BEC613A Multimedia Communication

MODULE – 1:
MULTIMEDIA COMMUNICATIONS: Introduction,
Multimedia information representation,
Multimedia networks, Multimedia applications,
Application and networking terminology: Media types, Communication modes, Network types,
Multipoint conferencing, Network QoS, Application QoS. 8 Hours

TEXT BOOK:
1. Multimedia Communications: Applications, Networks, Protocols and
Standards, Fred Halsall, Pearson Education, Asia, Second Indian reprint 2002.

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 BEC613A Multimedia Communication

Module 1 – Multimedia Communication

Introduction:
 Multimedia communication includes a range of applications and networking
infrastructures.
 The term "multimedia" is used to indicate that the information/data being
transferred over the network may be composed of one or more of the following
media types:
1. Text: Includes both Unformatted Text - comprising strings of characters
from a limited character set and Formatted Text - comprises strings as
used for the structuring, access, and presentation of electronic documents.
2. Images: Includes Computer Generated Image - comprising lines,
curves, and circles, and Digitized Images of documents and pictures.
3. Audio: Includes both low-fidelity speech - as used in telephony and high-
fidelity speech - stereophonic music as used with compact discs.
4. Video: Includes short sequences of moving images (also known as video
clips) and complete movies/films.

 Multimedia applications may involve either of the following:

1. Person-to-Person communications or
2. Person-to-System communications

 Person-to-Person communicates using suitable Terminal Equipment (TE)

 Person-to-System communications:
1. Person interacts with the system using suitable Digital device like
workstation or multimedia personal computer (PC). These digital device
are located either in homes or offices.
Basically, system is a server containing a collection of files or documents - each comprising
digitized text, images, audio, and video information either singly or integrated together in
some way alternatively It may also contain - a library of digitized movies/videos. User
interacts with the server by means of a suitable selection device connected to the Set-top
box (STB) associated with a television or modem used with the computers.

Multimedia Information Representation

 Applications involving text and images - comprise blocks of digital data units.
 Text data - typical unit is block of characters with each character represented by, fixed number
of Binary digits (bits) or Codeword.

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 Digitized image data - comprises a 2-D block of pixels (picture elements) with each pixel
represented by a fixed number of bits.
 Applications involving text and images: comprise the short request for a file.
Ex.: file contents being returned, the duration of the overall transaction is relatively short.
 Applications involving Audio and Video Signals: Vary continuously with time as the amplitude
of the speech, audio, or video signal varies.
Ex.: Typical telephone conversation can last for several minutes and Movie (comprising audio and
video) can last for a number of hours.
 Applications involves of single type of media: Basic form of representation of the particular
media type is often used.
 Applications involving either text-and-images or audio-and-video: Their Basic form is often
used since the two media types in these applications have the same form of representation.
 Applications involving of different media types: We integrated together in some way as it's
necessary to represent all 4 media types in a digital form.
 For text and images: This (digital) is their standard form of representation.
 For audio and video: since, their basic forms of representations are analog signals
- these must be converted into a corresponding digital form - before they can be integrated with
the two other media types.
 Digitization of an audio signal: produces a digital signal with amplitude of the signal varies
continuously with time and is of relatively high bit rate, is measured by bps (bits per second) and
for speech signal a typical bit rate of 64 kbps. Applications involving audio can be of a long
duration: this bit rate must be sustained for an equally long time period.
 Digitization of video signal: the same applies as that of audio signals but, except that the much
higher bit rates and longer time durations are involved.
 In general, the communication networks that are used to support applications that involve audio
and video cannot support the very high bit rates that are required for representing these media
types in a digital form hence we go for compression.
 Compression: It is a technique first applied to the digitized signals in order to reduce the
resulting bit rate to a level which can support be supported by various networks.
 Compression to text and images: To reduce the time delay between a requests being made for
some information and the information becoming available on the screen of a computers or over
others.

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Multimedia Networks:
 There are Five basic types of communication networks that are used to provide
multimedia communication services:
1. Telephone networks.
2. Data networks.
3. Broadcast television networks.
4. Integrated services digital networks.
5. Broadband multiservice networks.
 1,2, and 3 networks are initially designed to provide just a single type of service as
listed as below:
1. Telephone networks: telephony
2. Data networks: data communications
3. Broadcast television networks: broadcast television

 Technological developments enabled these networks to provide additional services.

 4, and 5 networks: Designed from the outset to provide multiple services.

Telephone networks
 Public Switched Telephone network (PSTNs) has been in existence for many years and
have gone through many changes over the time.
 Designed to provide a basic switched telephone service which, with the advent of the
other network types has become known as POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service).
 'Switched': term is used to indicate that the subscriber can make a call to any other
telephone that is connected to the total network.
 Initially such networks spanned just a single country later, telephone networks of
different countries were interconnected so, that they now provide an international
switched service.
 Main components of the network are shown in the Fig below.

