Transportation Engineering (BTCVC603)

Module 1

Introduction of Transportation Engineering

By

Prof. S. B. Gawande

Ref. C.E.G. Justo & S. K. Khanna

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Transportation Engineering
Module 1: Introduction
❖​ Role of Transportation
The role of transportation in a country's development, emphasizing its necessity across all stages
of production and distribution for various commodities.
●​ Transportation aids economic, industrial, social, and cultural development.
●​ It is vital at all stages, from carrying raw materials to final distribution to consumers.
●​ Inadequate facilities hinder socio-economic development.
●​ An adequate transportation system indicates a country's economic and social well-being.

❖​ Importance of various modes of transportation

Transportation is essential for the economic and social development of a country. There
are three basic modes of transportation, namely land, water, and air. Each mode has developed its
own infrastructure based on the nature of service it provides. Land transport has given rise to
roadways and railways, water transport has developed waterways, and air transport operates
through airways.
The four major modes of transportation are:
(i) Roadways or highways
(ii) Railways
(iii) Waterways
(iv) Airways
(i) Land Transport (Land and Railways)
Land transportation plays a major role in inland movement of passengers and goods.
Road transportation includes highways, city streets, feeder roads, and village roads, catering to a
wide variety of road vehicles as well as pedestrians. Road transport offers maximum flexibility
with respect to route, direction, time, and speed of travel. It is the only mode of transport that
provides door-to-door service. Road networks also act as feeder systems for railways, airports,
and harbours, connecting interior and intermediate areas to major transport terminals. Therefore,
a well-planned road network is essential not only to supplement other modes of transportation
but also to provide independent and efficient road travel throughout the country.

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Railway transportation is developed for both long-distance travel and urban or suburban
transportation. Railways are particularly advantageous for carrying heavy and bulk goods over
long distances. The energy required to haul a unit load through a unit distance by railways is only
a fraction, about one-fourth to one-sixth, of that required by road transport. Railway tracks act as
the arteries of land transportation, while roads serve as feeder systems connecting towns and
villages to railway stations. Hence, full advantage of railway transport should be taken wherever
facilities are available.
ii) Waterways
Water transportation includes oceans, seas, rivers, canals, and lakes, and is mainly used
for the movement of ships and boats. Although it is the slowest among the four major modes of
transportation, it requires the least energy per unit load per unit distance. Water transport is
highly economical for transporting heavy and bulky goods. Transportation by water is possible
between sea ports or along inland waterways where navigation facilities are available, but it
requires support from road or rail transport for further movement of goods and passengers.
iii) Airway
Air transportation makes use of airways and is operated by aircraft and helicopters. It is
the fastest mode of transportation and provides a high level of comfort along with significant
savings in travel time. Air transport is especially useful for long-distance travel and for
transporting perishable, valuable, and emergency goods. However, airways depend on road
transportation for access to and from airports.
Apart from the major modes of transportation, several other modes exist such as
pipelines, elevators, belt conveyors, cable cars, aerial ropeways, and monorails. Pipelines are
used for transporting water, petroleum products, other fluids, and even solid particles in slurry
form.
The four major modes of transportation are roadways, railways, waterways, and airways.
Each mode has its own advantages and limitations. While coordination among different modes is
necessary for efficient transportation, healthy competition between them is also desirable due to
their varying characteristics.
Transportation engineering is divided into several specialized branches. Highway or road
engineering deals with the planning, design, construction, and maintenance of roads and
highways. Railway engineering covers the design of railway tracks, yards, terminal facilities,

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maintenance, and safety and control of train movements. Harbour engineering deals with the
planning, design, construction, and maintenance of harbours and airport facilities, including the
operation, housing, and repair of aircraft.

❖​ Scope of Highway Engineering

Road pavements are usually constructed slightly above the surrounding ground level to
avoid drainage and maintenance problems. Such roads are called highways, and the branch of
engineering that deals with the planning, design, construction, and maintenance of these roads is
known as Highway Engineering.

Highway engineering explains how highways are planned, designed, constructed, and
maintained. It includes activities such as highway development, planning, alignment, and
geometric design. It also deals with traffic operation and control, selection of materials,
pavement design, construction methods, and maintenance of roads. Economic aspects, financing,
and administration related to highway projects are also part of highway engineering.

In addition to these main areas, highway engineering also covers special works such as
the construction of hill roads, roadside development, landscaping, road architecture, and
arboriculture. Thus, highway engineering has a wide scope and plays an important role in
providing safe and efficient road transportation.

