrove cover. Due to this, only 5% of the original habitat
is remaining.
 Species such as Pygmy Loris, Delacour's leaf monkey, Saola, the White-eyed River Martin, Giant
Ibis, Vietnamese Gecko, etc. lies in category of critically endangered species.

4. The Sundaland

 It covers across the Nicober group of islands when comes to India.

 It stretches across 15 Lakh km2 area. Only 1 L km2 remaining for vegetation. while area under
protection is 1.79 L km2.
 It provides shelter for 25,000 plant species, 380 mammals, 770 birds, 450 reptiles, 245 amphibians and
950 freshwater fishes.
 Around 15,000 of plants and almost half of mammals and reptiles are endemic to the region.
 These islands are an abode to unique orchids and tropical plant species of high economic value, like
oil, palm, rubber, etc.
 Turtles, Pangolins, Orangutans, Tigers, Rhinoceros, The Bali Starling, Straw Headed Bulbul and
many more are the endangered species here.

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 The biodiversity hotspot faces red danger and has lost most of its habitat due to deforestation,
intensive commercial agriculture, man-made forest fires, extensive illegal hunting and poaching of
animals.

ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

Endangered Species:

 Endangered Species are those which are facing the danger of disappearance in the immediate future.
 According to IUCN (International Union for conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) the Species
are classified into various types.
 In India 450 plant species have been identified as endangered species. About 100 mammals and 150
birds are estimated to be endangered species.

1. Critically Endangered Species: A species which is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in
the wild in the immediate future (more than 80% of the population disappeared in the last 10
years).
2. Endangered species: A species which is not critically endangered, but is facing a very high risk of
extinction in the wild in the near future (more than 50% population decline in the last 10years).
3. Vulnerable: A species which is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the medium-term
future (50% decline in last 20 years or more than 20% decline in last 10 years).

 Species belonging to any of the above three categories are together called threatened species.
 Some important endangered animals of India are: Asiatic lion, Tiger, Asian elephant, Bison,
Crocodile, Chinkara, Blackbuck, Great Indian Rhinoceros, Hoolock Gibbon and Musk Deer.

Endemic species:

 Endemic species are those which occur only in a restricted geographical area like an island, a peninsula,
a mountain range or a phytogeographic range.
 If Endemic species disappear from their original habitat, they are lost from the entire world.
 Indian biodiversity is rich in endemic species. More than 30% (about 5725 species) of the 17,550
species of flowering plants found in India are endemic to the country.
 Out of 81,000 species of animals in our country a large number is endemic. The Western Ghats are
particularly rich in (a) amphibians (frogs, toads, etc.,) and (b) reptiles (lizards, crocodiles, etc.,).
 About 62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to Western Ghats.
 Endemism is the condition of being endemic or being restricted to a particular geographical region. It
describes the distribution of a group of species.
 Endemic are divided into two types.
1. Paleoendemic or Epibiotic: Paleoendemism refers to species that were formerly widespread
but are now restricted to a smaller area. These endemics are supposed to have been the
remnants of a once widely distributed taxon in the past E.g.: Gingko biloba, coast redwood (
Sequoia semipervirens), Trapanatans.
2. Neoendemics Microendemics: Neoendemism refers to species that have recently arisen, such

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as through divergence and reproductive isolation or through hybridization and polyploidy in

plants. These endemic taxa are supposed to have evolved only during
the recent times and did not have sufficient time to extend their ranges of distribution. E.g.:
Kashmir Stag, Lion Tailed Macaque, Purple frog etc.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

 Biodiversity loss has always existed as a natural process but threats to biodiversity arise when the rate of
extinction exceeds the rate of speciation.
 In early phases of life, humans remained as one component of ecosystem but, very recently, humans
have become a factor of ecosystem and started reshaping the biodiversity.
 Tropical forests which are very rich in biodiversity are shrinking at the rate of 0.8% every year
 Biodiversity loss is primarily related with human interactions with natural resources.
 Scientists have estimated that human activities are likely to eliminate approximately 10 million species
by the year 2050.

Some important threats to biodiversity are:

1. Habitat Loss:

 Habitats are the places where plants and animal exist naturally. Forests, grass lands, coral reefs, etc.
are the biodiversity rich habitats.
 Destruction of such natural ecosystems as a result of various human activities is the major threat to
biodiversity.
 The major reasons for habitat destruction in India are:

A. Urbanisation:
o Migration of people from rural areas results in expansion of urban centers like cities and towns.
o Along with urbanization, people move away from biodiversity-based occupations like
agriculture, animal keeping, etc. This is associated with growth of industries and other
developmental activities.
o All these have direct and indirect negative impacts on biodiversity. The direct affect is that
natural biological habitats with many species of plants and animals are destroyed to accommodate
expanding townships, industries, etc.
o Agricultural land is converted into human settlements leading to the disappearance of agro
biodiversity (Biodiversity associated with agricultural practices).
o Ecosystems like lakes which are rich in aquatic biodiversity are reclaimed. This also affects other
species like birds.
o One example for the indirect affect is that enormous amount of sewage produced by cities and a
town is flushed into the rivers or seas where it leads to pollution and threatens the aquatic fauna
and flora.
B. Expansion of Agriculture:
o Population explosion demands increased food production. To increase food production,
agricultural activities have to be expanded by clearing forests and other natural ecosystems.

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o India has lost about 25 lakh hectares of forests because of agricultural expansion between 1951
and 1972.
o Natural ecosystems harboring wild species are destroyed to grow crop plants.
o Modern agriculture promotes cultivation of only a limited number of high yielding modern
cultivars. As a result, the diversity of traditionally grown land races are disappearing.
o Modern agriculture demands heavy fertilize and chemicals like pesticides, weedicides etc. used
in agriculture leads to pollution of water and soil, affecting its biodiversity.
o Expansion of agriculture is also associated with other activities like construction of dams, canals
for irrigation water. Dams and canals lead to destruction of large biodiversity rich areas like
forests, wetlands etc.
2. Deforestation
Deforestation is the purposeful clearing of forested land. Throughout history and into modern times, forests
have been razed to make space for agriculture and animal grazing, and to obtain wood for fuel, manufacturing,
and construction.
A. Deforestation for Developmental Projects:
o Deforestation is the clearing of natural forests by humans.
o Large scale deforestation is done mainly to accommodate developmental projects like dams connected
with hydroelectric projects.
o Large areas of forests with thousands of valuable species go submerged in the catchment areas of such
dams.
B. Deforestation for other Reasons:
o Our natural forests are also being recklessly cut and cleared for fuel wood and timber.
o Valuable trees like teak, sal and others are declining rapidly because of their timber value.
o Forest is also cleared for providing raw materials like bamboo, cane, etc. to forest-based industries.
o It is estimated that India is currently losing about 13,000 [Link]. of forests annually for various reasons.
o In addition to direct loss of biodiversity, deforestation indirectly leads to biodiversity loss by
encouraging soil erosion, loss of soil fertility, floods etc.
3. Mining Activities:
o Mining is extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth. Some
examples of substances that are mined include coal, gold, or iron ore.
o There are four main mining methods: underground, open surface (pit), placer, and in-situ mining.
o Immediate effects are seen through direct habitat destruction at the mining sites.
o Surface mining in natural ecosystems like forests directly results in deforestation and loss of
biodiversity.
o Mining leads to soil erosion and siltation of rivers, agriculture lands etc. affecting the biodiversity
existing there.
o Natural habitats adjoining the mines are used for dumping mine waste.
4. Poaching of Wildlife:
o Poaching means illegal hunting or killing of animals and this is the main threat to certain species of
animals.

