MODULE-1

Introduction to Power Electronics

▪ Power electronics – Technology associated with efficient conversion and control of electric power by power
semiconductor devices.
▪ Deals with the use of electronics for the control and conversion of large amounts of electrical power
rated at power level rather than signal level.

Q: Distinguish between Linear Electronics and Power Electronics

Linear operation (Electronics) Switching operation (Power Electronics)

Devices are of lower current and voltage level. High current and voltage devices.

Devices operate in active region Devices operate in Saturation & cut-off regions

Increased losses low losses

Transistor biased to operate around quiescent
point No concept of quiescent point

Devices operate in low or medium frequencies. Devices used for high frequency applications.

Q: Distinguish between Ideal switch and practical switch.

▪ Properties of ideal switches:
i. When switch is OFF (open); Is = 0 and should be able to withstand any voltage across it.
ii. When switch is ON, V=0 and it is capable of passing any current through it.
iii. Power dissipated in the switch when ON or OFF is zero.
iv. Switch is turned ON and OFF instantaneously.
v. Switching losses during turn ON and turn OFF are zero.
▪ For a practical switch:
i. There is a small finite voltage drop across the switch during ON; hence conduction loss is not zero.
ii. During OFF, there will be leakage current through it; hence blocking loss is not zero.
iii. It takes finite time to switch from one state to another. Hence switching loss is not zero.
Q: Write short note on heat sinks used in power semiconductor switches?
▪ A heat sink is a component designed to enhance the heat dissipation from an electronic device so as to
maintain a safe temperature in power semiconductor device.
▪ Usually a heat sink is composed of a base plate and fins. The base plate can transfer the heat to fins and
then transfer heat to the surrounding air, through increased surface area.
▪ Steel, aluminium, and copper are the most common materials, but aluminium alloys are the most common
materials for air cooling heat sinks due to high cost-performance.

Q: Explain thermal electrical analogy?

▪ Temperature difference (ΔT): Potential difference/Voltage (V)
▪ Power Dissipation(Q) : Current Source (I)
▪ Thermal Resistance (RT): Electrical Resistance (R)
ΔT 𝑉
▪ Thermal Resistance, 𝑅𝑇 = Electrical Resistance 𝑅 =
𝑄 𝐼

Q: Explain features and applications of Schottky diodes.

▪ Schottky diodes are metal-semiconductor junction devices known for their very low forward voltage drop
(0.2-0.3V) and fast switching speeds, utilizing only majority carriers.
Symbol:
Features
▪ Low Forward Voltage Drop : Typically 0.2-0.3V, compared to 0.6-0.7 V for silicon diodes, which minimizes
power loss.
▪ High Switching Speed: Fast recovery time due to the lack of minority carrier storage, making them suitable for
high-frequency operations.
▪ High Efficiency: High current density and low voltage loss make them efficient for power management.
Applications
▪ Switch-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS): Used for rectification due to low power loss.
▪ Solar Cells/Battery Charging: Act as blocking diodes to prevent reverse current from draining batteries.
▪ Logic Circuits: Extensively used in Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL) to boost switching speed.
 SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) : Generally Thyristor

▪ An SCR is so called because Silicon is used for construction and its operation as rectifier can be controlled.
▪ Unlike the diode, a thyristor blocks current flow from anode to Cathode until it is triggered into
conduction by application of proper gate signal between gate and cathode terminal.
Q: Explain the basic construction of an SCR.

▪ Four layer, three junction, p-n-p-n semiconductor switching device

▪ 4 layers of alternate p-type and n-type silicon semiconductors forming three junctions J1, J2 and J3
▪ 3 terminals
▪ The terminal connected to outer p region is called the Anode
▪ The terminal connected to outer n region is called the Cathode
▪ The terminal connected to inner p region is called Gate
▪ Mounted onto heat sinks (via Threaded stud) for cooling

Q: Explain the static V-I characteristics of a thyristor.