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 Local Exchange/End Office: telephones located in the home or in a small business are
connected directly to their nearest LEs/Eos.
 Private Branch Exchange (PBX):
i. Telephones located in the medium or large office/site are connected to a PBX or
Private switching Office.
ii. Provides a (free) switched service between any two telephones - that are
connected to it.
iii. Connected to its nearest LE (public), which enables the telephone that are
connected to the PBX also to make calls through a PSTN.
 Cellular Phone Networks: Been introduced which provide the similar service to the
mobile subscribes by means of the handsets that are linked to the cellular phone network
infrastructure by radio.
 MSC (Mobile Switching Center): it's the switch used in the cellular phone network Like
the PBXs also, connected to a switching office in a PSTN which, enables both sets of
subscribers to make calls to one another.
 IGE (International Gateway Exchange): route and switch the international calls.
 General scheme of modem is shown in the Fig below.

Figure b) Digital transmission using modem.

 Speech signal: is an analog signal varies continuously with time according, to the
amplitude and frequency variations of the sound resulting from the speech.
 Microphone: used to convert this into an analog electrical signal. Telephone networks
operate in circuit mode which means, for each call a separate circuit is set up through the
network of the necessary capacity for the duration of the call.
 Access circuits: link the telephone handsets to a PSTN or PBX were designed to carry
the 2-way analog signals associated with a call.

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 Hence, within the PSTN all the switches and the transmission circuits that
interconnect them operate in digital mode to carry a digital signal a stream of
binary 1s and 0s over the analog access circuits require the device modem.
 Modem:
i. At the sending side: modem converts the digital signal output by the
source digital device into an analog signal which is, compatible with a
normal speech signal it is routed through the network in the same way
as a speech signal.
ii. At the receiving side: modem converts the analog signal back again
into its digital form before, relaying this to the destination digital
device.
 Have the necessary circuits to set up and terminate the call.
 Using a pair of modems: at each subscriber access point a PSTN can also
be used to provide a switched digital service.
 Early modems: supported only a very low bit rate service of 300bps.
 Modems now support, bit rates of up to 56kbps as the result of advances in
digital signal processing circuits and is sufficient, to support various
applications comprising of text and images integrated together and also
services that comprise speech and low resolution video modems are now
available to use with same access circuits that provide a high bit rate channel
which is in addition to the speech channel used for telephony the bit rate of
this second channel, typically is such that it can support high resolution audio
and video hence, they are used to provide access to servers that support a
range of entertainment related applications.
 Figure below shows the general scheme of this, and such applications need bit
rates in excess of 1.5 Mbps.

Figure c) Multiple services via an H-S Modem

 Technological advances in modems area have been made PSTNs can now
support speech applications and also a wide range of other multimedia
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communication applications.
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Data Networks
What are Data Networks?

 Data networks were initially designed to support basic data services such as:
o Electronic mail (e-mail)
o File transfer
 The main devices connected to data networks are:
o Personal Computers (PCs)
o Workstations
o Dedicated email and file servers

1. Key Network Types

X.25 Network

 One of the earliest data networks.

 Operates at low bit rates.
 Not suitable for multimedia applications like video and audio due to speed
limitations.

The Internet

 A global network formed by interconnecting many smaller networks.

 Uses common communication protocols to allow worldwide data exchange.

Intranets

 Private networks used within an organization.

 When Internet protocols are used internally, the network is called an Intranet.

2. Communication Protocols and Open Systems

Communication Protocol
 A protocol is a set of rules used for communication between devices.
 It defines:
o The order of messages
o The format (syntax) of messages
Open Systems
 Use of standard protocols (e.g., TCP/IP) allows:
o Computers from different manufacturers to communicate
o Interoperability between systems

3. Internet Access Methods

 Users connect to the Internet backbone through: Page No -7

o Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
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Gateways or Routers
o
Home and Small Business Users
 Usually connect intermittently using:
o PSTN with modems
o ISDN for higher data rates
Large Organizations and Universities
 Use:
o Local Area Networks (LANs) for single locations
o Enterprise-wide private networks for multiple locations

4. Packet-Mode Operation

 All data networks use packet switching.

Packet
A packet is a small block of data.
It contains:
o Data
o Destination address in the header for routing
Why Packet Switching?
 Data traffic occurs at irregular time intervals.
 Packet switching is more efficient than using dedicated circuits.
Modern Packet Networks
 With improved algorithms and higher speeds:
o Packet networks now support speech, video conferencing, and multimedia
services

Broadcast Television Networks

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Introduction
BEC613A Multimedia Communication

 Designed for wide-area distribution of:

o Television programs
o Radio programs
 Originally based on analog transmission

1. Distribution Media

Cable Networks
 Used mainly in cities and large towns
 Provide local television distribution

Satellite and Terrestrial Networks

 Used for large geographical coverage
 Suitable for national and international broadcasting

2. Interactive Television

 Modern broadcast systems support user interaction.

