MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AGARFA A.T.V.E.T.

COLLEGE

Soil and water conservation III

Unit of Competence: install in-situ Moisture harvesting technologies

Module Title: installing in-situ Moisture harvesting technologies

LG Code: NRC NRP312 1113

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 Instruction sheet
Learning Guide 08
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This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content coverage and topics –

Design and constructing: -

 micro -catchment’s water harvesting structures

 macro-catchment’s water harvesting structures
 flood water harvesting structure

This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcome stated in the cover page. Specifically, upon completion of this
Learning Guide, you will be able to –

• Identify different Micro, macro and flood water harvesting techniques

• Design different Micro, macro and flood water harvesting techniques

• Layout and Construct micro, macro and flood water harvesting techniques
Learning Activities

1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.

2. Read the information written in the “Information Sheets 1-3”.

3. Accomplish the “Self-check” in page ---------.

4. If you earned a satisfactory evaluation proceed to “Operation Sheet” in page ------. However, if your rating is unsatisfactory,
see your teacher for further instructions or go back to Learning Activity #

5. Submit your accomplished Self-check. This will form part of your training portfolio (if necessary)

6. Read the “Operation Sheet” and try to understand the procedures discussed.

7. Request access to the materials required for that particular practical session. Practice the steps or procedures as illustrated in
your learning guide. Go to your teacher if you need clarification or you want answers to your questions or you need assistance in
understanding a particular step or procedure

8. Do the “LAP test” in page ------- (if you are ready) and show your output to your teacher. Your teacher will evaluate your output
either satisfactory or unsatisfactory. If unsatisfactory, your teacher shall advice you on additional work. But if satisfactory you
can proceed to the next Learning guide.

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 Designing and constructing micro-catchment’s water harvesting

Information Sheet-1 structures

1.1Adaptability of different micro-catchment water harvesting

Water harvesting is considered as a water management technique for collecting, storing,
directing and distributing rain water and run off for any productive purpose. It is used when
rain water is normally inadequate to meet water requirement of crops and trees.

Water harvesting involves the transfer of runoff water from a catchment area that is not cropped
to supplement the rainfall received directly on the area that is cultivated. It is considered as a
direct, productive form of soil and water conservation and also it is a rudimentary form of
irrigation.

Where mean annual rainfall is below about 400 to 500mm, moisture conservation technique alone is
usually not enough to ensure a crop. Irrigation is one approach to providing additional water for crop
production, but there is increasing disillusion with sophisticated irrigation schemes, which frequently
present alarming social, economic, technical and environmental problems.

Water harvesting is an alternative approach to increasing the soil moisture available to a crop. It may be
more widely applicable than irrigation, and may also have useful environmental benefits (especially as
regards erosion control). It involves concentrating water that runs off the soil surface during a storm onto
the growing crop. Water harvesting offers considerable hope for increasing production in arid and semi
arid areas for which irrigation is not a viable option.

Dry land crop production is critically dependent on the amount of water available during the crop
growing seasons. There are three main ways of increasing this:

1. Increasing the storage of rainwater in the root zone of growing crop.

2. Conserving stored soil water by minimizing run off and evaporation from the soil surface and
transpiration by weed
3. Maximizing the use of available water through improved management practices and the use
of adopted crops and varieties

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Run off rates varies between 2 and 32 % depending on the rainfall, soil cropping system, and
management practices. Less frequent deep ploughing, incorporating organic residues, improve infiltration
reduce runoff and increase soil water storage. On the other hand frequent ploughing destroys surface
structure and results in the generation of high run off.

In arid and semi-arid areas it is very important to use the limited amount of water efficiently. There are
thus two ways to maximize use of available water:

1. To use surface runoff (water harvesting)

2. To encourage infiltration and storage of rain water (soil moisture retention and conservation)

The largest amount of water is used for irrigation use plants require sustainable supply of water
to grow and produce yield. In most parts of the world the amount and timing of rainfall are not
adequate to meet the moisture or water requirement of crops because it varies with temperature
and place. When sufficient and timely water does not become available to crops, the crops fade
away and resulting in lesser crop yields creating famine and disaster.

Water harvesting can be subdivided into:

- Rainwater harvesting, where surface runoff is concentrated on the slope itself and
- Floodwater harvesting, where water from streams or wadis, originating from an external
catchment is reused. Floodwater harvesting techniques can be further subdivided into:
o Wadi cultivation (limited to the wadi bed by using small check dams)
o Water spreading (cultivated area exceeds the wadi bed by using bigger dams and
eventually a system of bunds and )
o Water diversion (water is distributed by a system of canals: spate irrigation )

What are the benefits of water harvesting?

1. Higher productivity (higher yield and lesser risk)

2. Crop production in areas where it is normally not feasible
3. Soil conservation (for macro catchments or cropping area only) i.e., less erosion.
4. Pasture improvement = more livestock
5. Improved re-afforestation = less desertification
6. Suppression of salinity in soil = more productive land

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7. Water conservation (tapping unused water)
8. Ground water recharge = more water available

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 1.2. Community awareness and participation in micro-catchment water
harvesting

The community must be able to understand essential knowledge required to effectively do the
task, manage the task and manage contingencies in the context of the identified work role
These include:
• Understanding of the general principles and practices of sustainable micro-water harvesting
• Knowledge of the cultural and language groups represented within the local/regional
community, and a respect for their values and beliefs
• An understanding of the key people and groups within the community who are able to
influence community values
• Knowledge of the social, historical, political and economic context ofmicro-water harvesting,
including types and nature of the structure
• Understanding specific limitations of work role, responsibility and professional abilities
Community participation: is the involvement community in doing certain tasks. The first and
most obvious principle of community participation is that many people are [Link]
participation is critical to community success.