A thyristor has three basic modes of operation:

▪ Reverse blocking mode
▪ Forward blocking mode (off state)
▪ Forward conduction mode (on state)
Reverse blocking mode

▪ When cathode is made +ve w.r.t anode,

Junction J2 is forward biased, J1 and
J3 are reverse biased.

▪ A small leakage current of the order of a few milli- amperes

flows.

▪ If the reverse voltage is increased, above reverse breakdown

voltage VBR, an avalanche occur at J1 and J3

▪ Reverse current increases rapidly

Forward blocking mode

▪ When anode is +ve w.r.t cathode, J1

and J3 are forward biased;
J2 is reverse biased

▪ A small current called forward leakage current flows

▪ Thyristor acts as an open switch
Forward conduction mode

▪ When anode to cathode forward voltage is increased above a voltage called forward break-over
voltage VBO (with gate circuit open),

▪ Reverse biased junction J2 will have an avalanche breakdown

▪ Thyristor gets turned on (operating point shifts from M to N)

▪ NK represents the forward conduction mode

▪ In conduction mode, the SCR offers very low impedance and very low on state voltage (1-2 V)

▪ When a positive gate pulse Ig1 applied between gate and cathode, Operating point shifts from forward
blocking to conduction state (Thyristor tuns on) at a smaller break over voltage VBO1

Q: Explain the turn on (Triggering) methods of an SCR.

1. Forward voltage triggering

▪ When forward voltage applied between anode and cathode (gate circuit open), Junction J1 and J3
are forward biased and Junction J2 is reverse biased, depletion layer formed across J2.
▪ The width of this layer decreases with an increase in anode - cathode voltage
▪ If forward voltage across anode-cathode is gradually increased, above a voltage called forward
break-over voltage,
• Depletion layer across J2 vanishes by avalanche breakdown.
• A large forward anode current flows; Thyristor starts conduction.

2. Gate triggering

▪ Most common, simple and efficient method of triggering an SCR

▪ When turn of a thyristor required, a +ve gate voltage between gate and cathode is applied.
▪ Inner p layer (where Gate is connected) is flooded with electrons from the cathode.
▪ As the thyristor is forward biased, some of these electrons reaches junction J2
▪ As a result, width of the depletion layer near junction J2 is reduced
▪ Junction J2 to break down at an applied voltage lower than the forward break-over
voltage VBO and the SCR starts conduction.
3. dv/dt triggering

4. Temperature triggering (Thermal triggering)

▪ During forward blocking, most of the applied voltage appears across reverse biased junctionJ2

▪ This voltage across J2, associated with leakage current, would rise the temperature of this junction
▪ With increase in temperature, width of depletion layer decreases

▪ This further leads to more leakage current and therefore more junction temperature

▪ With this cumulative process at some high temperature, depletion layer of reverse biased
junction vanishes and the device gets turned on

5. Light triggering

▪ For light triggered SCR, a recess is made in the inner p layer

▪ When a niche is made to incident on this recess, free charge carriers are generated just like when
gate signal is applied between gate and cathode.
▪ The pulse of light of appropriate wavelength is guided by optical fibers

▪ Such a thyristor is known as light activated SCR (LASCR)

Q: Explain the terms Latching current and Holding Current of an SCR.

▪ Once the thyristor starts conduction by gate triggering, if the gate current is removed, the conduction
of current from anode to cathode is unaffected.

▪ However if the gate current removed, before rising the anode current attains a value, called
latching current the device will turn off again.
 The latching current may be defined as the minimum value of anode current which it must attain
during turn on process to maintain conduction when gate signal is removed

▪ Once the thyristor is conducting, gate loses control

▪ The thyristor can be turned off only if the forward current falls below a low level current called
holding current

The holding current may be defined as the minimum value of anode current below which it must fall for
turning off the thyristor.