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o Poaching is usually done for meat or other body parts of animals which are highly priced. The skin
and bones of tigers, horns from rhinos, ivory from elephants and perfume from musk deer are
extensively used abroad. Bears are killed for their gall bladders which are medicinally useful.
o Tortoises, exotic birds and other attractive animals are smuggled to be sold as pets.
o Coral and shells are collected excessively in beaches of tourist destinations like Chennai,
Kanyakumari, Andaman & Nicobar Islands and sold to tourists.
o Animals like rabbits, wild boar, bison and different types of deer are hunted for their tasty meat.
5. Biological invasions
o Invasive species or alien species is an organism that is not indigenous, or native, to a particular
area.
o Biological invasions are one of the main components of global change. Through mechanisms such as
predation, hybridization or competition, invasive species are a major cause of biodiversity loss.
o Invasive species can consume, out compete, and drive native species to extinction.
o In the U.S 10% of all plants and animals are introduced Invasive, these species are risk factor for more
than 40% of endangered species.
o 330 species are declared invasive out of more than 2,000 alien species in India
o Taking advantage of native species and outcompeting them for food or other resources are examples of
direct threats.
o Parthenium (carrot grass), Eichhornia (water hyacinth) and Lantana are alien species which have
become threat to the native species of India.
o African apple snail (Achatina Fulica): The most invasive among all alien fauna in India

6. Dam construction
o Large dams have a significant impact on the environment, including vegetation, wildlife, and local
communities.
o The submergence vast areas of land and the subsequent flooding can lead to the displacement of
people and wildlife, change in local ecosystems, and the loss of biodiversity.
o Dams alter the ecosystems and biodiversity of rivers.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
 In a general sense, conservation of biodiversity means simply protecting or preserving all species of
plants, animals and microorganisms, without harming their existence on this earth.
 Realising the importance of conservation of species from the threats faced by them, many methods are
employed to ensure their preservation.
 These methods can be broadly divided into two types:
1. In situ (on-site) methods of conservation
 This refers to methods of protecting plants and animals together in their original natural habitats or
ecosystems.

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 This can be best done by setting aside adequate areas of forests and other natural ecosystems without
causing any further harm to them.
 Such legally set aside areas for conservation purpose are called Protected Areas.
 Examples for protected areas are: 1. Biosphere reserves, 2. National Parks, 3. Wildlife Sanctuaries
and 4. Sacred groves.
1. Biosphere Reserves
o Biosphere reserve programme was launched by UNESCO in 1971 under its Man and Biosphere
(MAB) programme.
o Biosphere reserves are large comparatively undisturbed areas rich in natural ecosystems and
biological research and education. They aim at conserving biological diversity in their totality as a
part of the natural ecosystems, so as to ensure their preservation and unhindered evolution.
o In India, the first Biosphere reserve established was the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve spreading in an
area of 5520 km2 land belonging to the three southern states. Karnataka, Kerala and Tamilnadu.
o It was established in 1986 and it includes the rich evergreen forests of the Western Ghats. Presently,
there 13 biosphere reserves established in India.
2. National Parks
o A national park is an area declared by the state for the purpose of protecting habitats or wildlife
species of special significances present within it.
o Inside national parks, all forestry operations and other usages such as animal grazing, hunting etc.
are completely prohibited.
o General public may enter it for the purpose of study and recreation, without disturbing the wild
life.
o In India, there are about 106 national parks of which 5 are found in the state of Karnataka. They are:
1) Bandipura National park 2) Bannerughatta National Park 3) Nagarahole National Park 4)
Anashi National Park5) Kuduremukha National Park.
3. Wild life Sanctuaries
o A wild life sanctuary is also a protected area dedicated to the conservation of a particular species of
wild life. Hunting or capturing of any species is prohibited.
o Other human activities may be permitted to the extent that they do not adversely affect wild life.
o India has about 565 wild life sanctuaries of which 25 are found in Karnataka.
4. Sacred Groves
o These are patches of forests preserved on the basis of religious faiths. Valuable rare species of
plants and animals are protected inside sacred groves.
o The practice of sacred groves is an example for traditional method of in situ conservation of
biodiversity.
2. Ex-situ (off-site) Methods of Conservation
 This refers to protecting small populations of highly threatened species of plants or animals outside their
natural habitats. Eg: Establishment of zoos or Zoological parks, botanical gardens, arboretums, seed
banks, germplasm collections, etc.

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 Zoos are artificial parks with a collection of animals for the purpose of protection, education and
exhibition.
 Zoos protect threatened and endangered species of animals and try to multiply them by captive
breeding programmes. Deer Parks, Crocodile parks, Fish aquarium are also examples for ex-site
conservation.
 Botanic garden is a garden dedicated to the collection, cultivation, preservation and display of an
especially wide range of plants, which are typically labelled with their botanical names.
 An Arboretum is a collection of rare tree species grown outside their natural habitats. Seed banks have
a properly stored collection of seeds of various plants so that they can be used in future.
 Germplasm collections contain genes or other tissues through which the species can be reproduced, if
needed.

CONSERVATION OF COASTAL AND MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM

Coastal Ecosystems
Threats to Coastal Ecosystems
 The coastal ecosystems occur where the land meets the sea and that includes a diverse set of habitat types
like the mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, estuaries and lagoons, backwaters etc.
 These ecosystems provide a wide range of services for the welfare of humans both directly and indirectly that
includes
o provisioning services (fisheries);
o regulating services (carbon sequestration, prevention of erosion, moderation of extreme events);
o supporting services (element and nutrient cycling)
o cultural services (tourism and recreational)
 Despite their importance, coastal ecosystems are under threat from a range of factors. For example, rising sea
levels and ocean temperatures are causing the loss of coral reefs and other important habitats.
 Pollution from agricultural runoff, wastewater, and plastics is also harming coastal ecosystems, as is
overfishing and destructive fishing practices.
 Coastal development, including the construction of ports, marinas, and other infrastructure, can also have
negative impacts on coastal ecosystems, as can the extraction of resources such as oil and gas.

Conservation Strategies
 One approach is to establish protected areas and reserves, which can help to protect critical habitats and
species from human activities.
 Another strategy is community-based conservation, which involves engaging local communities in
conservation efforts and empowering them to take action to protect their own resources.
 A third strategy is sustainable tourism, which seeks to promote responsible tourism practices that minimise
the negative impacts of tourism on coastal ecosystems.
 Expanding the use of nature-based coastal features, such as restored dunes, wetlands, and living shorelines,
to reduce risks to people and wildlife from sea-level rise and extreme storms.