Set-Top Box (STB)

 Controls TV channels.
 Provides access to services such as:
o Home shopping
o Games
o Interactive applications

Cable Modems
 Integrated with STBs.
 Provide high-speed Internet access.

Interaction Channel
 A high-speed PSTN modem inside the STB allows:
o Data to be sent back from the user
 This return path enables Interactive Television

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Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDN)

The ISDN was developed in the early 1980s to upgrade the existing Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN). Its primary goal was to provide users with multiple digital
services over the same infrastructure by converting the "local loop" (access circuits) into an
all-digital form.

1. Key Concept: Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

In an ISDN, the access circuit connecting the user’s terminal equipment to the network is
known as a Digital Subscriber Line (DSL).

 Analog vs. Digital Support: The network supports both digital and conventional
analog phones.

 Conversion: If an analog phone is used, the conversion from analog voice to digital
signals happens at the Network Termination Equipment (NTE), making the digital
nature of the network transparent to the user.
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2. Access Types and Channel Structures

BEC613A Multimedia Communication

ISDN provides two main types of access based on the number of 64 kbps channels provided:

A. Basic Rate Access (BRA)

 Structure: Consists of two independent 64 kbps channels.

 Usage: These channels can be used for two simultaneous independent calls (e.g., a
voice call and a data call) or combined for a single higher-speed connection.

 Aggregation: To combine two 64 kbps channels into a single 128 kbps channel, an
additional piece of equipment called an Aggregation box is required to synchronize
the two separate bitstreams.

B. Primary Rate Access (PRA)

 Structure: Supports a single higher bit rate channel of either 1.5 Mbps (North
America/Japan) or 2.0 Mbps (Europe/International).

 Usage: Typically used by businesses or for high-bandwidth multimedia applications.

3. Enhanced Switched Services ( kbps)

Modern ISDN implementations offer more flexibility by allowing a single switched channel
of kbps, where can range from 1 to 30. This allows the network to scale bandwidth based on
the specific requirements of the multimedia application (e.g., high-quality
videoconferencing).

Feature Basic Rate Access (BRA) Primary Rate Access (PRA)

Bit Rate times 64 kbps 1.5 or 2.0 Mbps

Typical User Residential / Small Office Large Enterprises / Servers

Common Use Voice + Internet / Fax Videoconferencing / Large Data

Key Component DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) High-speed digital trunks

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Broadband Multiservice Networks (ATM)

As multimedia applications evolved, the bandwidth requirements began to exceed the
capabilities of traditional ISDN (which maxes out at 2 Mbps). This led to the development of
Broadband Multiservice Networks, primarily based on Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM) technology.

1. The Need for Broadband

 High Bit Rates: Many multimedia applications (like high-definition video or large-
scale data transfer) require bit rates significantly higher than 2 Mbps.

 Service Integration: These networks are designed to handle a mix of traffic—voice,

data, image, and video—simultaneously over a single high-speed infrastructure.

2. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

ATM is the core switching and multiplexing technology used in broadband multiservice
networks.

 Fixed-Size Cells: Unlike traditional data networks (like the Internet) that use
variable-length packets, ATM divides all information into small, fixed-size packets
called cells.

 Cell Structure: Each ATM cell is 53 bytes long:

o 5 bytes: Header (contains routing and control information).

o 48 bytes: Payload (the actual user data).

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3. Key Advantages of ATM
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VTU exams often ask for the benefits of ATM in multimedia; here are the three primary
reasons:

1. High-Speed Switching: Because the cells are of a fixed, small size, the switching
hardware can process them very quickly in a "pipelined" fashion, reaching speeds of
several gigabits per second (Gbps).

2. Constant Delay (Jitter Reduction): Variable-length packets in IP networks can cause

unpredictable delays. ATM's fixed cells ensure a more constant delay, which is critical
for real-time applications like Video on Demand or Live Streaming.

3. Flexibility: ATM can emulate both "circuit-mode" (for voice) and "packet-mode" (for
data), making it a truly multiservice platform.

Feature ISDN (Section 1.3.4) Broadband/ATM (Section 1.3.5)

Max Bit Rate Usually up to 2 Mbps Typically > 2 Mbps (into Gbps range)

Continuous bitstream ($p \times

Unit of Transfer Fixed-size 53-byte Cells
64$ kbps)

Main
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
Technology

High-def Video, Large Data, Integrated

Best For Telephony, Fax, Low-res Video
Services

Quick Revision Points for Students

 Definition of ATM: A connection-oriented, cell-switching technology.