Role of communities – Both Water harvesting pans for dry areas and Government support
for upland rainwater harvesting describe rainwater harvesting work in which communities
have a strong role to play. Talking to community members who are participating in
rainwater harvesting work locally would be valuable.
This could also include discussion of what regulations or recommendations are in place to
ensure responsible, sustainable management of soils and water as well as key stone natural
resources.
Keeping harvested water clean and healthy – Keeping livestock away from water that is
used for human consumption is one of the messages in Water harvesting pans for dry areas.
In practical terms this may be difficult to achieve, especially as the use of ponds and pans
for both livestock watering and domestic uses is normal practice in many areas. It is a
subject that would be interesting to discuss, for example with a public health worker and
with a livestock specialist, to see whether this is an area where a change in established
Practice would be beneficial, and how it could be achieved.

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 1.3 Design criteria and aspects of micro catchment rain water harvesting
Important factors to be considered in the planning of rain water harvesting system are:-

A. Climate

Rain fall, temperature, sunshine hours, wind, and humidity, influence the water availability to the
plant/crop to be grown under a water harvesting system. Rain fall amount, intensity and timing
direct bearing on runoff production and consequently its availability.

Temperature, and sunshine hours, wind and humidity directly affect the evaporation and thus
water availability to plants/crops.

B. Rain fall

Average annual rain fall of 300-700mm is most suitable for water harvesting system; however it
is also practiced in areas of 100-300mm rain fall at money places. Low intensity and longer
duration rain fall is considered more suitable than high intensity and of shorter duration. Annual
rain fall concentrates in short time span (one or, two months) is less suitable than it spans over
longer period (4-5 months or more).

C. Topography

A land slope of 2-5% is considered more suitable for water harvesting system, however, it is
practiced on a steeper slope of up to 12%. Steeper the ground slope, higher be the risks of
Uneven distribution of runoff, soil erosion and higher be the cost of structures.

Highly flat slopes are also prohibitive to runoff generation and collection at the target area and
thus less suitable for water harvesting system.

D. Soils

Soil depth, texture, structure, and nutrients have direct impacts on the success of water
harvesting system. Soil texture affects the water infiltration rate. For example infiltration rates of
sand= 30mm/hr, loam= 10-20mm/hr, clay=1-5mm/hr. loosely packed and cracked soils have
high infiltration rates as compared with tightly packed soil structure.

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Water holding capacity of soil directly affects the water availability of the plant/crop higher the
water holding capacity of soil higher be the water availability to the plant and vice versa.

Water holding capacity of sand=55mm/m depth, sand loam=120mm/ and clay loam=150mm/m.

E. Crops

Crop water requirements effective rooting depth, timing of rain fall in respect to crop
developments stage and drought sensitivity are the major responsible crop factors for success of
water harvesting.

Lower the effective rooting depth lesser is the water extraction from the soil and vice versa

1.4Designing and constructing macro catchments techniques

1.4.1 Contour stone bunds

Description
Contour stone bunds are used to slow down and filter runoff thereby increasing infiltration and capturing
sediments. The water and sediment harvested lead directly to improve crops performance. This technique
is well suited to small scale application on farmer’s field and give an adequate supply of stone can be
implemented quickly and cheaply.

Improved construction and alignment along contour makes the technique considerably more effective.
The great advantage of systems based on stone is that there is no need of spill ways, where potentially
damaging flows are constructed.

Technical Details

Suitability
Stone bunds for crop production can be used under the following conditions:

Rain fall:- 200-750mm from arid to semi-arid areas

Soils:- agricultural soils

Slopes:- preferably below 2%

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Topography:- need not be completely even

Stone availability:- must be good local supply of stone

Overall configuration
Stone bunds follow the contour, or the approximate contour, across fields or grazing land. The spacing
between bunds ranges normally between 15 and 30 meter depending largely on the amount of stone and
labor availability. There is no need for diversion ditches or provision of spillways.

Layout and Design construction

Step one

Determined the average slope of the field by a simple surveying instrument to decide on the spacing of
the bunds. A horizontal distance of 20 meter is recommended for slopes of up to 1%, and 15 meters apart
for 1-2% slopes.

Step two

After the exact contour is laid out, the line should be smoothed by moving individual pegs up to down
slope. as a guideline, for ground slopes up to 1% pegs can be moved 2 meters up slope or down slope to
create a smoother curve.

Step three

A shallow trench is now formed along the smoothed contour. The trench is formed by hand tools or
ploughed by oxen and then excavated by hand. The trench need only be 5-10 cm deep and equal to the
base width of the bund(35-40 cm). The excavated soil is placed up slope.

Step four

Construction begins with large stones laid down at the base and the down slope side of the trench, and
then smaller stones laid in front and on top of this ”anchor” line. Small stones should be used to plug gaps
between the larger ones. Where possible, a line of small or gravelly stones should run along up slope face
of the bund to create a fine filter.

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 1.4.2 Trapezoidal bunds

Description

Trapezoidal bunds are used to enclose larger areas (up to 1ha) and to impound larger quantities of runoff
which is harvested from an external or “long slope” catchment. The name is derived from the layout of
the structure which has the form of a trapezoid a base bund connected to two side bunds or wing walls
which extend up slope at an angle of usually 135 degree. Crops are plants within the enclosed area. Over
flow discharges around the tips of the wing wall.

The concept is similar to semicircular bunds, in this case, three sides of a plot are enclosed by bunds
while the fourth (up slope) side is left open to allow runoff to enter the field. The simplicity of design and
construction and the minimum maintenance required are the main advantages of this technique.

Technical details

Suitability

Trapezoidal bunds can be used for growing crops, trees and grasses. Their most common application is
for crop production under the following site conditions.