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 Reforming flood insurance and disaster preparedness/response programs to reduce development in flood-
prone areas and focus mitigation measures on nature-based approaches to natural hazard risk reduction.
 Examples of technologies include marine protected areas (MPAs), turtle excluder devices (TEDS),
autonomous recording unit, pop- up satellite archival tag, and radio-frequency identification (RFID).
 The Wildlife Protection Act of India (WLPA), 1972 (Amended in 2002 and 2006) is the only act in India to
focus on the conservation of habitats and species. According to the act, the term "Wildlife” covers “any animal,
aquatic or land vegetation which form part of any habitat."
 The Maritime Zones of India Act 1976, enables the Government to take measures for protection of the
marine environment.
 The Coast Guard Act 1978 states that the preservation and protection of marine environment and control of
marine pollution is the function of the Indian Coast Guard.

Mangrove ecosystem
Mangroves are The unique intertidal forests at the edge of land and sea.
Mangroves form highly productive ecosystems, providing habitat for marine and terrestrial species.
Mangroves are often a huge community of trees & shrubs of different species.
Definition: The mangrove is the only trees that are capable of tolerant large amount of salt in water
(halophytes)
Mangrove known as Mangal the Portuguese language from mangue (tree) and grove (stand of trees) which
is used for trees and shrubs that are found in shallow, sandy or muddy areas.
Importance
1) They are the buffer zone between the land and the sea.
2) Mangroves protect the soil from erosion.
3) They play an important role as a nature's shield against cyclones, ecological disasters and as protector of
shorelines.
4) They are a breeding and nursery grounds for a variety of marine animals.
5) Harbor a variety of life forms like invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and even mammals like
tigers.

Threats to Mangrove ecosystem

It is estimated that the world has lost 20% of its mangrove forests since 1980.
Coastal development, industrial activity, pollution, aquaculture and logging for timber and fuel wood are rapidly
replacing these salt-tolerant trees and the ecosystems.
In the last decade, at least 35 percent of the world's mangroves have been destroyed.

Conservation of Mangrove ecosystem

Different activities should be done in order to protect mangrove such as
1. Afforestation: The term afforestation means establishing new forest on lands that were not forest before (e.
g. abandoned agriculture). Its purpose is to restore an area that has been destroyed due to previous overuse

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of the land or to reduce the amount of erosion in the soil in an area and establish a more fertile and stable
soil base.
2. Legislation. (including laws and policies): The Indian Forest Act, 1927 and the Wildlife (Protection) Act,
1972 provide protection to flora and fauna.
3. Monitoring and Surveys. (land and aerial, etc.): Field surveys are a good way of getting very detailed
information from the mangroves.
4. Protection. (including conservation, parks and reserves development, etc.)
5. Raising awareness among the public on the importance of mangroves and the need for their preservation.
6. Restoration of degraded and critical mangrove areas by planting of suitable species.

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

 Rainwater harvesting is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater from rooftops, the land
surface or rock catchments using simple techniques such as jars and pots as well as more complex
techniques such as underground check dams.
 Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and deposition of rainwater for reuse on-site, rather than allowing
it to run off.
 Uses of rain water: Recharge underground water, Gardening, Livestock, Drinking purpose, for irrigation
purpose.

How we can harvest rainwater?

Broadly there are two ways harvesting rainwater.
(i) Surface runoff harvesting.
(ii) Roof top rainwater harvesting.
i. Surface runoff harvesting:-
In urban area rainwater flows away as surface runoff. This runoff could be caught and used for recharging
aquifers by adopting appropriate methods.
Gardens, driveways, landscapes, open fields, parks, roads and pavements and other open areas of the
environment can be used to harvest the rain water runoff. This is particularly advantageous in areas of low
rainfall.
ii. Roof top rainwater harvesting (RTRWH):
It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes the catchments, and
the rainwater is collected from the roof of the house/building. This method is less expensive and very effective.

Components of the roof top rainwater harvesting system.

1-Catchment area: The surface that receives rainfall directly is the catchment of rainwater harvesting system.
It may be terrace, courtyard, or paved or unpaved open ground.

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2-Transportation: Rainwater from rooftop should be carried through down take water pipes or drains to
storage/harvesting system. Water pipes should be UV resistant (ISI HDPE/PVC pipes) of required capacity.
3-First flush: First flush is a device used to flush off the water received in first shower. The first shower of
rains needs to be flushed-off to avoid contaminating storable/rechargeable water by the probable contaminants
of the atmosphere and the catchment roof. It will also help in cleaning of silt and other material deposited on
roof during dry seasons. Provisions of first rain separator should be made at outlet of each drainpipe.
4-Storage system: All collected rain water are store in tank or barrels used.
5-Delivery system: It is a system to delivered of water for uses. There are use of pumps to take out water from
tank and deliver for many purpose. Water is delivered by pips.
6-Filtration system: Filters are used for treatment of water to effectively remove turbidity, colour and
microorganisms. After first flushing of rainfall, water should pass through filters. There are different types of
filters in practice, but basic function is to purify water.
 Sand Gravel Filter: These are commonly used filters, constructed by brick masonry and filleted by
pebbles, gravel, and sand . Each layer should be separated by wire mesh.
 Charcoal Filter: Charcoal filter can be made in-situ or in a drum. Pebbles, gravel, sand and charcoal
should fill the drum or chamber. Each layer should be separated by wire mesh. Thin layer of charcoal is
used to absorb odor if any.
 PVC- Pipe filter: This filter can be made by PVC pipe of 1 to 1.20 m length; Diameter of pipe depends
on the area of roof. Six inches dia. pipe is enough for a 1500 Sq. Ft. roof and 8 inches dia. pipe should
be used for roofs more then 1500 Sq. Ft. Pipe is divided into three compartments by wire mesh.
Recharging ground water aquifers Advantages of rain water harvesting

• Commonly used recharging methods are: -  Construction methods are relatively

straightforward
a) Recharging of bore wells
 Low maintenance costs and requirements
b) Recharging of dug wells.  Environment friendly
 Reduces the soil erosion
c) Recharge pits
 Recharge underground ground water
d)Recharge Trenches  Reduces the runoff
 Used for Gardening,Drinking and irrigation
e) Percolation Tanks
purpose

SOIL CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT

Soil conservation is a set of management strategies for prevention of soil being eroded from the Earth’s
surface or becoming chemically altered by overuse, acidification, salinization(saltiness) or other chemical soil
contamination.
Ten Ways to Conserve Soil
1. Plant trees: We all know that the roots of trees firmly hold on to the soil. As trees grow tall, they also keep
rooting deeper into the soil. As the roots of the trees spread deep into the layers of soil, they contribute to the
prevention of soil erosion.