❖​ Developments in Road Construction

Roman Roads

Roman roads were built with great care and solid construction, and many of them still exist even
after more than 2000 years. During the Roman period, roads were constructed using thick stone
blocks. A well-known example is the Appian Way, built in 312 B.C., which extended for about
580 km and clearly shows the Roman road-building techniques.

The main features of Roman roads were that they were constructed in straight alignments
without much consideration for gradients. The soft soil was removed completely until a firm and
hard stratum was reached. The total thickness of the road structure was very high, ranging from

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about 0.75 m to 1.2 m at some locations, even though the wheel loads from animal-drawn
vehicles were comparatively small.
Roman Road Construction
●​ Roads built straight, ignoring gradients
●​ Trench dug up to hard soil
●​ Large foundation stones in lime mortar (10–20 cm)
●​ Kerb stones provided at edges
●​ Lime concrete with large stones (25–40 cm)
●​ Lime concrete with smaller stones (25–40 cm)
●​ Top wearing course of dressed stone slabs (10–15 cm)
●​ Total thickness: 0.75–1.2 m
●​ Very strong but over-designed
●​ Construction extremely costly compared to modern pavements

Tresaguet Construction (1775 A.D.)

After the fall of Roman Empire, Roman road techniques declined in [Link] the 18th
century, roads were still built using thick construction like Roman roads. Pierre Tresaguet
(1716–1796) introduced an improved method in France (implemented in 1775). Key idea: Road
thickness could be reduced to ~30 cm with proper attention to subgrade moisture and surface
drainage. Tresaguet was Inspector General of Roads in France (1775–1785). Major road

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development occurred during Napoleon's regime.​

Construction Steps:
1.​ Subgrade preparation:
The ground was leveled and prepared.
Large foundation stones laid on edge by hand.
Stones at edges embedded as kerb stones.
2.​ Foundation packing:
Corners of large stones hammered.
Interstices filled with smaller stones.
Broken stones packed to ~8 cm thickness and compacted.
3.​ Wearing course:
Top layer made of smaller stones.​
Thickness ~5 cm at edges, gradually increasing toward center.​
Provided a cross slope of 1 in 45 for surface drainage.
4.​ Shoulders & drainage:
Sloped shoulders directed water to side drains.
Entire road designed for proper surface drainage.

Metcalf Construction (England, 1717–1810)

John Metcalf worked on roads in northern England (~290 km). Followed recommendations of
Robert Phillips. Much of his work was not recorded because he was blind. Key approach:

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systematic road construction using available techniques of the time (similar to Tresaguet).​

Telford Construction (England, 1757–1834)

Thomas Telford was a civil engineer and founder of the Institution of Civil Engineers, London.
Early 19th century work on road construction. Focused on heavy foundation stones and proper
cross slope to improve road stability and drainage.​
Construction Steps (Telford, 1803)
1.​ Subgrade preparation:​
Level the ground to a designed width of ~9 m.
2.​ Foundation stones:​
Large stones, 17–22 cm thick, laid by hand.​
Thinner stones (~17 cm) at edges, thicker (~22 cm) at center.​
Stones laid with largest face down for stability.​
Varying thickness gives the cross slope of the road.
3.​ Filling interstices:​
Gaps between foundation stones filled with smaller stones and chippings, compacted.
4.​ Central layers:​
Central 5.5 m width: two layers of angular broken stones (10 cm + 5 cm).​
Initially rammed, later compacted by traffic and rain.
5.​ Edge layers:​
Edges: compacted broken stones (~15 cm thick).​
Sometimes laid in lime mortar instead of kerb stones for lateral stability.
6.​ Wearing course:​
Top layer: binding course of gravel (~4 cm thick).​
Finished surface cross slope ~1 in 45.
7.​ Drainage:​
Cross drains at ~90 m intervals.​
Water percolates through interstices of foundation stones to prevent subgrade softening.​

Features / Advantages of Telford Roads:

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Heavy stone foundation ensures firmness and durability.​

Cross slope achieved by varying stone thickness, improving surface drainage.​
Broken stone layers compacted and consolidated by traffic and rain.​
Edge layers/lime mortar provide lateral stability.​
Proper drainage prevents water damage to subgrade.