 The "Broadband" Threshold: Generally refers to services requiring bit rates higher
than the Primary Rate Access (PRA) of ISDN.

 Multiservice Nature: Its ability to support different "Quality of Service" (QoS) levels
for different media types (e.g., prioritizing voice over email data).

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Multimedia Applications
Multimedia applications are defined by the integration of multiple media types (such as text,
graphics, audio, animation, and video) into a single system. While these applications are vast
and varied, they are generally classified into three primary categories:

Evolution of Multimedia Networks

1. Historical Context of Networks
 Initial Design: Most networks were originally designed to support only a single type
of medium (e.g., the telephone network for voice or early data networks for text).
 Technological Advances: Advances in various related technologies have allowed
these same networks to evolve into supporting complex multimedia applications
(involving two or more media types).
2. Current Dual-Purpose Functionality
 Backward Compatibility: Despite the shift toward multimedia, the same networks
are still used to support the basic, original applications for which they were built.
 Enhanced Applications: In many cases, the original single-medium applications
have been enhanced or improved through modern network capabilities.

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A. Interpersonal Communications

These involve direct, real-time interaction between two or more human users.
 Speech Only: The most traditional form, initially using telephones over the Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
 Computer Telephony Integration (CTI): Allows computers and phones to work
together, enabling call control (answering, transferring) directly from a PC desktop.
 Voice over IP (VoIP): Digitizes voice into data packets to be sent over the internet
instead of traditional analog lines.
 Video Conferencing: Real-time visual and audio interaction (e.g., Zoom or Microsoft
Teams).
1. Traditional Telephony (PSTN)
This is the original "Speech-only" application. It uses the Public Switched
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Telephone Network (PSTN).
BEC613A Multimedia Communication

 Mechanism: It typically uses Circuit Switching, where a dedicated physical path is

established between two callers for the duration of the conversation.
 Standard: The standard bit rate for uncompressed digital speech in these networks is
64 kbps.
2. Computer Telephony Integration (CTI)
CTI allows a computer to act as an interface for telephone tasks. Instead of using a
physical handset, a user can:
 Initiate or answer calls via a PC desktop.
 Redirect or transfer calls using on-screen menus.
 Link incoming caller ID to a database to display customer information automatically.
3. IP Telephony (VoIP)
This is the modern evolution where speech is treated as a multimedia data type.
 Digitization: Voice is sampled, quantized, and converted into digital packets.
 Transmission: These packets are sent over the Internet (Packet-Switched Network)
using the Internet Protocol (IP).
 Protocols: Common protocols used to manage these "Speech-only" sessions include
SIP (Session Initiation Protocol) and H.323.
4. Telephony Gateways
To ensure "Speech-only" applications remain universal, Gateways are used to bridge
different network types.
 PC-to-Phone: A gateway allows a user on a VoIP-enabled computer to call a
traditional landline or mobile phone on the PSTN.
 Function: The gateway performs the necessary translation between the packet-
switched data and the circuit-switched voice signal.
5. Voice Mail
A specialized interpersonal application where speech is not real-time.
 It allows a caller to leave a digitized voice message on a server.
 The recipient can retrieve and play back the audio at a later time, effectively turning
"Speech-only" into a store-and-forward multimedia service.

B. Interactive Applications

Interactive Applications follow a Client-Server model where a user (the client) sends a
request and the network provides a multimedia response.
In these, a user interacts with a remote server to retrieve or manipulate information.
 Information Retrieval: Accessing databases, digital libraries, or museum archives
(e.g., viewing medical X-rays remotely).
 E-commerce/Web Browsing: Browsing products with high-resolution images,
videos, and interactive literature.
 E-Learning: Interactive education platforms that use quizzes, clickable videos, and
augmented reality to improve information retention.
1. Information Retrieval
This application involves accessing a remote "Information Server" to find and view specific
digital content.
 Core Function: It allows users to search large databases and download high-quality
media for professional or educational use.
 Key Media Types: High-resolution images, text, and sometimes short video clips.
 Real-World Example (Medical): A doctor in a rural clinic can access a central
hospital database to retrieve a patient's Digital X-ray or MRI scan. Because these are
medical grade, the network must support high-resolution "lossless" images to ensure
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 Digital Libraries: Students can access archives of rare manuscripts or museum

artifacts (like high-def 360-degree views of a sculpture) without being physically
present.