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2. Terraces: Terracing is one of the very good methods of soil conservation. A terrace is a leveled section of a
hilly cultivated area. Owing to its unique structure, it prevents the rapid surface runoff of water. Dry
stonewalling is a method used to create terraces in which stone structures are created without using mortar for
binding.
3. No-till farming: When soil is prepared for farming by ploughing it, the process is known as tiling. No-till
farming is a way of growing crops without disturbing it through tillage. The process of tilling is beneficial in
mixing fertilizers in the soil, shaping it into rows and preparing a surface for sowing. But the tilling activity can
lead to compaction of soil, loss of organic matter in soil and the death of the organisms in soil. No-till farming is
a way to prevent the soil from being affected by these adversities.
4. Contour ploughing: This practice of farming across the slopes takes into account the slope gradient and the
elevation of soil across the slope. It is the method of ploughing across the contour lines of a slope. This method
helps in slowing the water runoff and prevents the soil from being washed away along the slope
5. Crop rotation: Continuous cultivation of the same crop leads to an imbalance in the fertility demands of the
soil. To prevent these adverse effects from taking place, crop rotation is practiced. It is a method of growing a
series of dissimilar crops in an area sequentially. Crop rotation also helps in the improvement of soil structure
and fertility.
6. Soil pH: The contamination of soil by addition of acidic or basic pollutants and acid rains has an adverse
effect on the pH of soil. Soil pH is one of the determinants of the availability of nutrients in soil. The uptake of
nutrients in plants is also governed to a certain extent, by the soil pH. The maintenance of the most suitable
value of pH, is thus, essential for the conservation of soil.
7. Water the soil: We water plants, we water the crops, but do we water the soil? If the answer is negative, it is
high time we adopt the method of watering soil as a measure of conserving soil. Watering the soil along with the
plants is a way to prevent soil erosion caused by wind.
8. Salinity management: The salinity of soil that is caused by the excessive accumulation of salts, has a
negative effect on the metabolism of the crops in soil. The death of vegetation is bound to cause soil erosion.
Hence, salinity management is one of the indirect ways to conserve soil.
9. Soil organisms: Organisms like earthworms and others benefiting the soil should be promoted. Earthworms,
through aeration of soil, enhance the availability of macronutrients in soil. They also enhance the porosity of
soil. The helpful organisms of soil promote its fertility and form an element in the conservation of soil.
10. Indigenous Crops: Planting of native crops is known to be beneficial for soil conservation. If non-native
plants are grown, the fields should be bordered by indigenous crops to prevent soil erosion and achieve soil
conservation.

Soil management encompasses a number of strategies used by farmers and ranchers to protect soil resources,
one of their most valuable assets. By practicing soil conservation, including appropriate soil preparation
methods, they reduce soil erosion and increase soil stabilization.
 Some Key practices include composting, soil chemistry, nutrient mineralization, soil
quality/health, organic matter, cover crops, green manures, soil analysis, soil microbiology, soil physics.

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 Soil health: The capacity of a soil to function as a vital living system within ecosystem and land use
boundaries to sustain plant and animal productivity and health and maintain or enhance water and air
quality.
 Soil quality: the capacity of a specific kind of soil to function, within natural or managed ecosystem
boundaries, to sustain plant & animal productivity, maintain or enhance water and air quality, and
support human health and habitation.

ECOSYSTEM AND BIODIVERSITY VALUES

 Ecosystems direct values include the ways in which biodiversity is used or consumed by man e.g.
fishery and forestry products, as well as the ways in which it affects mankind through its ecological
processes e.g. watershed protection or the role of vegetation in the carbon and water cycles.
 Biodiversity provides a variety of environmental services from its species and ecosystems that are
essential at global, regional and local levels. Loss of biodiversity contributes to climatic change.
 Forest converts carbon dioxide into carbon and oxygen.
 Loss of forest cover due to release of carbon dioxide and other gases due to industrialization which
contributes to 'Green House Effect'.
 Green house leads to Global warming which results in raise in sea-level submerging the low-lying areas
in the world and causing atmospheric changes.
Ecological Values of Biodiversity
 Biodiversity is indispensable for prevention of soil erosion, prevention of floods, maintenance of soil
fertility, cycling of water, etc. that implies biodiversity holds great ecological value.
 All species are connected to one another. A change in number (up to down) will affect other species.
 A keystone species is a species that influences survival of many other species in an ecosystem.
 Examples are: 1. Sea stars and 2. Sea otters
Economic Values
 Nature provides the raw materials we need for survival, and forms the basis for the global economy
 Everything we buy and sell originates from the natural world.
 The value of conserving biological resources can be considerable, conservation should be seen as a form
of economic development.
 Biological resources have economic values, investments in conservation should be judged in economic
terms.
Social Value
These are the values associated with the social life, customs, religion and psycho-spiritual aspects of the people.
 Many of the plants are considered holy and sacred in our country like Tulsi, Peepal, Mango, Lotus etc.
 The leaves, fruits or flowers of these plants are used in worship.
 Many animals like Cow, snake, Bull, Peacock, Owl etc. have significant place in psycho-spiritual
ground and thus hold social importance.
 The entire ecosystem is utilized for cultural and spiritual purposes.

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 Some examples: Among auspicious flowers offered in temples are Hibiscus offered to the goddess Kali,
Datura flowers to shiva.
Ethical and moral values
 It is also sometimes known as existence value. It involves ethical issues like "all life must be preserved".
It is based on the concept of "Live and Let Live"
 If we want our human race to survive, then we must protect all biodiversity, because biodiversity is
valuable.
 Protecting biological diversity can be justified on ethical grounds as well as on economic grounds.
 Ethical arguments assert that humans have a duty to protect species based on their intrinsic value,
unrelated to human needs
 People do not have the rights to destroy species and should take action to prevent their extinction
 People must learn to live within the ecological constraints of the planet.
 People also have responsibility to future generations of humans to keep the Earth in good condition.
Aesthetic value
 Eco-tourism is based on the aesthetic value of biodiversity
 Ecotourism is estimated to generate about 12 billion dollars of revenue annually
 Regardless of our own material self-interest, we should treat nature respectfully. Enlightened self
interest, arguing that preserving biodiversity and developing our knowledge of it will make us better and
happier people.
 Nearly everyone enjoys wildlife and joy makes our lives good lives.
 A loss of biodiversity could very well limit the creative energies of people in the future and thus restrict
the development.
 Some examples: The beauty of wildflowers in Glacier National Park.
Hiking, canoeing and mountain climbing are physically intellectually and emotionally satisfying.

Chapter 5
Environmental Pollution
AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution is defined as the presence of one or more contaminants such as fumes, dust, gases, mist, odor,
smoke or vapors in considerable quantities and of duration in the atmosphere, which is injurious to human,
animal or plant life.
OR
Air Pollution is the release of pollutants such as gases, particles, biological molecules, etc. into the air that is
harmful to human health and the environment.”
Types of Air pollution

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i) Primary Air pollutants: Pollutants that are emitted directly from the human or natural activities are known
as primary pollutant. For example, CO2, SO2, NOx, particulate matter, hydrocarbons etc.
ii) Secondary Air pollutants: when primary pollutants are react with atmospheric moisture content then a new
category of pollutants is form, known as secondary pollutant. For example, carbonic acid, nitric acid, sulphuric
acid etc.

CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION

The various cause leading to production of air pollutants can be classified as natural and anthropogenic sources.
I. Natural Causes
Natural causes of pollution means, pollutants or substance originate from natural process without intrusion of
man. Some of the natural causes of air pollution are,
 Volcanoes spew out ash, acid mist, sulphur dioxide gas and other toxic gases.
 Forest fire liberates huge quantity of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide creates clouds of smoke.
 Wind erosion in arid region raise the dust clouds that transport million tons of soil to distance place.
 Bacteria acts on decayed plants and animals to release methane to air.
 Denitrification process of bacteria on soil surface emits nitrous oxide.
 Ammonia is released from animal waste products.
II. Anthropogenic Causes
Increase in human activities generates major air pollution sources. Industrialization, transportation of vehicles,
burning of fossil fuels (such as coal, char coal) in power plant; municipal incinerators, etc., are the major
anthropogenic sources.
 Sulphuric acid plant, nitric acid plant, cement plant, foundries, plastic industry, chemical industry etc
also causes air pollution.
 Spraying of pesticides in agricultural fields, mists from spray type, cooling towers, exhaust from various
commercial towers, use of cleaning solvents and household materials are major contributors of air
pollution.
 Another important source of ambient air pollution is the emission of pollution from automobiles, such as
carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen (NOx), hydrocarbons, and lead etc.
Classification of anthropogenic based on origin
 Stationary source are those that have relatively fixed locations.
 Mobile source are those that move from place to place. For example, trucks, aircraft, etc.

EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution has adverse effects on several aspects of our environment like vegetation's. Animals, soils, water
quality, natural and artificial structure and human health. Some important affects are:
 Primary effects of air pollution on humans are eye irritation, cough, etc. Most common types of diseases
are respiratory disorders, bronchitis, emphysema, asthma, lung cancer etc.
 Effects on vegetation includes leaf tissue damage, needles or fruit damage; suppression of growth,
bleaching of green pigments etc.

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 Effects on materials are corrosion of metals, blackening of statues (stone cancer. eg. Taj Mahal) etc.
 Environmental effects of air pollution are categorized broadly into four levels. They are
1) Personal Level: Persons working in dangerous places such as chemical industries may faces
occupational health hazards, Humans are affected at personal level due to various activities such as
smoking, burning of wood etc.
2) Local Level: Local air pollution is very dangerous to living organisms as it affects directly when
compared to the regional and global levels Pollutants are very close to ground surface and affect all
categories of people - from child to old people are exposed to local air pollution.
3) Regional Level: Regional level air pollution depends on the type of pollutants emitted from
regional activities such as industries, etc. and it normally effects after a long duration. Some of the
examples of regional effects are acid rain, particulate deposition on materials etc.
4) Continental and Global Level: Ozone depletion, sea level raise, global warming etc. are some
examples at global or continent levels.

CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION

 Suitable selection of fuel (e.g, fuel with low sulphur content) and its efficient utilization to reduce
pollutant level in emission;
 Modifications in industrial processes and equipment's to reduce emissions;
 Selecting suitable manufacturing site and zoning for industrial set- up to disperse pollution sources.
 Reducing pollutants to an acceptable level include destroying the pollutant by thermal or catalytic
combustion, changing the pollutant to be a less toxic form.
A. Control of Particulate Matter: Principally, two devices which remove particulate air pollutants
are i) arresters (used ideally to separate particulate matters from, contaminated air) and ii)
scrubbers (used to clean air for both dusts and gases by passing it through a dry or wet packing
material).Filters are usually used to collect extremely fine particulate matters.
B. Control of Gaseous Pollutants: Combustion, absorption and adsorption techniques are used to
control gaseous pollutants. In combustion process, oxidisable gaseous pollutants are completely
burnt at a high temperature. In absorption technique, gaseous pollutants are absorbed in suitable
absorbent materials. Adsorption technique is applied to control toxic gases, vapours and
inflammable compounds.
C. Control of Automobile Exhaust: Efficient engine (for example, multi-point fuel injection
engine) can reduce the unburnt HC in auto-emissions. Catalytic converter filters in the vehicle
can convert NOx to nitrogen, reducing potential hazards of NOx. Good quality automobile fuels
can also drastically reduce the toxic contaminants in exhaust. E.g. CNG) .

WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities, that has a negative
impact on their uses. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. Water
pollution results when contaminants mix with these water bodies.

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CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION

Water pollutants include excessive amounts of heavy metals, certain radioactive isotopes, oil, fecal coliform
bacteria, phosphorus, nitrogen, sodium, pesticides, as well as certain pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Many
different processes and materials may pollute surface water or ground water.
Two types of Pollutants cause Water Pollution are:
(1). Point Sources of Pollutants- Point sources of pollution occur when harmful substances from known
sources are emitted directly into a body of water. Disposing sewage or industrial effluent directly to a river or
stream are examples.
(2). A non-point source pollutants -A non-point source delivers pollutants indirectly through other agents to
water bodies. An example of this type of water pollution is when fertilizer from a field is carried into a stream
by rain in the form of run-off,
The major causes of water pollution are (1) industrial, (2) agricultural (3) domestic/(4) municipal pollutants.
1) Industrial Wastes:
• Manufacturing industries contribute many of the most highly toxic pollutants, such as organic
chemicals and heavy metals. Among all the industries, chemical industry is the largest producer of
toxic and hazardous waste.
• Power- generating industries are the major contributors of heat and radioactivity. Allmost all power
plants (whatever be the fuel,) are major sources of thermal (heat) pollution.
• The mining and construction industries are major contributors of sediment and acid drainage.
• Food processing industries include slaughter houses, canning factories and plant parts that become
oxygen demanding wastes in nearby waters.
2) Agricultural Wastes: Agricultural wastes are generated by the cultivation of crops and animals.
Agriculture is the global leading sources of sediment pollution, from plowing and other activities that
remove plant cover and disturb the soil. It is also a major contributor of organic chemicals, especially
pesticides oxygen.
3) Domestic Wastes: Most domestic wastes is from sewage or septic tank leakage that ends up in natural
water. Large-scale accidental discharges of petroleum are an important cause of pollution along shore
lines. Radioactive substances are produced in the form of waste from nuclear power plants,Specific
forms of waste are uranium and thorium mining and refining.

EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

1. Effect on Aquatic Animals like Fishes: Nutrients of sewage and fertilizers over stimulate the growth of
aquatic plants and algae. Excessive growth of these types of organisms block light to deeper waters. This in
turn, proves very harmful to a aquatic organisms as it affects the respiration ability or fish and other
invertebrates that reside in water.
2. Blocking of Water Ways: Excessive growth of water plants due to pollution with nutrients consequently
clogs waterways and interferes with free flow of water.
3. Health Problems: Pathogen includes such organisms as bacteria viruses, and particularly boasts that dump
sewage. Drinking such water can cause many illnesses that range from typhoid and dysentery to minor
respiratory and skin diseases.

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4. Pesticide Toxicity: Presence of high doses of pesticides in water is posing a biggest health problem.
Pesticides enter into the bodies of different organisms and humans through the food chain. Pesticides can cause
various problems like birth defects, body deformities had cancers.
5. Rendering water unfit for drinking, irrigation and other uses
6. Pollution of all types makes the water unsafe for drinking and unfit for agricultural and other uses. This leads
to acute water shortages.
Biological magnification, is the increase in concentration of a substance, e.g a pesticide, in the tissues of
organisms at successively higher levels in a food chain.

CONTROL MEASURES OF WATER POLLUTION

 Preventing the production of pollutions is the important method of controlling water pollution. For example
use of pesticides and fertilizers can be reduced by using integrated pest management methods, biopesticides
and biofertilizers.
 Industrial effluent and domestic waste must be treated before disposal.
 Recycling of waste water through waste water treatment. (Wastewater treatment is a process which
removes and eliminates contaminants from wastewater and converts this into an effluent that can be returned
to the water cycle.)
 Public awareness program.