Rain fall:- 250-500mm arid to semi arid areas

Soils: agricultural soils with good constructional properties

Slopes:- from 0.25%-1.5%, but most suitable below 0.5%.

Tiopography:- area within bunds should be even

Limitation: - this technique is limited to low ground slopes. Construction of trapezoidal bunds on slopes
steeper than 1.5% is technically feasible, but involves prohibitively large quantities of earth work.

Overall configuration
Each unit of trapezoidal bunds consists of a base bund connected to two wing walls which extened
upslope at an angle of 135 degrees. The size of the enclosed area depends up on the slope and can vary
from 0.1 to [Link] are arranged in staggered configuration when several trapezoidal bunds are
constructed. A common distance between the tips of adjacent bunds within one row is 20m with 30m

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spacing between the tips of the lower row and the base bunds of the upper row. It is not recommended to
built more than two rows because the third and the fourth rows receive significantly less runoff.

The configuration of bund is dependent on land slope, and is determined by the designed maximum
flooded depth of 40cm at the base bund. Consequently as the gradient becomes steeper the wing walls
extended less far up slope.

Slope% Length of Length of Distance Earth works Cultivated Earth works

base bund wing between tips per area per per ha
(m) wall(m) (m) bund(m3) bund(m2) cultivated(m3)
0.5 40 114 200 355 9600 370
1 40 57 120 220 3200 670
1.5 40 38 94 175 1800 970

Layout and construction

Step one

When the site for the bund has been decided, the first thing to do is to establish the land slope using an
abney level or line [Link] dimensions of bund varies with the slope of the area.

Starting at the top of the field a peg is placed which will be the tip of one of the wing walls. The second
wingwall tip is at the same ground level at the distance obtained from table above.

Step two

Stake out the four dimensions of the bund and measure the right angle using a woodn right angle
triangular template

Step three

The accuracy of the setting can be checked by measuring the distances between points 4ocm.

Step four

Having the main points of the bund it is necessary to set out pegs or stones to mark the earth works limits.

Step five

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Construction of a set of trapezoidal bunds must start with the row furthest [Link] bund is constructed
in two layers each having a maximum thickness of 0.3m. the thickness of the first layer will gradually
taper off to zero as filling proceeds up slope along the wing bunds.

Step six

The tips of the bunds are only 20 cm high and exceed runoff drains around them. To prevent erosion of
the tips they should be shaped with a small extension or “lip” to lead water away.

Step seven

Where the catchment is large in relation to the bunded area it is advisable to construct a diversion
ditch to prevent excess water or inflow to the bunds. This ditch usually 50cm deep and of 1-1.5
meters width, and is usually graded at 0.25%.

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 Information Sheet-2
Designing and constructing micro-catchment’s water harvesting
structures

2.1. Basic categories of water harvesting systems

The water harvesting techniques described in this manual fall under three basic categories whose main
characteristics are summarized as follows:-

2.1.1 Micro catchments (Rain water Harvesting)

(Sometimes referred to as “Within-Field catchment System’)

Main characteristics:-
 Overland flow harvested from short catchment length
 Catchment length usually between 1 and 30 meters
 Runoff stored in soil profile
 Normally no provision for overflow
 Plant growth is even

Typical examples
 Negarim micro catchment ( for tree)
 Contour bunds ( for trees)
 Semicircular bunds ( for range and fodder )

2.1.2 External catchment systems (Rain water harvesting)

(Long slope catchment Techniques)

Main characteristics:
 Overland flow or rill flow harvesting
 Runoff stored in soil profile
 Catchment usually 30-200 meters in length
 Provision for overland flow of excess water
 Uneven plant growth unless land leveled

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 Typical examples
 Trapezoidal bunds ( for crops)
 Contour Stone Bunds ( for crops)

2.1.3 Flood water Farming (Flood water Harvesting)

(Often referred to as “Water Spreading “and sometimes “Spate Irrigation”

Main characteristics:
 Turbulent channel flow harvested either (a) by diversion or (b) by spreading within channel
bed /valley floor
 Runoff stored in soil profile
 Catchment long ( may be several kilometers)
 Provision for overland flow of excess water

Typical examples
 Permeable rock dams ( for crops)
 Water spreading Bunds( for crops)

2.2Main Micro Water Harvesting Techniques

2.2.1 Negarim Micro catchment

Description:-
Negarim micro catchments are diamond shaped basin surrounded by small earth bunds with an
infiltration pit in the lowest corner of each. Runoff is collected from with in the basin and stored
in the infiltration pit. Micro catchment is mainly used for growing trees or bushes. This
technique is appropriate for small scale tree planting in any area, which has a moisture deficit.
Besides harvesting water for the trees, it simultaneously conserves soil.

2.3 Technical details to Design and construct macro catchment

Suitability:
Negarim micro catchment’s is mainly used for tree growing in arid and semi arid areas.

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Rain fall:- ranges from 150mm-700mm per annum.

Soil:- should be at list 1m-2m deep in order to ensure adequate root development and storage of
the water harvested.

Slope:- from flat to 8%

Topography:- need not to be even, if un even a block of micro catchment should be sub divided.

Micro catchment size

The area of each unit is either determined on the bases of a calculation of the plant/tree water
requirement or more usually, an estimation of this.

Size of micro catchment( per unit) normally range between 10m2 and 100m2 depending on the
species of tree to be planted but large sizes are also feasible, particularly when more than one
trees will be grown within one unit.

Overall configuration
Each micro catchment consists of a catchment area and an infiltration pit ( cultivated area ). The shape of
each unit is normally square, but the appearance from above is of a network of diamond shapes with
infiltration pits in the lowest corners.