▪ The latching current is higher than holding current (2 to 3 times)

▪ The latching current is associated with the turn on process and holding current with turn off
process

Q: Explain the switching characteristics (Dynamic Chara) of an SCR during turn on.

▪ The turn on time of an SCR is defined as the time interval during which it changes from forward
blocking state to final on state.
▪ Can be divided into three intervals
▪ Delay time td
▪ Rise time tr
▪ Spread time tp
 Delay time td

▪ It is the time interval during which anode current rises from forward leakage current to 0.1Ia,
(where Ia is the final value of anode current)
Or
▪ The time during which anode voltage falls from Va to 0.9 Va (where Va is the initial value of
anode voltage)

▪ During delay time anode current flows in a narrow region near the gate.
Rise time tr

▪ Is the time taken by the anode current to rise from 0.1Ia to 0.9 Ia
Or
▪ Time required for the forward blocking off state voltage to fall from 0.9 to 0.1 of its initial
value.

▪ During rise time, turn on losses in the thyristor are the highest due to high anode voltage
and large anode current occurring together.

Spread time tp

▪ Time taken by the anode current to rise from 0.9Ia to Ia

Or
▪ Time for the forward blocking voltage to fall from 0.1 of its initial value of its on state voltage
drop (1 to 1.5 V)

▪ During this time conduction spreads over entire cross section of the cathode of SCR

Total turn on time ( ≈ 1 to 4μ sec) of an SCR is equal to the sum of delay time, rise time and spread
time.

Q: Explain the switching characteristics (Dynamic Chara) of an SCR during turn off.

▪ The dynamic transition process of SCR from conduction state to forward blocking state is
called commutation process or turn off process

▪ The turn of time tq of a thyristor is defined as the time between the instant anode current
become zero and the instant SCR regains forward blocking capability

▪ The turn off time is divided into two interval

▪ Reverse recovery time trr

▪ Gate recovery time tgr

tq=trr+tgr
 Reverse recovery time (t1-t3)
▪ At instant t1, anode current becomes zero
▪ After t1, anode current build up in the reverse direction
▪ This reverse recovery current removes excess carriers from the end junction J1 and J3
▪ At instant t2, when about 60% of the stored charges are removed and reverse recovery current
also starts decaying
▪ At instant t3, end junctions J1 and J3 recover.

Gate recovery time (t3-t4)

▪ At the end of reverse recovery period (t1-t3), the middle junction J2 still has trapped charges
which cannot flow to the external circuit.
▪ The time (t3 -t4) for recombination of these charges is called gate recovery time tgr
▪ At instant t4, junction J2 also recovers and thyristor regains forward blocking capacity.

Q: Explain important ratings of an SCR.

▪ Gate Trigger Voltage: Minimum gate voltage required to turn on the SCR.
▪ Forward break over Voltage: Maximum foreword blocking voltage, without turning it on
(in absence of gate pulse)
▪ On State Voltage : Voltage drop across SCR at specified Voltage & temperature
▪ di/dt rating: Maximum allowable rate of rise of current.
▪ Maximum Average Current Rating (IAV)
▪ Latching current, Holding current
▪ Peak Repetitive Forward Blocking Voltage (VDRM) : Peak forward transient voltage that the SCR can block
repeatedly in forward blocking mode.
Q: Explain the construction, V-I characteristics and switching characteristics of a Power MOSFET
▪ Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET)
▪ The Conventional planar MOSFET has the restriction of handling the high power.
▪ In high power applications, the Double-diffused vertical MOSFET known as Power MOSFET is used.
▪ The Power MOSFET is a three terminal (Gate, Drain and Source), four layer unipolar semiconductor device.
Symbol:

For n-channel MOSFET, the arrow is inward. For p-

channel MOSFET, the arrow is outward. (indicates
the direction of current flow)

Structure:

