Sampling in Research: Core Concepts and
Implications
Sampling is selecting a subset of individuals or items from a larger
population so that conclusions about the whole population can be drawn
efficiently and accurately.
1.1. What Sampling Is and Why It’s Used
A population is the full set of people/items relevant to the research
question; a sample is the smaller group actually studied (Berndt, 2020;
Slater & Hasson, 2024).
Sampling is necessary because studying an entire population is usually
impossible due to time, cost, and access constraints (Turner, 2020;
Haute, 2021; Mukti, 2025).
Good sampling aims to produce a sample that is representative,
minimizing bias so results can be generalized to the population
(Ahmed, 2024; Mukti, 2025; Slater & Hasson, 2024).
1.1.1. Key Roles of Sampling
Role of Explanation Citations
sampling
Practicality & Enables research when full- (Turner, 2020; G, 2024; Mukti,
cost population data collection is 2025)
infeasible
Generalization Allows inferences from (Ahmed, 2024;
sample statistics to Nanjundeswaraswamy & Divakar,
population parameters 2021; Singh, 2014)
Data quality & Careful design improves (Ahmed, 2024; Haute, 2021;
validity internal/external validity
and reduces bias Slater & Hasson, 2024)
Flexibility Equally central in (Mweshi & Sakyi, 2020; Spolarich,
across methods quantitative, qualitative, 2023; Robinson, 2014; Teddlie &
and mixed-methods designs Yu, 2016)
1.1.2. Main Types of Sampling
Probability sampling (e.g., simple random, stratified, cluster,
systematic): every member has a known chance of selection,
supporting strong statistical inference and generalizability (Ahmed,
2024; Nanjundeswaraswamy & Divakar, 2021; Haute, 2021; Mukti,
2025; Mulisa, 2022; Singh, 2014).
Non-probability sampling (e.g., convenience, purposive, quota,
snowball): faster and useful for hard-to-reach or exploratory contexts,
but limits generalization and can increase bias (Ahmed, 2024; Wang,
2024; Haute, 2021; Mukti, 2025; , 2022).
1.2. Probability (Random) Sampling – Core Idea
In probability sampling, every element of the population has a known,
non-zero chance of selection, and in simple random sampling this chance is
also equal for all units. This is achieved through a formal randomization
process, not arbitrary choice (Mukti, 2025; Mulisa, 2022; Setia, 2016; G,
2024; Rahman et al., 2022).
1.2.1. Key Features and Types
[Link]. What makes sampling “probability” or “random”?
Requires a sampling frame (complete list of the population) so that
selection probabilities are known and calculable (Mukti, 2025; Mulisa,
2022).
Uses randomization (e.g., random number generators, random tables,
lotteries) to select units, reducing selection bias and supporting valid
statistical inference (Ahmed, 2024; Wang, 2024; Mulisa, 2022; Setia,
2016; G, 2024).
Ensures each unit has a known, non-zero probability of inclusion; in
simple random sampling, all units and all possible samples of a given
size are equally likely (Ahmed, 2024; Wang, 2024; Berndt, 2020;
Turner, 2020).
Main probability sampling methods
Method Core idea When useful Citations
Simple Equal chance Homogeneous, (Ahmed, 2024; Wang, 2024;
random for every unit well-listed Berndt, 2020; Turner, 2020;
populations Djennad & Djellouli, 2025)
Systematic Select every Easier field (Berndt, 2020; Mukti, 2025;
k-th unit from implementation Djennad & Djellouli, 2025)
ordered list
Stratified Random Ensuring (Ahmed, 2024; Mukti, 2025;
samples within representation of Wang, 2024; Djennad &
subgroups key subgroups Djellouli, 2025; Peters &
(strata) Eachus, 1995)
Cluster/ Randomly Large, (Ahmed, 2024; Mukti, 2025;
multistage select groups, geographically Wang, 2024; Peters &
then units dispersed Eachus, 1995)
within populations
1.2.2. Why it matters
Probability sampling allows estimation of sampling error, supports
generalization to the population, and is considered the gold standard for
prevalence surveys and large quantitative studies (Ahmed, 2024; Mukti,
2025; Wang, 2024; Mulisa, 2022; Rahman et al., 2022; Peters & Eachus,
1995). However, it can be logistically complex and resource-intensive,
especially for large or poorly listed populations (Ahmed, 2024; Mukti, 2025;
Wang, 2024).