Design of bunds
The bund height primarily depends on the prevailing ground slope and the selected size of the
micro catchment. It is recommended to construct bunds with the height of at least 25 cm in order
to avoid the risk of over topping and subsequent damage. Where the ground slope exceeds 2%,
the bund height near the infiltration pit must be increase.

The top of the bund should be at least 25 cm wide and side slopes should be at least in the range
of 1:1 in order to reduce soil erosion during rainstorms. It is advisable to cover the bund with
grass in order to protect the bund against erosion.

Table.1. bund height (cm) on higher ground slopes

Size unit of Ground slope

micro 2% 3% 4% 5%
catch.(m2)

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 3x3 Even bund height Even bund height of Even bund height of Even bund height
of 25cm 25cm 25cm of 25cm
4x4 Even bund height Even bund height of Even bund height of 30
of 25cm 25cm 25cm
5x5 Even bund height Even bund height of 30 35
of 25cm 25cm
6x6 Even bund height Even bund height of 35 45
of 25cm 25cm
8x8 Even bund height 35 45 55
of 25cm
10x10 30 45 55 Not recommended
12x12 35 50 Not recommended Not recommended
15x15 45 Not recommended Not recommended Not recommended

Table.2. size of infiltration pit

Size unit of micro catchment (m2) Size of infiltration pit (m)

Size depth
3x3 1.4 x 1.4 x 0.4
4x4 1.4 x 1.6 x 0.4
5x5 1.8 x 1.8 x 0.4
6x6 1.9 x 1.9 x 0.4
8x8 2.2 x 2.2 x 0.4

Layout and construction

The first step is to find a contour line using a line level or other equipments. The first line at the
top of the block is marked, if the topography is very uneven, separate small block of micro
catchment should be considered.

Br means of tape measure the tips of the bund are now marked along the straight contour. The
first line should be open ended. The distance between a-b depends on the selected catchment
size, the formula to find the distance a-b is,

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 ab2=ac2+bc2

for 25 meter selected catchment, length of the catchment will be 5mx5m micro catchment, is
held at one tip(a) and the second string of the same length at other tip(b) they will exactly meet at
apex (c). the apex is now marked with a peg and the catchment sides (a-c) and (b-c) marked on
the ground alongside the string with a hoe. This procedure will be repeated until bund alignment
in the first row has been determined.

The next row of micro catchments is staked out. The apex of the bunds of the upper row will be
the tip for for the second row and the corresponding apex will be found according the first step.
Repeat the procedure for the third row.

2.3.1“V” Shaped Micro catchment

Description
V-shaped micro catchment is an open ended micro catchment formed by small earth ridges with
an infiltration pit in the lowest corner of the basin. Runoff is collected from within the basin and
stored in the infiltration pit. The advantage is that surplus water can flow around the tips the
bund or ridge. The storage capacity is less than that of the closed system. This kind of bunds is

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particularly useful on broken and sloppy terrain and for small number of tree planting around
homestead.

Technical Details

Suitability
“V” shaped micro catchments are mainly used for tree planting in arid, semi arid, and semi
humid areas.

Rain fall:- ranges from 300mm-700mm per annum

Slope:- can be range from 5%-30%

Micro catchment size:-

The size of the V shape wing can be range from 2m-5m which joins at right angle.

Size of infiltration pit:-

An average side width of 1.5m x 1.5m and a maximum depth of 40cm pit is recommended. The
pit depth should not be exceeded from 40cm, in order to avoid water loss through deep
percolation and to reduce the work load for excavation. The excavated soil from the pit should be
used for construction of the bund.

Layout and construction of Negarim

Step One

• Stake out the contour by using a line level or a water tube level
• Smooth contours if required
• If the topography is very uneven, separate blocks of negarims
Step Two

• Mark the tips along the contour at even spacing with a tape.

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Step Three

• Hold a string from each of both tips of a microcatchment. If held tight, they will meet at the lowest
point of the catchment (apex)
• Mark the apex with a peg. Continue until all catchments in the upper row have been marked

Side Contour
dimenstion Contour
(seetable )

Step Four

• Lay out the next lower row :

• The apex of the catchment below is now a tip of the second row
• Repeat Step Three for all further rows
Step Five

• Stake out size and excavate pit

Step Six

• Clear the catchment of all vegetation

• Use the excavated soil from the pit to construct the bunds in two layers
• Wet and compact bund by foot or with a barrel filled with sand or water
Fix a string at the beginning and end of each side of the bund and adjust it above ground at the selected
bund height to ensure a uniform height

Step Seven

• Plant tree seedlings of at least 30 cm height after the first rain of the season
It is recommended to plant two seedlings: one in the bottom of the pit and one on a step at the back of the
pit.

2.3.2 Contour bund for trees

Description
The contour bunds for trees are very similar to the contour ridges for crops system. The difference is that
the system for trees, the harvested water is collected in an infiltration pit instead of in a furrow. As with
the contour ridges for crop the efficiency of contour bund for tree is high due to the comparatively short
slope length of the catchment area.

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Technical Details

Suitability
Contour bund for tree planting can be used under the following conditions:

Rain fall:- 200mm-750mm;for semi arid to arid areas

Soil: must be 1m-2m deep to insure adequate root development and water storage

Slope:- 5%-20%

Overall configuration
The overall layout consists of a series of parallel, or almost parallel earth bunds approximately on the
contour at a spacing of between 5 and 10 meters. The bunds are formed with soil excavated from an
adjacent parallel furrow on their up slope side. small earth ties particular to the bund on the up slope side
subdivided the system in to micro catchments. Infiltration pit are excavated in the junction between ties
and bunds. A diversion ditch protects the system where necessary.