▪ The Power MOSFET has a vertically oriented four layer structure of alternating P and N type (n+ p n- n+) layers.
▪ The P type middle layer is called as body of MOSFET. In this region, the channel is formed between source and
drain.
▪ The n- layer is called as drift region, which determines the breakdown voltage of the device.
▪ The Gate terminal is isolated from body by silicon dioxide layer.
▪ When the positive Gate voltage is applied with respect to source, the n-type channel is formed between
Source to Drain.
▪ As shown in the figure, there is a parasitic npn BJT between Source and Drain. There is a parasitic diode which is
formed between drain to source terminals.
V-I characteristics of n-channel enhancement mode MOSFET:

Switching (Dynamic) Characteristics:

▪ The turn on time td(on) is the time that is required to charge the input capacitance to the threshold
voltage level.
▪ The rise time tr is the gate charging time from this threshold level to the full gate voltage VGSp
▪ The turn off delay time td(off) is the time required for the input capacitance to discharge from
overdriving the voltage V1 to the pinch off region.
▪ The fall time tf is the time required for the input capacitance to discharge from pinch off region
to the threshold voltage.

Q: Explain the construction, V-I characteristics and relative merits of an IGBT.

▪ IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) is a three terminal power semiconductor switch.
▪ The combination of BJT and MOSFET.
Symbol and internal Structure:

▪ The generic n-channel IGBT structure is shown in the above figure.

▪ This structure is similar to the structure of MOSFET except the presence of p+ layer (which is
connected to the drain terminal).
▪ The lower p-n junction is forward biased when the device is on and injects holes into the n- layer
enhancing its conductivity.
▪ The doping levels of each IGBT layers are similar to the doping levels of each layer of MOSFET
except the body region.

V-I Characteristics:
 Advantages:
▪ Good Power handling capabilities
▪ Low forward conduction voltage drop of 2V to 3V, which is higher than for a BJT but lower than
for a MOSFET of similar rating.
▪ High speed switching capability.

Q: Explain the construction and characteristics of a Power Diode

▪ Power diodes have large power and current carrying capability compared to ordinary diodes.
▪ It consists of heavily doped n+ substrate, over which a lightly doped n- layer is epitaxially grown.
▪ A heavily doped p+ layer is diffused into n- layer to form the Anode.
▪ V-I Characteristics
▪ When anode is positive w.r.t cathode, diode is said to be forward biased.
▪ With increase of the source voltage Vs from
zero value, initially diode current is zero.
▪ Beyond cut in voltage (around 0.7V, for silicon
diode) the diode current rises rapidly, starts
conduction.
▪ When diode conducts, there is a forward voltage
drop of the order of 0.8 to 1 V.
▪ In the reverse biased condition, a small reverse
leakage current of the order of micro or milli
amperes flows.
▪ At reverse breakdown, voltage remains almost constant but reverse current becomes quite high,
which may destroy the diode.
 Reverse recovery characteristics

▪ After the forward diode current decays to zero, the diode continues to conduct in the reverse direction
because of the presence of stored charges in the depletion region
▪ The diode regains its blocking capability until reverse recovery current decays to zero.
▪ Trr is defined as the time between the instant forward diode current becomes zero and the instant reverse
recovery current decays to 25% of its reverse peak value Irm.
▪ The reverse recovery time is composed of two segments time ta and tb, i.e. trr=ta+tb
▪ During ta, charge stored in depletion layer is removed.
▪ During tb, charge from the semiconductor layer is removed.