SOIL POLLUTION
Soil pollution refers to the contamination of soil with anomalous concentrations of toxic substances.
soil pollution is caused due to the presence of man-made applications like percolation of contaminated surface
water, pesticides, fuel dumping, oil dumping, etc.

CAUSES OF SOIL POLLUTION

There are several possible causes for soil degradation, such as water logging, compaction, erosion, acidification,
salinisation and the accumulation of heavy metals and other inorganic contaminates.
The important causes for soil pollution are:
I. Water Erosion: Loss of topsoil through water erosion is the most common type of soil degradation,
contributing to approximately 56% of the loss. Topsoil is relatively rich in nutrients and hence its loss oi
impoverishes the soil.
There are various types of water erosion. Some of them are:
Raindrop Erosion or Splash Erosion: This results from the soil splash caused by the impact of falling
raindrops. Raindrops splash gradually removes the fine materials from the soil leaves behind the less
fertile sand and gravel.

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Sheet Erosion: It is a more or less even removal of a thin layer of soil. It is not a prominent type of
erosion, since the total amount The removed in any storm is small.
Rill Erosion: Rill erosion is the type of erosion that occurs as water flows over a hillslope and cuts
shallow, curvy channels into the top soil.
Gully Erosion: It is an advanced stage of rill erosion. Gully erosion is a widespread and often dramatic
form of soil erosion caused by flowing surface water.
Stream Erosion: Stream Erosion is an ongoing process on all bodies of water, especially moving water.
Valley or stream erosion occurs with continued water flow along a linear feature.
Erosion by Waves of Ocean and Lakeshores Lines: Waves will spread the sediments along the
coastline to create a beach. Waves also erode sediments from cliffs and shorelines and transport them
onto beaches.
II. Wind Erosion: Wind erosion is a natural process that moves soil from one location to another by wind
power.
 It can cause significant economic and environmental damage.
 wind erosion is most common in deserts and coastal sand dunes and beaches, certain land conditions
will cause wind erosion in agricultural areas.
 They include loss of valuable topsoil and recently applied fertilizer, in loss of seeds and injury to
established crops..
III. Chemical Deterioration: Chemical deterioration as a type of soil degradation involves loss of nutrients or
organic matter, salinisation, acidification, soil pollution, and fertility decline.
 Salinisation occurs when the concentration of salts in the topsoil increase. It can be caused by poorly
drained irrigation systems, excessive groundwater withdrawals in coastal areas
 Acidification is caused by the drainage of pyrite-containing soils in coastal areas or by over application
of acidifying fertilizer.
 Soil pollution is associated with industrial and urban wastes.
IV. Physical Deterioration: Physical deterioration of soil involves the destruction of soil structure,
consolidation, compaction and reduced root penetration, waterlogging and runoff, and accelerated erosion.
Factors such as rainfall, surface runoff, floods, wind erosion, tillage, and mass movements can lead to the degradation
of soil.
In addition to these, human induced changes due to agricultural practices accelerate soil erosion. This includes:
(i) Overgrazing of Animals: Grazing of animals in riparian areas (areas next to streams) causes erosion and
stream deposit.
(ii) Planting of Monoculture: In monoculture, plantation plant is unable to retain more water under their roots,
which often results in soil erosion.
(iii) Row Cropping: This practice is common with monocultures and is sometimes found in polycultures. The
soil between each row of crops is exposed which is then vulnerable to erosion.
(iv) Tilling: Tilling operation in agriculture is mainly done to loosen the soil. This leads to likelihood of erosion
as it disturbs the natural for surface and protective vegetation.

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(v) Crop Removal: The continuous removal of crops increases the soil susceptibility to erosion due to exposure
and depletion of organic matter.
(vi) Development in new Land: Rising populations are forcing people to grow crops on marginal lands.
Hillsides when not developed properly are vulnerable to erosion.

EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION

• Pollution and degradation of soil decreases the soil fertility and productivity. As a consequence, natural
ecosystems like forests are harmed and agricultural production reduced.
• Complete degradation of soil converts productive lands into waste lands. This would reduce the land available
for agriculture and aggravate the food problem.

CONTROL MEASURES OF SOIL POLLUTION

• Checking soil erosion: Erosion can be controlled by various biological and mechanical methods.
1. Protection the top soil from direct impact of rain drops.
2. Decreasing the speed of surface run-off of water.
3. Reducing the velocity of wind.
4. Increasing the moisture and organic matter content of soil.
 Crop Rotation: Growing the same crop repeatedly decreases soil fertility. Crop Rotation is a method of
growing a series of dissimilar crops in an area sequentially. This helps in the improvement of soil
structure and fertility.
 Sustainable Agricultural Practices: Adapting sustainable agricultural practices like organic farming,
use of biofertilizers and biopesticides, etc can help to produce food without damaging the health of soil.

NOISE POLLUTION
Noise is usually defined as 'unwanted sound or sound without value that cause discomfort to listener'. Noise
pollution refers to the unwanted sound dumped into the atmosphere leading to health hazards. A particular
sound may be music to one but noise to another; The unit of noise pollution level is measured in dB (decibel)

CAUSES FOR NOISE POLLUTION

Noise may be natural as thunder or human-made. Human - made sources of noise may broadly be classified into
two types (i) Industrial and (ii) non-industrial.
i) Industrial Source of Noise: . In an industry Noise originates there from various machines in connection with
crushing of different materials, grinding, drilling, bunching, weaving, boiler making, forging, pressing and
blasting operations. Thus, industries of various kinds such as textile, iron and steel; automobile, fertilizer, paper,
ceramics and thermal power stations are major contributor of noise pollution.
ii) Non-industrial Source of Noise: The chief non-industrial noise sources have been classified as follows.

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A. Domestic Noise: Entertainment devices, e.g., television, radio, tape recorders, CD players, telephone,
musical instrument (e.g., harmonium), fans, air conditioner, cooler, washing machine, exhaust fan, , vacuum
cleaners, metal utensils) etc., are common sources of domestic noise, Effects of sound produced by T.V. and
radio are very slow but long lasting.
B. Loud-Speaker: This is one of the most common sources of human made noise pollution. For every
occasion, religious or non-religious, public festivals, meals and election meetings produce sound ranging
between 55db (A) to 90 db (A).
C. Construction Work: Noise from construction sites (i.e., construction adio of roads, bridges, and huge
residential and commercial complexes) Sean has been generally far worse than noise originating from industries
and factories.
D. Transport Noise: Transport or traffic noise is created by a continuous running of auto vehicles and is
generated by engines in jets, motor in trucks and contact of types on roads and wheels on rails. Traffic noise has
been increasing over the last few decades due to increased density of vehicles and their higher speeds.
E. Crowded Markets: In metropolitan cities such as Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi and Chennai, the crowded
markets have become great sources of noise pollution. The chattering and bargaining of shoppers, foot falls on
pavement, loud-speakers urging for buyers, stopping and starting of vehicle engines. Etc., contribute a lot in
creating noise pollution.
F. Theaters, Circus and Carnivals: Theaters, dance halls discotheques, circus and carnivals all cause noise
pollution to nearby residents, especially, in the evening.
G. Religious Rituals and Festivals: Various religious rituals such as Yagna, Bhagwati, Kirtan, Navaratri, Azan
and religious festivals such as Deepawali, Durga Pooja, Ganeshotsava, Urs fairs, all cause noise pollution. For
example, the noise of crackers during [Link]
H. Projection of Satellite in Space: Satellites are thrown into space with the aid of high explosive rockets.
During this, deafening noise is produced at the time of "lifting off" a satellite. Tons of explosives like TNT used
in these operations produce noise pollution.
I. Atomic Explosions: Huge noise is emitted from the site of experimental atomic explosion.