2. E-commerce & Web Browsing

This is the most common interactive multimedia application, where the goal is to provide a
rich shopping or browsing experience.
 Core Function: Using a web browser to interact with a commercial server. It has
evolved from simple text-based pages to "Interactive Literature."
 Key Media Types: Graphics, animations, high-resolution product photos, and
"unboxing" or promotional videos.
 Interactive Literature: Instead of a static PDF manual, a user can click on parts of a
3D model of a product to see how it works or watch a video tutorial embedded
directly in the digital catalog.
 Network Requirement: Requires a balance between low latency (so the page feels
"snappy") and high bandwidth (to load the HD images and videos).

3. E-Learning (Distance Education)

E-Learning transforms the traditional classroom into a multimedia-driven digital
environment. It is designed to increase information retention through engagement.
 Core Function: A two-way interactive platform where the student doesn't just watch,
but participates.
 Key Features:
o Clickable Videos: Videos that pause to ask a question; the video only
continues if the student provides the correct answer.
o Quizzes & Feedback: Immediate grading and explanations provided by the
server.
o Augmented Reality (AR): Using a smartphone or headset to overlay digital
information onto the real world (e.g., a biology student seeing a 3D heart
pumping while looking at a textbook page).
 Benefit: It scales education to thousands of students simultaneously while providing a
personalized pace for each individual.

Application Primary User Goal Critical Media Type

Info Retrieval Fact-finding / Diagnosis High-res Images / Data

E-commerce Purchasing / Research Video / Graphics

E-Learning Skill acquisition AR / Interactive Video

C. Entertainment Applications

Primarily leisure-focused, these applications require high bandwidth and quality of service.
 Video on Demand (VoD): Users stream movies from a remote library at their own
pace (e.g., Netflix).
 Interactive Television: Broadcast services that allow some level of user feedback or
selection.
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Entertainment Applications represent the most demanding category in terms of network

resources. Unlike interpersonal or simple interactive apps, these require high bandwidth and
a strictly maintained Quality of Service (QoS) to ensure a seamless experience.
1. Video on Demand (VoD)
VoD is a system that allows users to select and watch video content whenever they choose,
rather than at a scheduled broadcast time.
 Mechanism: Content is stored as compressed digital files on a Centralized Server
(or a distributed Content Delivery Network - CDN). When a user makes a request, the
server "streams" the data to the user's device.
 Key Features:
o VCR-like Controls: Users can pause, rewind, fast-forward, and stop the video
—a feature called Trick Mode.
o Unicast Transmission: Each user has a unique stream from the server,
allowing individual control.
 Technical Requirements: High bandwidth for HD/4K quality and Buffering to
prevent playback pauses if the connection fluctuates.
 Examples: Netflix, YouTube, Amazon Prime.

2. Interactive Television (iTV)

Interactive TV bridges the gap between traditional broadcasting (one-way) and the internet
(two-way), adding data services to the TV experience.
 Mechanism: It uses a Return Channel (usually via the internet or a phone line) that
allows the viewer to send information back to the broadcaster.
 Categories of Interaction:
o Enhanced Broadcasting: Receiving extra info (e.g., player stats during a
football match) via the "Red Button" or on-screen overlays.
o Participation: Real-time voting in reality shows (e.g., Indian Idol), playing
along with game shows, or choosing different camera angles.
o Interactive Narratives: Choosing the plot direction (e.g., Netflix’s
Bandersnatch).
 Example: A viewer watching a news program and clicking on a "poll" button to vote
on a current event directly via their remote.

3. Online Gaming
Online gaming involves multiple players interacting in a shared, synchronized virtual
environment. It is the most sensitive entertainment application regarding network timing.
 Key Requirement: Low Latency (Ping): In fast-paced games (First-Person Shooters
or Racing), even a 100ms delay can make the game unplayable. The network must
ensure that a player's action is reflected on all other players' screens almost instantly.
 Synchronization: The server must constantly update the "game state" for all players
so that everyone sees the same thing at the same time.
 Bandwidth vs. Latency: While streaming a movie needs high bandwidth (total data),
gaming prioritizes low latency (speed of data travel) and low jitter (consistency of
speed).
 Example: Massively Multiplayer Online (MMO) games like World of Warcraft or
competitive shooters like Valorant.

Video on Demand
Feature Interactive TV Online Gaming
(VoD)
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Primary Personalized viewing Enhanced broadcast Real-time
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Video on Demand
Feature Interactive TV Online Gaming
(VoD)

Goal competition

Critical Bandwidth Interactivity (Return

Latency (Ping)
Metric (Throughput) path)

Constant Bi-
Data Flow High Downstream Low Bi-directional
directional

Feedback &
User Agency Selection & Playback Continuous Control
Selection

Application and Networking Terminology

In multimedia communication, “information flow” is classified based on how it is generated,
transmitted, and consumed.

The two primary categories are

 Continuous Media and

 Block-mode Media.