Q: Compare SCR, Power MOSFET, IGBT

SCR IGBT MOSFET

Silicon Controlled Insulated Gate Bipolar Metal Oxide Semiconductor

Name Transistor Field Effect Transistor
Rectifier

Terminals Gate, Anode, Cathode Gate,Emitter,Collector Gate,Source,Drain

Power Levels that
can be handled High Medium Low (relatively)
Switching
frequency Low (relatively) Medium High

Control Current controlled device Voltage controlled device Voltage controlled device
Typical
Applications HVDC, HVAC Motor Drives DC-DC converters

Note :
i) Uncontrolled switch – Power diode
ii) Semi-controlled switch (controlled turn-on and uncontrolled turn-off) - SCR
iii) Fully controlled switch (controlled turn-on and controlled turn-off) – IGBT, MOSFET.
Q: Write short note on wide band gap devices.
▪ Wide band gap devices promise substantial performance improvements over their silicon-based
counterparts. They have the ability to operate at higher temperatures, higher power densities, higher
voltages and higher frequencies.
▪ Two very important wide bandgap materials are Gallium Nitride (GaN) and Silicon Carbide (SiC).
(Compound Semiconductors)
▪ The characterization of a material as being wide bandgap pertains to the energy required for an electron to jump
from the top of the valence band to the bottom of the conduction band within the semiconductor. Materials which
require energies typically larger than one or two electron volts (eV) are referred to as wide bandgap materials.
(Si: 1.1 eV, SiC: 3.3 eV, GaN: 3.4 eV).
▪ The high critical field of both GaN and SiC compared to Si allows these devices to operate at higher voltages and
lower leakage currents.
▪ Higher electron mobility and electron saturation velocity of GaN and SiC allow for higher frequency of operation.
▪ Commercial Si transistors can block upto 400V, GaN transistors upto 650V and SiC transistors upto 1200V.
▪ Compared to silicon, current manufacturing techniques of GaN and SiC are more expensive.

Q: What are the requirements of thyristor gate drive circuits?

▪ A gate trigger circuit for thyristors should possess the following:
▪ A circuit for the detection of zero crossing of the input voltage.
▪ Generation of trigger pulses of required wave shape.
▪ DC power supply for pulse amplifier.
▪ Gate trigger circuit isolation from the line potential by means of pulse transformers or opto- couplers. (Add
the detailed circuit if asked for more marks)
Q: Explain a typical gate drive circuit for a thyristor-based converter.

▪ Major sub circuits - Control circuit generates suitable gating signals; Driver circuit modifies and transmit the
gating signals to the power circuit.
▪ A regulated DC supply is obtained from an ac voltage source.
▪ Pulse generator supplied from both ac and dc sources gives out voltage pulses which are then fed to pulse amplifier
for their amplification.
▪ Shielded cables transmit amplified pulses to pulse transformers.
▪ Pulse transformers isolate low voltage Gate-Cathode circuit from high voltage anode- Cathode circuit.

Q: Explain the Necessity of isolation in gate drive circuit.

▪ Driver circuits operate at very low power levels.
Normally, the signals levels are 3 to 12 volts.
▪ The gate drives are connected to power devices
which operate at high power levels.
▪ Here the collector of BJT can have voltages of 200V. But
base is connected to trigger circuit of 5V.
▪ If BJT is damaged and collector-base gets shorted,
▪ then the high voltage will damage the trigger circuit also.
▪ Therefore, there must be some electrical isolation between control and power circuit.

Q: Explain the opto and pulse transformer based isolation in gate drive circuits.
a) Isolation using pulse transformer:

▪ Pulse transformer has one primary and one or more secondary

windings.
▪ It is normally used for pulsed mode of triggering.
▪ The triggering circuit is electrically isolated from BJT.

▪ Hence, if there is any damage to BJT, there will be no effect on

triggering circuit.
▪ Pulse transformers are used only for high frequencies.
b) Isolation using optocouplers :

▪ Optocoupler consists of a pair of infrared LED and

phototransistor.
▪ When the signal is applied to the infrared LED, it turns on.
▪ It’s light falls on phototransistor.
▪ Thus, phototransistor also start conducting.
▪ There is no electric connection between LED and
phototransistor.
Compiled By: Sreekanth P,
▪ Opto-isolators exhibit very good response at low frequencies Asst. Prof, Dept. of EEE,
▪ It is very compact and cheap. College of engineering Trikaripur