HEALTH EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION

• Constant exposure to loud noise can cause temporary or permanent hearing loss depending on the volume,
duration, and repetition of exposure.
• Sound volume is measured in decibels (dB). Regular exposure to sounds of louder than 90 decibels can slowly
damage hearing, The loudest sound that can be tolerated by the human ear is about 120 dB.
• Other Problems that can result from noise pollution includes
1. Hearing loss can in turn lead to depression, anxiety, paranoia and social isolation.
2. Intensifying of health problems
3. Irritation, stress
4. Temporary increase in blood pressure

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5. Weakened immune system

6. Heart disease, psychosomatic illness, cardio-circulatory problems.
Studies have shown that night time traffic noise not only disturbs sleep but also encourages psy12chosomatic
illnesses.

CONTROL MEASURES OF NOISE POLLUTION

Control measures are action urgently needs to be taken to reduce the noise levels in society, and thereby to
protect people from noise pollution.
 Public education can be effective, though it is also expensive.
 All people should be taught to avoid loud noises that do permanent damage to the ear.
 People should also be made aware of how the noise pollution they create (for instance, from honking
their horns or playing music loudly) affect others.
 People can also play their music more quietly, and learn to honk less than 9 by driving more slowly.
 To avoid hearing loss, people can wear ear plug, which can help reduce the intensity of loud sounds,
reducing damage for those whose jobs require contact with loud noises.
 Noise Awareness Day can be celebrated to bring to people's attention the problems caused by noise and to
motivate people to reduce it.
Legal and policy measures: The most significantly aspect include setting a decibel limit on allowable noise
establishing penalties for those limits and banning the use of devises that are considered a public nuisance.

PLASTIC AND HUMAN HEALTH RISKS

What is plastic?
Plastics are synthetic substance produced by chemical reaction. Almost all the plastics are made from carbon
and petroleum except a few experimental resins derived from corn and other organic substances.
History of plastic: -
The first man-made plastic was created by Alexander Parkes who publicly demonstrated it in 1862, Great
International Exhibition in London. The material called Parkesine was an organic material derived from
cellulose.
Celluloid is derived from cellulose and alcoholized camphor. John Wesley Hyatt invented celluloid in 1868. He
created celluloid in a strip format for movie film.
By 1900, movie film was an exploding market for celluloid.
Plastic pollution:
 Plastic objects in the earth's environment that adversely affects wildlife, wildlife habitat and humans.
 Plastics that act as pollutants are categorized into micro, meso, macro debris based on size.
 Plastics are inexpensive and durable and as a result levels of plastic production by humans are high.
 Living organisms, particularly marine animals as well as humans are also affected by plastic pollution.

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PLASTIC'S EFFECT ON HUMAN HEALTH

 Some of the constituents of plastic such as benzene are known to cause cancer.
 Recycling of plastic is associated with skin and respiratory problems, resulting from exposure to and
inhalation of toxic fumes, especially hydrocarbons and residues released during the process.
 Toxic chemicals contained in plastics cause neurological problems, cancer, birth defects, hormonal
changes gastric ulcer, thyroid problems and cardiovascular disease.
 The endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in plastics have been contributing to obesity and diabetes.
The plastic bottles may leach cancer-causing chemicals such as phthalates (a component makes plastic
pliable) and Bis-phenol A ( a component harden plastic).
 Bis-phenol A (BPA) a synthetic estrogen, can affect the hearts of women and can permanently damage
DNA of mice.
Simple ways to reduce plastic waste

 Say no to disposable plastic cutlery, plastic straws and other single-use plastics.
 Avoid plastics that cannot be recycled if other alternatives exist.
 Avoid products with excess or unnecessary plastic packaging.
 Adopt reusable items such as water bottles, shopping bags, keep cups and travel cutlery

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid wastes are the organic and inorganic waste materials such as product packing, furniture, clothing, bottles
kitchen refuse (containing vegetable and meat material, leftover food, egg shells, etc), paper, appliances, paint
cans, batteries, plastic bottles, etc., produced in a society, which do not generally carry any value to the first
users.
solid wastes materials can be recycled or reused for producing valuable products like compost, biogas, etc. An
integrated plan to systematically collect, process, reuse, recycle and finally dispose unusable solid waste
generated in a locality is called solid waste management.
CAUSES OF SOLID WASTE PRODUCTION
The following are the major sources of urban and industrial solid waste materials:
I. Urban Waste: Urban waste generally includes:
II. Residential: This refers to waste from dwelling, apartments etc and consists of leftover food, vegetable
peels, plastic, clothes, ashes, etc.
III. Commercial: This refers to wastes consisting of leftover food, glasses, metals, ashes, etc., generated from
stores, restaurants, markets, hotels, motels, auto-repair shops, medical facilities, etc.
IV. Institutional: This mainly consists of paper, plastic, glasses, etc., generated from educational,
administrative and public buildings such as schools, colleges, offices, prisons, etc.
V. Municipal: This includes dust, leafy matter, building debris, treatment plant residual sludge, etc., generated
from various municipal activities like construction and demolition, street cleaning, landscaping, etc.

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VI. Industrial Wastes: This mainly consists of process wastes, ashes, demolition and construction waste,
hazardous waste etc., produced due to industrial activities.
EFFECTS OF SOLID WASTE
1. Public Health Effects
Diseases, Vectors and Pathways: Wastes dumped indiscriminately provide the food and environment for
thriving populations of pathogens and their vectors which are the agents of various diseases. The pathway of
pathogen transmission from wastes to humans are mostly indirect through insects-Flies, Mosquitoes and
Roaches and animals-Rodents and Pigs.
 Most common in this category is the housefly, which transmits typhoid, salmonellosis, gastro-enteritis
and dysentery. Garbage normally act as breeding grounds for flies.
 Mosquitoes: They transmit diseases such as Malaria, Filarial and Dengue fever. They breed in stagnant
water accumulating in waste items such as tins, cans, tyres, etc.
 Roaches: These cause infection by physical contract and can transmit typhoid, cholera and amoebiasis.
 Rodents: Rodents (rats) proliferate in uncontrolled deposits of solid not wastes, which provide sources
of food as well as shelter. They are responsible for the spread of diseases such as plague, murine Typhus,
Leptospirosis, Histoplasmosis, Rat bite fever, Salmonelosis, trichinosis, etc.
2. Occupational hazards: Workers handling wastes are at risk, the infections associated with waste handling,
include:
 Skin and blood infections resulting from direct contact with waste and from infected wounds;
 Eye and respiratory infections resulting from exposure infected dust, especially during landfill
operations;
 Chronic respiratory diseases, including cancers resulting from exposure to dust and hazardous
compounds.
3. Environmental Effects: The important adverse environmental effects caused by solid waste are the
following:
 Air Pollution: Burning of solid wastes in open dumps or on improperly designed incinerators emit
pollutants (gaseous and particulate matters) to the atmosphere.
 Water and Land Pollution: Water pollution results from dumping in open areas and storm water drains,
and improper design, construction and operation of a sanitary landfill.
 Noise Pollution: Undesirable noise is a nuisance associated with operations at landfills, incinerators,
transfer stations and sites used for recycling. This is due to the movement of vehicles, the operation of
large machines and the diverse operations at an incinerator site.