Unit micro catchment size

the size of micro catchment per tree is estimated in the same way as for negarim micro catchment.
However the system is more flexible, because adding or removing the cross ties within the fixed spacing
of the bunds can easily alter the micro catchment size. Common sizes of microcatchment are around 10-
50m2 for each tree.

Bund and infiltration pit design.

The bund height varies from 30-50m depending on the prevailing slope. It is recommended not to be less
than 40cm in height base width must be at least 75cm. bund should be spaced at either 5m or 10m apart.
Cross-tie should be at least 2m long At spacing of 2-10meters. It is recommended to provide 6m spacing
between the bunds on the slope of up to 10% and 4m on steeper slopes.

Excavated soil from the infiltration pit is used to form the ties. The pit is excavated in the junction of the
bund and the cross tie. A pit size of 80cm x 80cm and 40cm deep is usually sufficient.

The diversion ditch is aligned on a 0.25%slope and a common dimension is 50cm deep and 1-1.5m wide,
with the soil pile down slope. The diversion ditch should be constructed before the contour bunds are
built to prevent damage if rainstorm occur during construction.

Layout and construction

Step one

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Contours are surveyed by a simple surveying instrument such as a water tube level or line level. The real
contour should be smoothened to obtain a better alignment for agricultural operations.

Step two

Contour key lines should be staked out every 10 or 15 meters. The alignment for ridge is then marked in
between the key lines according to selected spacing.

Step three

The furrows are excavated usually by means of a hoe or are ploughed parallel to the marked alignments
for the ridges. The excavated soil is placed down slope next to the furrow and the ridge is formed.

Step four

Small cross ties are built at intervals of about 5 meters dividing each furrow in to a number of segments.
The ties are 15-20 cm high and 50-70 cm long.

Step five

A diversion ditch should be provided above the block of contour ridges if there a risk of damage caused
by runoff from outside the system. The diversion ditch should be 50 cm deep and 1-1.5m wide, with a
gradient of 0.25%. the excavated soil should be placed down the slope.

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2.3.3 Semi circular bunds

Description
Semi-circular bunds are earth bunds in the shape of a semi-circle with the tips of the bund o the contour.
Dimensions vary, from small structure with a radius of 2m t very large structure with a radius of 30m.
Large semi circular bunds are used for rangeland rehabilitation and fodder production; smaller semi
circular bunds for trees, shrubs and crops. The advantage of this structures are that they are (i) easy to
construct, (ii) labour efficient because a maximum enclosed area is obtained with a minimum of bund
volume (thanks to the semicircular shape), and (iii) suitable for uneven terrain because the structure are
free standing.

Technical details

Suitability
Semi circular bunds for rangeland improvement fodder production and tree planting can be used under the
following conditions.

Rainfall:- 300mm-700mm for arid to semi arid areas

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Slope:- all soils which are not too shallow or saline

Slopes:- for range improvement it can be up to 5%, for tree planting slope can be considered up to 30%

Layout and construction

The layout for both designs is similar, only diminution differs.

Step one:

The first contour, at the top of the scheme, is staked out using a simple surveying instrument like line
leveling.

Step two:

A tape measure is now used to mark the tip of the semi circular bund on the contour. For design semi
circular bund for tree planting having a radius of 3m, the tips of one structure are 6meters apart ( 2times
the radius) and the distance to the next unit is 1.5m, which is half of the radius of the semi circle.

Step three:

The center point between the tips of each semi circular unit is marked. A piece of string as long as the
selected radius is now fixed at the center point by a means of pegs. Holding the string tight at the other
end, the alignment of the semi circle is defined by swinging the end of the string from one end to the
other. The alignment can be marked by pegs or scratching the earth with the peg.

Step four:

It is important that the structures in each row are staggered in relation to structure in the row above. It
must be ensured that the space between bund from one row to another is according to the chosen distance
that is half of the radius of the bund, which is 1.5m.

Step five:

After setting out, bund construction is started with excavation of small trench inside the bund. Further
excavation should always be from inside the bund as evenly as possible. This will increase the storage
capacity of the semi circular bund, the bund height must be greater than 40cm when the slope exceed
20%. The bund bottom width is 75cm with the side slope 1:1. It is advisable to provide one or more
diversion ditches within the block as a safety factor.

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2.3.4 Zai, planting pit

Description
Planting pits or zai are the simplest form of water harvesting. The planting pit technique consists of
digging small holes of about 10 to 15 cm deep, in which a little manure is put together with some seeds.
During rainstorm the planting pits catch runoff and concentrate it around the growing plants. Yields are
improved in the first season after the land has been treated, and even in very dry years these techniques
ensure some yield.

Technical Details

Suitability
Zia are usually constructed on degraded abandoned or unused land that is on crusted, hard, compacted
and poorly structured soil of semi arid areas. The planting pit meets the criteria for three types of
construction practices at the same time.

Soil:- it generally applied on silt and clay soils

Slope: - zai can be practiced at a slope of up to 8%-12%, if cutoff drain incorporated with in at
appropriate space.

Topography:- the topography must be even

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Layout and construction
ZAI are series of pits dug following the contours, the diameter of the pit can be between 40-50cm at the
depth of 15-20cm, and the spacing between two Zai can be range 60-80cm.

The second line of of pit must be arranged in a staggered configuration against the first line of pits. The
spacing between two lines of pits is 60-75cm. the excavated soil could be piled down ward of each pit.

After construction apply organic matter like compost, crop residues or dung at each pit.

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2.3.5 Contour ridges for crops

Description
Contour ridges, sometimes called contour furrows, are small earthen banks, with a furrow on the higher
side which collects runoff from an uncultivated strip between the ridges. Through their shape soil
moisture is increased under the ridge and the furrow, in the vicinity of plant roots. The advantage of this
system is that the runoff yield from the short catchment length is very efficient. Labor requirement is
relatively low and contour ridges are easy to make using hand tools Thus they are easy to manage for
small farmers

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This water harvesting technique can work in areas where there is very limited rain fall and excess land. In
areas where there is a land shortage, leaving uncultivated land for runoff collection is difficult to apply.