1.5.1 Media Types

A. Continuous Media (Real-time Media)

 Information is generated by the source continuously in a time-dependent manner.

Hence it is also called real-time media.

 Key Characteristics:

o Streaming: The data is passed directly to the destination as it is generated and

played out immediately upon receipt as received.

o Time-Dependency: There is a strict relationship between the time the data is

sent and the time it is received/played.

o Examples: Audio and Video.

 Bit Rate Classifications:

A. Constant Bit Rate (CBR): The data rate remains steady. For example,
uncompressed digitized audio where the sampling frequency and bits per
sample are fixed.

B. Variable Bit Rate (VBR): The data rate changes over time. For example,
compressed video where different frames (scenes with movement vs. static
scenes) require different amounts of data despite being generated at fixedPage
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B. Block-mode Media

 Information that comprises a single block of data that is created in a time-independent

way.

 Key Characteristics:

o Storage: It is typically stored as a file at the source (e.g., on a hard drive) and
transmitted only when requested. This mode of operation is known as
"downloading".

o Examples: Text files, email, computer programs, or static images (JPEG).

 Operational Requirements:

In block-mode media, the bit rate of the communications channel does not need to be
constant. While the speed can fluctuate, it must remain high enough to ensure the
requested data arrives within an "acceptable time interval."

Round-Trip Delay (RTD): The time between the request and the full display of the
block. For human-computer interaction, this should ideally be no more than a few
seconds

Feature Continuous Media Block-mode Media

Generation Time-dependent (Continuous) Time-independent (Discrete)
Transmission Streaming Downloading / Loading
Bit Rate Can be CBR or VBR Generally variable/bursty
Examples Live Video, VOIP Email, Web Pages, Images

Communication Modes
Based on the provided text, the transfer of information streams for various applications takes
place in one of five modes. These modes are classified by the direction of flow and the
number of recipients.
1. Five Primary Communication Modes
 Simplex:
o Definition: Information flows in one direction only.
o Example: Transmission of photographic images from a deep-space probe to
an earth station.
 Half-duplex (Two-way Alternate):
o Definition: Information flows in both directions but alternately.
o Example: A user requesting information from a remote server, where the
server then returns the requested data.
 Duplex (Two-way Simultaneous):
o Definition: Information flows in both directions simultaneously.
o Example: The two-way flow of digitized speech and video in a video Page No -20
telephony application.
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 Broadcast:
o Definition: Information output by a single source node is received by all
other nodes connected to the network.
o Example: Television programs transmitted over a cable network to all
connected receivers.
 Multicast:
o Definition: Information is received only by a specific subset of nodes (a
multicast group) connected to the network.
o Example: Videoconferencing involving a predefined group of terminals
exchanging integrated speech and video streams.

2. Operational Characteristics: Symmetric vs. Asymmetric

In half-duplex and duplex modes, the bit rate in each direction is a critical factor for network
design:

Mode Bit Rate Characteristic Example

The bit rate (information Video Telephone Call: Requires
Symmetric flow) is equal in both simultaneous exchange of integrated
directions. speech/video in both directions.
Asymmetric The bit rate is different Web Browsing: A low bit rate channel is
in each direction. used for requests (client to server), while Page
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higher bit rate channel is needed for the
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Mode Bit Rate Characteristic Example

actual file transfer (server to subscriber).

Network Types
Similar to media types (continuous and block-mode), there are two types of communication
channels associated with networks:

Feature Circuit-mode Packet-mode

Operational Basis Time-dependent Time-varying

Synchronous: provides a constant Asynchronous: provides a variable

Channel Type
bit rate service. bit rate service.

Rate Determined by the variable transfer

Fixed at a specified rate.
Determination rate of packets.

Circuit-Switched Networks

A circuit-mode network is a communication model where a dedicated physical path (a

"circuit") is established between two nodes before they can communicate. This network
consists of a series of interconnected switching offices or exchanges that link subscriber
terminals.

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Key Characteristics
 Connection-Oriented: A dedicated path must be established prior to any data
transfer. Think of it like a private pipe reserved exclusively for two people.

 Fixed Bit Rate: Once the connection is live, the transmission speed is constant. This
rate is usually limited by the capacity of the access circuits (the physical wires)
connecting the user to the network.

 Exclusive Resource Allocation: The bandwidth is reserved for the duration of the
call. Even if no one is speaking, the "circuit" remains open and unavailable to other
users.