CONTROL MEASURES OF URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE

Sources reduction, Recycling and Disposal are the three major components of solid waste management aimed at
controlling their adverse effects.
1. Sources Reduction: This refers to the activities that reduce the amount of waste generated at source to
reduce their volume and toxicity, before they become part of the solid waste stream. Reducing waste before it is
generated is a logical way to save costs and natural resources. Some methods of source reduction are:

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 Product Reuse: Using reusable products, instead of their disposal equivalents, reduce the amount of
materials that are to be managed as wastes. An examples of product reuse is the reusable shopping bag.
 Material Volume Reduction: Reducing the volume of materials reduces the amount of waste produced for
examples, buying in bulk or using large food containers reduce the amount of packaging waste
progenerated.
 Increasing Product Lifetime: Designing products that allows for repair and continued use rather than
disposal minimizes waste production. Manufacturing long-life types is a good example of increasing
product lifetime.
2. Recycling: Recycling is process of separating, collecting, processing, marketing and ultimately using a
material that would have otherwise been [Link] like metals, plastic, paper, glass, etc. can be
separated from the waste and recycled.
3. Disposal: The different waste disposal methods are:
 Sanitary Landfill: Solid wastes are placed in suitably constructed large landfills with proper precautionary
steps. Modern landfills are properly designed and constructed in ideal places to avoid ground water
pollution and other problems.
 Incineration: This refers to the controlled burning of wastes, at a high temperature (roughly 1200-15000C),
which sterilizes and stabilizes the waste in addition to reducing its volume.. Incineration may be used as a
disposal option, when land filling is not possible and the waste composition is highly composition is highly
combustible.
 Composting: This is a biological process of decomposition in which so organisms, under controlled
conditions of ventilation, temperature and moisture, convert the organic portion of solid waste into humus-
like material. If this process is carried out effectively, what we get as the final product is a stable, dour-free
soil conditioner.

POLLUTION CASE STUDIES – YAMUNA RIVER

Yamuna's Origin
The river originates from the Yamunotri glacier in the Mussorie range of the lower Himalayas, it meanders
through the states of Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh and covers a distance of about 1370 kms before merging
with the river Ganga at Allahabad.
SOME FACTS
Almost 55% of drinking water in Delhi comes from River Yamuna. Also 70% of Delhi's untreated waste is
drained into the Yamuna.
Traces of isomers carcinogenic organic chlorine have been found in Indian rivers, including the Yamuna.
Lead, Cadmium, Arsenic etc. (which are toxic in very low concentrations) are found 10 times more than the
requirement of Flora and Fauna.
Pollution levels in the Yamuna have risen. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) load has increased by 2.5 times
between 1980 and 2005 - from 117 tonnes per day (TPD) in 1980 to 276 TPD in 2005.

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Delhi discharges about 3,684 MLD (million litres per day) of sewage into the Yamuna. The Capital has 16
drains discharging treated and untreated wastewater/sewage into Yamuna.
Delhi and Agra together account for 90 per cent of the pollution in the river.
The Yamuna River passing through 22 km in Delhi was once described as the lifeline of the city, but today it has
become one of the dirtiest rivers in the country.

CAUSES
 Garbage Dumping: The river is taken to be an outsized dustbin. All sorts of organic, metallic waste
including polythene bags is dumped into it.
 Ash Scattering: Following cremation the collected ashes and the mortal remains are scattered in the river.
 Murti Immersion: In many of our festivals like Ganesh Chaturthi, Durga Pujan etc ultimately murti is
immersed in the river. This increases the sludge and toxic material in the Yamuna river.
 Dhobi Ghat: The waste water including large quantities of soap, detergents, chemicals discharged from the
sites eventually drain into the river.
 River banks as public toilets: Slum-dwellers throng river banks for morning ablution, defecation,
washing, bathing.
 Untreated sewage: Every day nearly 3296 million litres of sewage finds its way into river Yamuna.

Yamuna Action Plan

Taking note of mounting pollution in Yamuna, National River Conservation Directorate, GOI launched YAP
(Yamuna Action Plan) with a dual approach:
 Implementing schemes that improve the quality of water in Yamuna.
 Up scaling of people's awareness & participation in river protection activities
Action Plan - Industrial
All existing Industries, dumping the waste water in Yamuna, should setup a waste water management plant at
their source, and new industries should be given license only if they have a waste management plant
Action Plan - Human Activity
 Extensive plantation on banks of Yamuna
 Sewerage should flow in the river only after treatment
 Electric Crematoriums should be built and their usage encouraged
 Community Toilets and low cost sanitation to be built and usage encoura
 Religious activities:
Idols made of POP should be banned and mud idols should be used for immersion.
Use of soap and detergents during ritual baths should be banned

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POLLUTION CASE STUDIES – TUNGA RIVER

Tunga River has been one of the most prominent and important rivers of Karnataka in Shimoga District.
The Tunga River is born in the Western Ghats on a hill known as Varaha Parvata at a place called Gangamoola.
It is 147 km long and merges with the Bhadra River at Koodli, a smalltown near Shimoga City, Karnataka.
The total polluted stretch of the River about 10 kms from Shivamogga to Kudli.
The total polluted stretches of the river is about 60 kms from Harihara to Haralahalli bridge.

Major Polluting sources:

a) The main source of pollution from Shivamogga city sewage.
b) The other source of pollutionis from bathing, washing of clothes and vehicle washings and other
anthropogenic activities.
c) Non-point source from agriculture fields etc.
d) Entry of industries effluent :
 The major two large red 17 category industries located on left bank of T.B River near Harihar Town.
 These two industries are drawing the Water for process from T.B River. The treated trade effluent
from the industries are being discharging to T.B River.
 There are two major industries by name Shamanur Sugares and Indian cane power Pvt Ltd located at
distance about 3 kms away from T.B River (From Right bank) and are having zero discharge system.
e) Entry of sewage :
 The sewage from Honnali town and Harihar City joins the T.B River. The sewage generated from
Davangere City (About 20 km away from T.B River) may also joins river along with run off through
natural nala (Called by name Sarati Halla) during rainy season.

Action plan to be taken for Rejuvenation of River water quality:

 The City Municipal Council Harihar has to upgrade existing sewage treatment plant, and to
construct common toilets and dhobighats to reduce the pollution load on River.
 Community toilets and dhobhighats may be constructed in the villages and towns located on
either side of the River.
 The CMC-Harihar, TP-Honnali and City Corporation Davangere shall provide adequate STP
system with 100% UGD system to the entire town.
 Vehicle washings and other activities shall be regulated.
 River cleaning and rejuvenation activities like removal of algae, sediments, weeds etc., shall be
undertaken during the lean flow.
 Caution display boards at strategic points shall be displayed.
 Creation of buffer zones on either side of the river bank and developing green belt in that area.
No developmental activities shall be taken in this area.

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