Therefore some modification has to be made, by incorporating cutoff drain at a proper interval the
technique can apply as water conservation practice without leaving uncultivated land for runoff
collection.

Technical details

Suitability
Contour ridges for crop production can be used under the following conditions.

Rainfall:- 350-750mm

Soils:- all soils which are suitable for agriculture. Heavy and compacted soils may be a constraint to
construct of ridges by hand.

Slope:- it can construct up to 12-15%.

Topography:- must be even

Layout and construction

The overall layout consists of parallel, earth ridges approximately on the contour at a spacing of between
one and two meters. Contour key lines should be staked out every 10 or 15 meters. The alignment for the
ridges is then marked in between the key lines according to selected spacing. On uneven trains the
contour may come closer together at one point or widen at other points.

Soil is excavated and placed down slope to form a ridge and the excavated furrow above the ridge collects
runoff from the catchment strip between ridges. Small earth ties in the furrow are provided every few
meters to ensure uneven storage of runoff. The ties are 15-20cm high and 50-70cm long.

Ridges need only be as high as necessary to prevent over topping by runoff. For slopes up to 5% as runoff
is harvested only from a small strip between the ridges, a height of15-20cm is sufficient. If slope is
exceed 5% and if bunds are spaced at more than two meters the ridge height must be increased. On flat
slopes up to 5% ridge can be made b y “Sefi digir” by ploughing and deepening furrow twice. This kind
of techniques have been practiced at Kobo north wollo and it gives a good result in conserving sufficient
moisture and provide a yield difference than before for teff crop. A diversion ditch may be necessary
above the block of contour ridge to protect the system against runoff from outside.

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2.3.6 Contour trenches

Description
Contour trenches are long and deep pits or broken canals constructed along the contours for the purpose
of rain water harvesting to support the growth of trees, shrubs and grasses in dry areas and control
erosion. The trench collects and store considerable amount of runoff water, this ensures proper catchment
protection and rapid growth of trees and grass cover, the trench also accelerates the regeneration of
natural and improved grass species which will supply additional animal feed. It also contributes a great
role in recharging the ground water table and to supply flow of water for spring and wells.

Technical Details

Suitability
Contour trench can be done in areas where there is a shortage of rain fall and sufficient moisture in the
soil for the plant growth.

 On hillside where soil is not too rocky

 On abandoned lands that you wish to restore for growing grasses and trees
 Around homesteads, farm boundaries and in farms for the growing of fruit trees and fodder’s
 On road sides, grazing lands and plantation site

Soils:- it can be done on any soils except verity sole, which is workable

Slope:- for contour trench slope can be range from 0-50%

Layout and construction

Contour trench for tree planting:

 Start from the top of the hill or the block, using an frame or line level
 The two tips of the “A” frame can be spaced at 5-3metere which is the length of a single trench
 By the contour mark a trench having a length of 5-3 meter by leaving 50cm spacing between two
horizontal trenches continuously
 The spacing between two contour trench vertically is 3m
 The arrangement of trench in the second contour line should be staggered as of the first contour
trench
 Then start to dig a trench by measuring 50cm trench width down from the marked contour line at
a depth of 40-50cm.( that is 3m x 50cm x 40cm trench size)
 At a center of a trench length leave 50cm un dug space for planting pit to be dug at the end

29
  Then 30cm x 30cm x 30cm pit is dug in the middle of a trench
 The excavated soil can be put at down slope of the trench
 A diversion ditch may be necessary above the block of contour trench to protect the system
against runoff from outside.

Contour trench for grazing land development

Contour trench can be done on grazing land for the purpose of improving and developing of grazing land.

 Start from the top of the hill or the block, using an frame or line level
 Start to make a contour line from the top of the hill or block
 The length of the contour trench can be 6-10meteres and the width is 50cm will have a depth of
40cm-50cm, leave 50cm spacing between two horizontal trenches
 The spacing between two contour lines can be 6-10meters
 The arrangement of the trench on the second contour lines should be staggered as of the first
contour trench
 Then start to dig a trench with 6m-10meter long and, by measuring 50cmtrench width down from
the marked contour line at a depth of 40-50cm
 The excavated soil can be put at down slope of the trench

A diversion ditch may be necessary above the block of contour trench to protect the system against runoff
from outside

2.4 Water harvesting and supply according to demand

2.4.1 Roof water harvesting

ROOF – The existing roof is made use of to collect rainwater. Since rainwater is pure as it falls from the
sky it is necessary that the roof be kept clean for it to remain pure when it is collected. This means the
roof will need to be swept and cleaned daily during the rainy season in the district.

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Fig 1. A roof full of leaves, this should be cleaned daily A sloping roof should be cleaned by adults

Main characteristics

 Rain water harvesting

 Catchment may be short( 15-20 meters in length)
 Provision for rain water

Typical examples

 PVC gutter system ( for domestic purpose and for drinking purpose)

PVC GUTTERS: The gutters of PVC collect the rainwater from the roof and transfer it to the filter. On
sloping roofs, PVC gutters can pick up leaves, dust, small twigs and other organic matter. The gutters
need to be cleaned regularly at least weekly once. During the rainy season the PVC gutters should be
inspected and cleaned daily.

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Figure 2.A clean PVC gutter to catch every drop of rain

The gutters are fixed to the roof or to the walls with clamps. The clamps hold the gutter or pipes to the
wall or to the roof firmly and allow a small slope in the system to enable water to flow in one direction.
The clamps sometimes may come off due to various reasons. The clamps should be fixed immediately
whenever it is seen to be loose or when it has come off. At all times the PVC gutters or pipes should slope
in the direction of the storage tank and not away from it. The PVC gutters should always have an end cap
at the end where rainwater begins to flow in the direction of the tank.