Macadam Construction (England, 1756–1836)

John Macadam introduced a completely new scientific method of road [Link]
attempt in 1815; method became widely known by [Link] emphasized subgrade
preparation, drainage, and compaction instead of using heavy foundation stones like previous
[Link] method reduced total pavement thickness while providing better load
[Link]’s approach became the basis for later methods such as Water Bound
Macadam (WBM), Penetration Macadam, and Bituminous Macadam.​

Key Principles / Modifications:

1.​ Properly compacted subgrade with cross slope 1:36 for drainage.
2.​ Heavy foundation stones are not required; smaller broken stones at the bottom layer
suffice if subgrade is well-prepared.

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3.​ Total thickness of pavement reduced, but better load dispersion achieved with
compacted small-size broken stones.
4.​ Top layer stone size determined for stability under traffic; cross slope 1:36 maintained.
5.​ Method based on scientific reasoning, considering wheel load stress decreases at lower
layers.

Construction Steps of Macadam Roads

1.​ Subgrade preparation:​
Compacted and sloped 1 in 36; width ~9 m.
2.​ First layer:
Strong broken stones, passing 5 cm sieve.
Thickness: 10 cm; compacted uniformly.
3.​ Second layer:
Broken stones, size 3.75 cm.
Compacted thickness: 10 cm.
4.​ Top layer:
Stones < 2 cm; thickness ~5 cm.
Finished with cross slope 1 in 36 for surface drainage.
Features / Advantages
●​ Eliminated the need for heavy foundation stones.
●​ Pavement is thinner but stronger and more economical.
●​ First method based on scientific design principles.
●​ Formed the basis of modern road construction methods.

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❖​ Highway Development in India

•Jayakar Committee (1927)

•Central Road Fund (1929)

•Indian Roads Congress (IRC), 1934

•Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), 1950

•Motor vehicle act (1939)

•National Highway Authority of India (NHAI),1995

•First twenty-year road plan ( 1943-63)

•Second twenty-year road plan ( 1961-81 )

•Highway Research board ( 1973 )

•National Transport Policy committee (NTPC),1978

•Third twenty-year road plan ( 1981-2001 )

●​ Roads in the Nineteenth Century

At the beginning of British rule in India, the condition of roads had deteriorated due to
economic and political changes and the fall of the Mughal Empire, which led to neglect of
communication networks. Before the introduction of railways, some trunk roads were metalled
and bridges were constructed, mainly along the remains of old roads, under the supervision of
British Military Engineers. These roads connected important military and commercial centres.

However, military maintenance alone was inadequate, and in 1865, Lord Dalhousie, then
Governor-General, established the Public Works Department (PWD) in more or less the same
form as it exists today. The PWD undertook the construction of the Grand Trunk Road. Soon
after the development of railways, government attention shifted from road construction to
providing only feeder roads, as railways became the preferred mode of transport.

●​ Jayakar Committee and Recommendations

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After the First World War, the number of motor vehicles on Indian roads increased significantly,
creating the need for roads capable of handling both bullock carts and motor vehicles. Existing
roads were unable to withstand the mixed traffic. In response, the Indian Legislature passed a
resolution in 1927 to appoint a committee to examine the development of roads in India.
Consequently, the Indian Road Development Committee, chaired by M.R. Jayakar, was formed
in 1927 and submitted its report in 1928.
The Jayakar Committee submitted its report by the year 1928. The most important
recommendations made by the committee are:
(i) The road development in the country should be considered as a national interest as this
has become beyond the capacity of provincial governments and local bodies.
(ii) An extra tax should be levied on petrol from the road users to develop a road
development fund called Central Road Fund.
(iii) A semi-official technical body should be formed to pool technical know how from
various parts of the country and to act as an advisory body on various aspects of roads.
(iv) A research organisation should be instituted to carry out research and development
work and to be available for consultations.

The most recommendations were accepted and implemented:

●​ Central Road Fund: formed in 1929

●​ Indian Roads Congress: formed in 1934 as the semi-official technical body
●​ Central Road Research Institute (CRRI): started in 1950

❖​ Indian Roads Congress (IRC)

●​ Formation: Established in 1934 on the recommendation of the Jayakar Committee.
●​ Purpose:
Provide a forum for sharing experience and ideas on planning, construction, and
maintenance of roads.
Recommend standard specifications for road and bridge construction.​
Serve as a platform for professional opinions on organization, administration, and road
engineering.