1.2.3. Types of probability sampling
The main types of probability sampling include:
1. Simple Random Sampling (Lottery Method): Every member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected purely by chance, such as randomly choosing 5 patients
from a list of 50 (Hossan et al., 2023; Kalton, 1983; Ahmed, 2024; Roy et al., 2016).
2. Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into homogeneous subgroups (strata)
based on characteristics like age or gender, and samples are drawn proportionally from
each stratum to ensure representation (Hossan et al., 2023; Kalton, 1983; Ahmed, 2024;
Mukti, 2025).
3. Cluster Sampling: The population is divided into clusters, often geographically (e.g.,
hospitals or schools), and entire clusters are randomly selected; all individuals within
chosen clusters are studied (Hossan et al., 2023; Kalton, 1983; Morganstein, 1999; Mukti,
2025; Roy et al., 2016).
4. Systematic Sampling: After a random start, individuals are selected at regular intervals
from an ordered list, such as every 10th patient visiting a clinic (Kalton, 1983;
Morganstein, 1999; Roy et al., 2016).
5. Multistage/Multiphase Sampling: This complex method involves selecting samples in
hierarchical stages (e.g., states, then districts, then schools, then students), combining
cluster and other sampling methods for large-scale surveys (Hossan et al., 2023; Kalton,
1983; Morganstein, 1999; Mukti, 2025).
These methods differ in complexity and suitability depending on the research goals, population
structure, and resources available. Probability sampling techniques provide known selection
probabilities that support unbiased estimates and generalizability to the whole population
(Hossan et al., 2023; Kalton, 1983; Ahmed, 2024; Mukti, 2025).
Overall, these five approaches form the foundation of rigorous quantitative research sampling
strategies across disciplines (Hossan et al., 2023; Kalton, 1983; Ahmed, 2024; Morganstein,
1999).
1.3. Non-probability sampling
Non-probability sampling involves selecting individuals without giving every member of the
population an equal chance of inclusion, often relying on researcher judgment or convenience.
Convenience sampling selects participants based on their easy accessibility to the
researcher, such as patients present during data collection, but it risks bias and limited
generalizability (Obilor & Isaac, 2023; Etikan et al., 2016; Hossan et al., 2023; Andrade,
2020).
Purposive (judgmental) sampling involves deliberately choosing individuals who meet
specific criteria relevant to the study, commonly used in qualitative research to gain in-
depth insights from targeted groups (Nyimbili & Nyimbili, 2024; Obilor & Isaac, 2023;
Etikan et al., 2016; , 2021).
Quota sampling sets predetermined quotas for subgroups (e.g., gender) and fills these
quotas non-randomly, which helps ensure subgroup representation but lacks
randomization (Hossan et al., 2023; Bhardwaj, 2019; , 2021).
Snowball sampling is a chain-referral method where existing participants recruit future
ones, useful for accessing hidden or hard-to-reach populations like drug users or rare
disease patients (Nyimbili & Nyimbili, 2024; Valerio et al., 2016; , 2021).
While these methods are practical when probability sampling is infeasible, they carry risks of
sampling bias and limited external validity, so findings typically cannot be generalized beyond
the sampled group (Obilor & Isaac, 2023; Etikan et al., 2016; Andrade, 2020).
Overall, non-probability sampling techniques are valuable for exploratory or qualitative studies
but require careful consideration of their limitations in representativeness and inference
(Nyimbili & Nyimbili, 2024; Obilor & Isaac, 2023; Etikan et al., 2016; Andrade, 2020).
References
(2021). Qualitative Sampling Methods. Data Analysis and Methods of Qualitative Research.
[Link]
(2022). Types of Sampling Methods in Human Research: Why, When and
How?. European Researcher. [Link]
Ahmed, S. (2024). Research Methodology Simplified: How to Choose the Right Sampling
Technique and Determine the Appropriate Sample Size for Research. Oral Oncology Reports.