The Connection Process

To manage a call, the network uses specific protocols and experiences specific timing gaps:
 Signaling Messages: These are the specialized control messages used to "request" a
path, alert the receiver (ringing), and "tear down" (clear) the connection once the call
ends.
 Call Setup Delay: The time elapsed between dialing and the start of the transmission.
This is required for the switches to find an available route and sync up.
Examples: Common examples include the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) and
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN).
Performance Comparison (Setup Delay):
The delay experienced depends heavily on the technology used:

Network Type Description Typical Setup Delay

Public Switched
PSTN Telephone Network Local: < 1 second
(Analog/Traditional)
International: Several seconds

Integrated Services
ISDN Digital Network 10ms to several hundred ms
(Digital)

Packet-Mode Networks
A packet-switched network operates in a time-varying way and provides an asynchronous
communications channel. These networks consist of an interconnected set of Packet-
Switching Exchanges (PSEs). The actual data rate is determined by the variable transfer rate
of packets across the network.

Packet-mode networks are divided into two primary types: Connection-Oriented (CO) and
Connectionless (CL).

Connection-oriented packet-switched network: Page No -23

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In a connection-oriented packet-switched network, every terminal or computer has a unique,

network-wide address.

 A connection must be established through the network using the source and
destination addresses before any information is transmitted.

 Virtual Circuit (VC): Unlike circuit-switched networks that reserve a whole physical
line, this connection utilizes only a variable portion of the bandwidth on each link.
Because of this shared use, it is called a virtual connection or a Virtual Circuit
(VC).

Phase 1: Setting up the VC (Call Request)

Setting up a VC involves a specific technical process managed by the PSEs:

 Initiation: The source terminal sends a call request control packet to its local PSE.
This packet contains the source/destination addresses and a short Virtual Circuit
Identifier (VCI).
 Routing Decisions: Each PSE uses a table to determine the best outgoing link to
reach the destination address.
 Routing Table Entries: Upon receiving the request, the PSE selects the next free VCI
for that link and makes two entries in its routing table:
 Forward Entry: Maps the incoming link/VCI to the outgoing link/VCI.

 Reverse Entry: The inverse of the forward entry to allow packets to travel
back to the source.

 Forwarding: The request is passed from PSE to PSE until it reaches the destination.

Phase 2: Information Transfer Page No -24

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 Acceptance: If the destination accepts, a call accepted packet is sent back to the
source via the same route.
 Header Efficiency: During data transfer, packets only need the VCI in their header
rather than the full network-wide address.
 Packet Forwarding: As a packet enters a PSE, the exchange uses the incoming VCI
to find the corresponding outgoing link/VCI in its routing table. The PSE replaces the
old VCI with the new one and forwards the packet.
Phase 3: Connection Clearing

 Once information exchange is complete, the VC is cleared.

 A call clear packet is passed along the VC to release the VCIs for future use.

Examples include the international X.25 packet-switching network and ATM networks.

Connectionless Packet-switched network:

In a connectionless Packet-switched network, there is no formal setup phase before

exchanging data.

 Terminals can communicate and exchange information whenever they wish.

 Packet Headers: Since no pre-established path exists, each individual packet must
carry the full source and destination addresses in its header.
 Routing: Every PSE/node uses these full addresses to route each packet onto the
appropriate outgoing link.
 Terminology: In connectionless networks, the term router is typically used instead
of packet-switching exchange (PSE).
 Example: The Internet.

Feature Connection-Oriented (CO) Connectionless (CL)

Setup Phase Required (Call Request) Not Required

Logical Path Virtual Circuit (VC) No fixed path

Packet Header Contains a short VCI Contains full addresses

Bandwidth Shared/Variable Shared/Variable

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Node Name PSE Router
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Feature Connection-Oriented (CO) Connectionless (CL)

Packet Transmission and Network Performance:

In both Connection-Oriented (CO) and Connectionless (CL) Packet-switched networks, data
is managed using a specific "hop-by-hop" delivery method.

1. The Store-and-Forward Mechanism: This is the standard process for handling packets at
each node (PSE or Router):

 Buffering: Upon arrival at an incoming link, a packet is stored in its entirety within a
memory buffer.

 Error Checking: The node inspects the packet header for transmission or bit errors,
such as a binary 0 being misinterpreted as a 1.

 Best-Effort Service: If the node detects an error, the packet is simply discarded; the
network does not guarantee delivery in this state.

 Queuing: If the packet is error-free, the node identifies the correct outgoing link and
places the packet in a queue, ready for forwarding at the maximum bit rate.

2. Network Delays and Jitter: Because packets must be stored, checked, and queued, they
experience various time lags:

 Store-and-Forward Delay: This is the time a packet spends being stored, checked for
errors, and waiting in the output queue.

 Variable Delay Factors: The delay is rarely constant; it depends on the number of
other packets already present in the queue when a new one arrives.

 Mean Packet Transfer Delay: The average (mean) time it takes for a packet to travel
across the entire network from source to destination.

 Jitter (Delay Variation): This refers to the variation or inconsistency in delay

between different packets within the same sequence.