FILTER: A gravel, sand and ‘netlon’ mesh filter is designed and placed on top of the storage tank. This
filter is very important in keeping the rainwater in the storage tank clean. It removes silt, dust, leaves and
other organic matter from entering the storage tank.

The filter media should be cleaned daily after every rainfall event. Clogged filters prevent rainwater from
easily entering the storage tank and the filter may overflow. The sand or gravel media should be taken out
and washed before it is replaced in the filter.

Fig 11: A good filter with mesh and gravel on top

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STORAGE TANK: The rainwater storage tank collects all the filtered rainwater and keeps it for future
use. The storage tank is made above the ground and on a platform. It can also be an underground sump in
some cases.

The tank is invariably painted white on the outside. This is done to keep the water inside cool and prevent
the growth of bacteria. Every year the tank must be white washed neatly.

Fig 3: A clean storage tank on a platform painted white on the outside

Self-Check 1 Written Test

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Illustrations may be necessary to aid
some explanations/answers.

1. What is water harvesting? Explain it. (5 pts)

2. List micro water harvesting techniques; at least three? (5pts)

3. What is the purpose of constructing contour trench on grazing lands? (5pts)

4. Write the steps used for the construction stone bunds for tree? (5pts)
Note: Satisfactory rating - 15 points and above Unsatisfactory - below 15 points

You can ask your teacher for the copy of the correct answers

33
 Operation Sheet 1 Observingroof water harvesting

Objective: Observing roof water harvesting

Practical Demonstrationroof water harvesting

LAP Test/ Job Sheet

Name: _____________________________ Date: ________________

Time started: ________________________ Time finished: ________________

Instructions:

1. You are required to perform the following activity:

• Request your teacher to arrange a visit to a constructed roof water harvesting system

2. Request your teacher for evaluation and feedback

Self-Check 2 Written Test

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Illustrations may be necessary to aid
some explanations/answers.

34
1. Differentiate micro and macro water harvesting techniques? Explain it. (5 pts)

2. List macro water harvesting techniques? (5pts)

3. Select one macro water harvesting technique and discuss how it construct? (1o pts)

Note: Satisfactory rating - 15 points and above Unsatisfactory - below 15 points

You can ask your teacher for the copy of the correct answers

Information Sheet-3
Designing and constructing flood water harvesting
techniques

Flood water harvesting can be defined as the collection and storage of creek flow for irrigation use. Flood
water harvesting also known as ”large catchment water harvesting “or ’’ spate irrigation’’, may be
classified in to the following two forms:-

a) In case of ‘flood water harvesting with in stream bed’ the water flow is dammed and as a result,
inundates the valley bottom of the flood plain. The water is forced to infiltrate and the wetted area
can be used for agriculture or pasture improvement.
b) In case of ‘flood water diversion’ the wadi water is forced to leave its natural course and
conveyed to nearby cropping fields.

1.1. Permeable rock dams

Description
Permeable rock dams are a flood farming techniques where runoff waters are spread in valley bottoms for
improved crop production. Developing gullies are healed at the same time. The structures are typically
long, low dam walls across valleys. Permeable rock dams can be considered a form of “terraced wadi”,
though the latter term is normally used for structures within watercourses in more arid areas.

35
Technical Details

Suitability
Permeable rock dams for crop production can be used under the following conditions:

Rainfall:- 200-750mm; from arid to semi arid areas

Soils:- all agricultural soils-poorer soils will be improved by treatment

Slope:- best below 2% for most effective water spread

Topography:- wide, shallow valley beds

The main limitation of permeable dams is that they are particularly site specific and require considerable
quantities of loose stone as well as the provision of transport.

Overall configuration
A permeable rock dam is a long, low structure, made from loose stone (occasionally some gabion baskets
may be used) across a valley floor. The central part of the dam is perpendicular to the watercourse, while
the extension of the wall to either side curves back down the valleys approximately following the contour.
The idea is that the runoff which concentrates in the center of the valley, creating a gully, will be spread
across the whole valley floor, thus making conditions more favorable for plant growth. Excess water
filters through the dam or overtops during peak flow. Gradually the dam silts up with fertile deposits.
Usually a series of dams is built along the same valley floor, giving stability to the valley system as a
whole.

Dam design
The main part of the dam wall is usually about 70cm high although some are as low as 50 cm. however;
the central portion of the dam including the spillway (if required) may reach a maximum height of 2m
above the gully floor. The dam or ‘spreader’ can extend up to 1000meters across the widest valley bed but
the lengths normally range from 50 to 300 meters. The amount of the stone used in the largest structures
can be up to 2000 tones.

For all soils it is recommended to set the dam’s wall in the excavated trench of about 10cm depth to
prevent undermining by runoff water. In erodible soils it is advisable to place a layer of gravel or at least
smaller stones in the trench.

Layout and construction

Step one

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Site selection depends both on the beneficiaries and the technicians. Theoretically it is best to start at the
top of the valley, though this may not always be the the people’s priority. as a rule thumb no spillway is
required if the gully is less than one meter deep. For greater depths a spillway is recommended.

Step two

Where a spillway is required this should be built first. Gabions are best for spillways. As a loose stone is
easily destabilized by heavy floods. The following should be noted:

a) A foundation of small stones set in a trench is required

b) An apron of large rocks is needed to break the erosive force of the over flow
c) The downstream banks of the watercourse should be protected by stone pitching to prevent
enlargement of the gully.