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●​ Role in India:​
Formulated three 20-year road development plans.
Controls specifications, standardization, and recommendations on materials, design, and
construction.
●​ Publications & Research:​
Journals, research papers, standards, guidelines, and special publications on highway
engineering.
●​ Technical Activities:
Managed by Highway Research Board, committees, and subcommittees of experts.
Works closely with the Roads Wing of the Ministry of Surface Transport, Govt. of India.
●​ Funding & Development:​
1930s Economic Depression: Road programs delayed; Central Road Fund was main
source.​
WWII: Strategic road networks developed with defense funds.​
Post-WWII: Rapid increase in automobiles and military vehicles caused fast road
deterioration; need for highway planning became urgent.​

Motor Vehicles Act (1939)

●​ Purpose: Regulate road traffic through laws, ordinances, and regulations.
●​ Covers:​
Driver control – licensing, rules of conduct​
Vehicle ownership – registration, taxation​
Vehicle operation – movement on roads, traffic stream​

20‑YEAR ROAD DEVELOPMENT PLANS IN INDIA — DETAILED

The development of road networks in India was first planned systematically during British rule
following the recommendations of the Jayakar Committee (1928). This led to the formation of
the Indian Roads Congress (IRC) and eventual long‑term planning of road networks in 20‑year
blocks. There are three major 20‑year plans: the Nagpur Plan (First), the Bombay Plan (Second),
and the Lucknow Plan (Third).

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1. First 20‑Year Road Development Plan (Nagpur Road Plan : 1943–1963)

Before this plan, road development in India was largely uncoordinated. The Nagpur conference
(1943) brought together Chief Engineers from various provinces and under the IRC, prepared the
first systematic 20‑year plan for roadmap expansion and improvement.

Objectives & Scope:

●​ To provide a balanced and integrated road network across the country.
●​ To ensure rational planning, proper classification and adequate connectivity between
rural and urban areas.
●​ To define standards, patterns and density of roads.

Key Features:

●​ Classified roads into five major categories:​

• National Highways (NH)​
• State Highways (SH)​
• Major District Roads (MDR)​
• Other District Roads (ODR)​
• Village Roads (VR)
●​ Proposed the total road length for India to be about 5,32,700 km by 1963.
●​ Targeted road density of 16 km per 100 km² of area
●​ Used “Star and Grid” road network patterns for planning.
●​ Special planning formulae were derived to estimate road lengths for categories based on
area, population and railway track length to reduce redundancy and overlap in
connectivity.
●​ A 15% development allowance was provided to account for anticipated agricultural and
industrial growth.

Implementation Highlights:

●​ Central government was assigned responsibility for National Highways.

●​ By the end of the plan period, total road length achieved exceeded the target; however,
the quality of surfacing and connectivity in some regions remained uneven.

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2. Second 20‑Year Road Development Plan (Bombay Road Plan: 1961–1981)

With growth in population, industry and agriculture after India’s independence, there was a need
to expand road networks beyond the targets of the Nagpur Plan. The Bombay (Mumbai) Road
Plan was prepared in 1959 and implemented from 1961 to 1981.

Objectives & Scope:

●​ To significantly increase the overall road network to support economic development,
rising vehicular traffic and interstate connectivity.
●​ Maintain a balance between construction of new roads and maintenance of the existing
network.

Key Features:

●​ Targeted a total road length of approximately 10,57,330 km by 1981 — almost double

the First Plan.
●​ Raised road density goal to 32 km per 100 km² area by the end of the plan.
●​ Aimed for at least 40% surfaced road length to improve all‑weather connectivity.
●​ Included ~1600 km of expressways to support high‑speed and regional traffic corridors.
●​ Emphasised sources of revenue beyond direct beneficiaries of roads (e.g., indirect tax
contributions, tolls and levies).
●​ Recommended setting up traffic engineering cells in each state to improve design, safety
and traffic management.
●​ Recognised need for maintenance programs for newly built and existing roads.

Implementation Highlights:

●​ Significant road length, particularly MDRs, ODRs and VRs, were constructed during
this period.
●​ Many priority industrial, agricultural and rural markets were connected by metalled
roads.
●​ Implementation exceeded some targets (e.g., total roads laid).

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3. Third 20‑Year Road Development Plan (Lucknow Road Plan: 1981–2001)​

Rapid motorisation and economic growth in the late 20th century led to increased demands on
road infrastructure. The Lucknow Plan, approved in the early 1980s and formalised by the IRC
around 1984, addressed the growing needs of high‑speed and high‑capacity road travel.

Objectives & Scope:

●​ To plan roads on a square grid network ensuring maximum accessibility — no part of

the country would be more than 50 km from a National Highway.
●​ To provide primary, secondary and tertiary road systems more effectively.