Real-World Examples
Network
Mode Characteristics
Type

Connectionless
Internet Widely used; packets routed individually.
packet-mode

X.25 Connection- Page No -26

Primarily for text/binary file transfer; slow routing makes it
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Network
Mode Characteristics
Type

Oriented unsuitable for multimedia.

Also called fast packet-switching or cell-switching. Uses

Connection-
ATM small, fixed-sized 53-byte cells (including a 5-byte header)
Oriented
to support high-speed multimedia.

 Multipoint conferencing enables simultaneous communication between three or more

participants for applications like video/audio conferencing and data sharing.
 It operates in three modes:
Centralized Mode, used in circuit-switched networks (PSTN/ISDN) where a central
server receives and redistributes media streams;
Decentralized Mode, used in packet-switched networks (Internet/LANs) where
terminals use multicasting to manage streams individually without a central server;
and
Hybrid Mode, which uses a conference server to bridge participants across different
network types.

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 Conferencing is classified into four types:

Data conferencing (sharing files/work),
Audio conferencing (speech only),
Video conferencing (synchronized speech and video), and
Multimedia conferencing (integrated speech, video, and data).
 While data conferencing uses general software, the other types require specialized
hardware like an Audio Bridge for audio conferencing or a Multipoint Control Unit
(MCU) for video conferencing and multimedia conferencing.
An MCU contains a Multipoint Controller (MC) for establishing connections and
negotiating parameters like resolution, and a Multipoint Processor (MP) for mixing
media streams and managing distribution logic.
 The MCU manages visual output through two primary modes:
 Voice-Activated Switching, where the loudest speaker’s face automatically
replaces the previous speaker on all remote screens, and
 Continuous-Presence Mode, where the screen is divided into smaller
windows to show multiple participants simultaneously. Regardless of the
visual mode, audio from all participants is mixed into a single stream so
everyone remains audible to one another.

1.6 Network Quality of Service (QoS)

The operational parameters that determine the suitability of a communication channel for a
specific application are known as Network Quality of Service (QoS) parameters.

In practice, the QoS parameters associated with a circuit-switched network are different from
those associated with a packet-switched network.

QoS parameters associated with a constant bit rate channel that is set up through a circuit-
switched network include:

 The bit rate

 The mean bit error rate(BER)
 The transmission delay
1. Bit Rate

This is the fixed speed at which data is transmitted across the established circuit.
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2. The mean bit error rate(BER)
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Definition: The probability of a single bit being corrupted (e.g., a binary 0 interpreted as a 1)
during transmission within a defined time interval.

For a constant bit rate channel, this equates to the probability of a bit being corrupted in a
defined number of bits. For example, a BER of means that, on average, 1 bit will be
corrupted for every 1000 bits transmitted.

Application Suitability:

 Speech: Occasional bit errors often go unnoticed and are generally acceptable.

 Financial Information: It is imperative that the received information contains zero

errors.

Error Handling:

 Best-Effort Service: Most networks provide an "unreliable" or "best-try" service

where any data blocks containing bit errors are simply discarded.

 Reliable Service: If an application requires error-free delivery, the destination must

detect missing blocks and request retransmission from the source.

3. The transmission delay

The total transmission delay experienced by data in a network is not solely defined by the bit
rate of the channel. Instead, it is the cumulative result of multiple factors.

Key Factors Determining Total Delay

 Codec Delays: These are delays that occur within the terminal or computer network
interfaces as data is encoded or decoded for transmission.

 Propagation Delay: This is the time required for digital signals to travel across the
physical medium from the source to the destination.

But the factors Influencing Propagation Delay are:

 Physical Distance: The total separation between the two communicating devices.

 Velocity of Propagation: The speed at which a signal travels through a medium.

o In Free Space: Approximately 3x108 m/s (the speed of light).

o In Physical Media: A fraction of the speed of light, with a typical value of

approximately 2x108 m/s.

A common misconception is that a faster "bit rate" reduces all forms of delay. However,
propagation delay is independent of the channel's bit rate. Assuming the codec delay
remains constant, the time it takes for a signal to physically cross the wire is the same
whether the rate is 1 kbps, 1 Mbps, or 1 Gbps.
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The QoS parameters associated with packet-switched network include:

 Maximum Packet Size: The upper limit on the size of a single packet.
 Mean Packet Transfer Rate: A measure of the average packets transferred per
second; this is variable due to store-and-forward delays.
 Mean Packet Error Rate (PER): The probability that a received packet contains one
or more bit errors.
 Mean Packet Transfer Delay: The sum of all mean store-and-forward delays
encountered at each PSE/router along a route.
 Jitter (Delay Variation): The variation in the mean packet transfer delay.

Application QoS

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{NOTE:

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