Step three

The alignment of the main dam walls can be marked out starting at the center of the valley. This
alignment is ideally along the contour or as close to the contour as possible. The extension arms sweep
backwards in an arc like the contours of a valley on a map.

Step four

A typical cross section is recommended with 280cm base width, 70cm height, and side slope of 1:1
upstream and 3:1 downstream.

Dig a 280cm width and 10cm deep trench (according to the base width of the bud). The earth should be
deposited upslope and the trench filled with gravel or small stones.

Step five

The skill of construction is in the use of large stones for the casing of the wall. This should be built up
gradually following the required side slopes, and the center packed with small stones.

Earth should not be mixed with the stone because it may be washed out and thus destabilize the structure.
The structure is finished off with a cap of large stones.

Step six

If a series of permeable rock dams is to be built, an approximate vertical interval (VI) should be selected.
Technically speaking it is correct to:-

37
 a) Start at the top of the valley and work down
b) Use a vertical interval equal to the height of the structure, so that the top of one structure is at the
same level as the base of the one above it.
Therefore for dams 70cm height the VI should be 70cm, however this may not be applicable due
to the amount of stone and labor involved. As a compromise, a VI of 100cm might be more
realistic. Even wider spacing could be adopted and the “missing” structures “filled in” afterwards.
The horizontal spacing between adjacent dams can be determined from the selected VI and the
prevailing land slope according to the formula.
HI= (VI*100)/%slope
Where, HI= horizontal interval (m)
VI= vertical interval (m)
%slope= land gradient expressed as apercentage

1.2. Water spreading bunds

Description
Water spreading bunds are often applied in situations where trapezoidal bunds are not suitable, usually
where runoff discharges are high and would damage trapezoidal bunds or where the crops to be grown are
susceptible to the temporary water logging, which is a characteristic of trapezoidal bunds. The major
characteristic of water spreading bund is that, as their name implies, they are intended to spread water,
and not to impound it. The bunds are usually made of earth, slow down the flow of flood water and
spread it over the land to be cultivated, thus allowing it to infiltrate.

Technical details

Suitability
Water spreading bunds can be used under the following conditions:

Rainfall: - 100mm-350mm normally hyper-arid /arid areas only.

Soils: - alluvial fans or flood plains with deep fertile soils

Slopes:- most suitable for slopes of 1% or below

Topography: - even

Bund design
a) Slopes of less tha 0.5%

38
 Where slopes are less than 0.5%, straight bunds are used to spread water. Both ends are left
open to allow floodwater to pass around the bunds, which are sited at 50 meters apart. Bund
should overlap, so that the overflow around one should be intercepted by that below it. The
uniform cross section of the bunds are recommended to be 60cm height and 4.1 meter base width,
and a top width of [Link] gives a stable side slope of 3:1. A maximum bund length of 100
meters is recommended.
b) In this slope range graded bunds can be used. Bunds of constant cross section are graded along a
ground slope of 0.25%. Each successive bund in the series down slope is graded from different
ends. The spacing between bunds depends on the slope of the land. The bund cross section is the
same as that recommended for contour bunds on lower slopes. The maximum length of a base
bund is recommended to be 100 meters.

Layout and construction

Step one:-

The first step is to measure the slope of the land, in order to select the appropriate bunding system. This
can be done most simply with an Abney level or with a line level.

Step two:-

Straight bunds are used for slopes less than 0.5% and are spaced at 50m intervals. The bund should be
staggered. Using a line or water level mark point A and point B with a spacing of 100 meter apart. Line
AB is then the center line of the first bund and should be marked with pegs or stones.

Step three

For ground slope above 0.5% bunds aligned a 0.25% gradient are used and termed as “graded bunds”.

Step four

Having marked out the centerlines of the bunds the limit of fill can be marked by stakes or stones placed
at a distance of 0.25m on either side of the centerlines.

Step five

Construction begins at the top of the field as in all water harvesting systems. Earth should be excavated
from both sides to form the bunds and in the shallow trenches formed earth ties should be foreseen at
frequent intervals to prevent scouring.

39
The bunds are constructed in two layers of 30 cm each and compaction by trampling is recommended on
the first course and again when the bund is complete.

Step six

At the beds of the contour bunds and at the tip of the wing walls of the graded bunds, stones pitching
should be placed (If loose stone is available) to reduce potential damage from flow around the bunds.

Self-Check 3 Written Test

Name: _________________________ Date: _______________

Directions: Answer all the questions listed below. Illustrations may be necessary to aid
some explanations/answers.

1. Define flood water harvesting? Explain it. (5 pts)

2. List the two types of water harvesting techniques? (5pts)

3. What is the difference between flood water harvesting techniques with micro and macro water
harvesting techniques? (5pts)

Note: Satisfactory rating - 11 points and above Unsatisfactory - below 11 points

You can ask your teacher for the copy of the correct answers

40
 Operation Sheet 3 Constructing negarim micro catchment

1. Put on your personal protective clothes in accordance with the approved

requirement.
2. Preparing the equipments: All the equipments to be used in the field should
be assembled and sanitized. Also, it should be checked and adjusted, if necessary.
3. Site Selection: select the site where sever erosion is occurred
4. Identify the indicators for the forms of erosion in the field
5. Compare the area with uneroded land based on vegetation coverage, soil fertility
and slope.
6. Collect the equipments you used and store in appropriate place.
7. Prepare a report

Practical Demonstration Constructing negarim micro

LAP Test/ Job Sheet catchment

Name: _____________________________ Date: ________________

Time started: ________________________ Time finished: ________________

Instructions:

1. You are required to perform the following activity:

Request your teacher to arrange a visit to watershed area in order to -------

Arrange appropriate materials and start following appropriate collection procedures.

2. Request your teacher for evaluation and feedback

41