[Link]
Andrade, C. (2020). The Inconvenient Truth About Convenience and Purposive Samples. Indian
Journal of Psychological Medicine, 43, 86 - 88. [Link]
Berndt, A. (2020). Sampling Methods. Journal of Human Lactation, 36, 224 -
226. [Link]
Bhardwaj, P. (2019). Types of sampling in research. Journal of the Practice of Cardiovascular
Sciences, 5, 157 - 163. [Link]
Djennad, B., & Djellouli, M. (2025). Probabilistic Sampling in Media and
Communication Studies: Concept, Procedures, and Applications. EON.
[Link]
Etikan, I., Musa, S., & Alkassim, R. (2016). Comparison of Convenience Sampling and
Purposive Sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5, 1.
[Link]
G, A. (2024). Sample Size Determination and Sampling Technique.
International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR).
[Link]
Haute, E. (2021). Sampling Techniques. Research Methods in the Social
Sciences: An A-Z of key concepts.
[Link]
Hossan, D., Mansor, Z., & Jaharuddin, N. (2023). Research Population and Sampling in
Quantitative Study. International Journal of Business and Technopreneurship (IJBT).
[Link]
Kalton, G. (1983). Introduction to Survey Sampling. **. [Link]
Morganstein, D. (1999). Practical Sampling Techniques. Technometrics, 41, 175.
[Link]
Mukti, B. (2025). Methods in health research: Probability and non-probability sampling. Health
Sciences International Journal. [Link]
Mulisa, F. (2022). Sampling techniques involving human subjects:
Applications, pitfalls, and suggestions for further studies. International
Journal of Academic Research in Education.
[Link]
Mweshi, G., & Sakyi, K. (2020). Application of sampling methods for the
research design. American Book Review, 8, 180-193.
[Link]
Nanjundeswaraswamy, T., & Divakar, S. (2021). DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE
SIZE AND SAMPLING METHODS IN APPLIED RESEARCH. **, 3, 25-32.
[Link]
Nyimbili, F., & Nyimbili, L. (2024). Types of Purposive Sampling Techniques with Their
Examples and Application in Qualitative Research Studies. British Journal of Multidisciplinary
and Advanced Studies. [Link]
Obilor, E., & , I. (2023). Convenience and Purposive Sampling Techniques: Are they the Same?.
**.
Peters, T., & Eachus, J. (1995). Achieving equal probability of selection under
various random sampling strategies.. Paediatric and perinatal epidemiology,
9 2, 219-24. [Link]
Rahman, M., Tabash, M., Salamzadeh, A., Abduli, S., & Rahaman, M. (2022).
Sampling Techniques (Probability) for Quantitative Social Science
Researchers: A Conceptual Guidelines with Examples. SEEU Review, 17, 42 -
51. [Link]
Robinson, O. (2014). Sampling in Interview-Based Qualitative Research: A
Theoretical and Practical Guide. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 11, 25 -
41. [Link]
Roy, T., Acharya, R., & Roy, A. (2016). Basic Sampling Designs. **, 13-61.
[Link]
Setia, M. (2016). Methodology Series Module 5: Sampling Strategies. Indian
Journal of Dermatology, 61, 505 - 509. [Link]
5154.190118
Singh, S. (2014). Sampling Techniques & Determination of Sample Size in
Applied Statistics Research : an Overview. **.
Slater, P., & Hasson, F. (2024). Data Measurement, Instruments and
Sampling. Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 32, 680 - 685.
[Link]
Spolarich, A. (2023). Sampling Methods: A guide for researchers.. Journal of
dental hygiene : JDH, 97 4, 73-77.
Teddlie, C., & Yu, F. (2016). Mixed Methods Sampling A Typology With
Examples. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1, 77-100.
[Link]
Turner, D. (2020). Sampling Methods in Research Design. Headache: The
Journal of Head and Face Pain, 60. [Link]
Valerio, M., Rodríguez, N., Winkler, P., Lopez, J., Dennison, M., Liang, Y., & Turner, B.
(2016). Comparing two sampling methods to engage hard-to-reach communities in research
priority setting. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 16. [Link]
0242-z
Wang, X. (2024). Use of proper sampling techniques to research studies.
Applied and Computational Engineering. [Link]
2721/57/20241324