Key Features:

●​ Planned overall road density of 82 km per 100 km² area by 2001.

●​ Envisioned expansion of the NH network to roughly 66,000 km by conceptual square
grid planning (100 km × 100 km grid).
●​ Included about 2000 km of expressways to support high‑speed, long‑distance traffic.
●​ Defined three tiers of roads:​
• Primary roads: Expressways and National Highways​
• Secondary roads: State Highways and MDRs​
• Tertiary roads: ODRs and Village Roads
●​ Focused on road safety, environmental quality and improved connectivity, reflecting
emerging socio‑economic priorities.

Implementation Highlights:

●​ Construction activities saw greater inclusion of modern highway engineering concepts

(e.g., access‑controlled expressways, grade separators, bypasses).
●​ Retrofitting old roads with strengthened pavement and better geometric designs became a
priority.
●​ Though targets were ambitious, by the end of 2001 many system goals were met or
substantially advanced.

COMPARATIVE SUMMARY OF ALL THREE PLANS

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Feature Nagpur Plan Bombay Plan Lucknow Plan (1981–2001)

(1943–63) (1961–81)

Total Road ~5,32,700 km ~10,57,330 km ~ (Planned density focus rather

Length Target than fixed length)

Road Density 16 km/100 km² 32 km/100 km² 82 km/100 km²

Target

Network Pattern Star & Grid — Square & Grid

Development 15% 5% Nil

Allowance

Expressway No ~1600 km ~2000 km

Included

Key Focus Basic Expansion & Accessibility & modern highways

connectivity consolidation

Importance of the 20‑Year Plans

●​ Provided a structured and scientific basis for highway development policy in India.
●​ Helped define national road standards, classification and funding priorities.
●​ Set the stage for modern infrastructure initiatives that followed, including National
Highway expansion and expressway networks.

❖​ CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
Classification of roads is essential for planning, design, construction, maintenance,
administration and financing of a road network.. Roads are classified based on types, methods,
functional categories (Nagpur Plan), modified functional groups (Third 20‑Year Plan) and
urban road categories.

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Types of Roads (Based on Usage & Surface)

A. Based on Weather Conditions
1.​ All‑weather Roads
○​ Roads that remain negotiable throughout the year under normal climatic
conditions.
○​ Only at major river crossings may traffic be interrupted temporarily.
2.​ Fair‑weather Roads
○​ Roads where traffic may be interrupted in monsoon season due to flooding or
water crossing.
B. Based on Carriageway/Pavement Type
1.​ Paved Roads
○​ Provided with a hard pavement course — at least a Water Bound Macadam
(WBM) layer.
○​ Includes bituminous and cement concrete surfaces.
2.​ Unpaved Roads
○​ Roads without hard pavement (even WBM).
○​ Earth roads and gravel roads fall under this category.
C. Based on Type of Pavement Surfacing
1.​ Surface Roads
○​ Roads provided with bituminous or cement concrete surfacing.
○​ Bituminous surfaced roads are also called Black‑topped Roads.
2.​ Unsurfaced Roads
○​ Roads without bituminous or cement concrete surfacing.

Methods of Classification of Roads

Roads may also be classified based on various factors used for planning and design decisions:
1.​ Traffic Volume
○​ Heavy, medium and light traffic roads (limits specified in vehicles/day).
2.​ Load Transported (Tonnage)
○​ Roads can be grouped as Class I, II, III or Class A, B, C based on the tonnage per
day.

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3.​ Location and Function

○​ Considered the most practical for long‑term planning.
○​ Forms the basis of functional classification by the Nagpur Road Plan

Classification of Roads by Nagpur Road Plan (First 20‑Year Plan)

The Nagpur Road Plan (1943) classified roads mainly based on location and function into the
following five categories:
1. National Highways (NH)
●​ Main highways connecting all parts of the country.
●​ Link major ports, state capitals, industrial and tourist centres, foreign highways, and
strategic defence routes.
●​ Serve as the backbone of the national road network.
●​ Assigned numbers (e.g., NH‑1: Delhi–Amritsar; NH‑49: Madurai–Rameswaram).
●​ Central government responsible for construction and maintenance.
2. State Highways (SH)
●​ Connect important cities and district headquarters within a state.
●​ Link with national highways of neighbouring states.
●​ Act as principal intra‑state traffic arteries.
●​ May carry heavy traffic but remain under state jurisdiction.
3. Major District Roads (MDR)
●​ Important district roads connecting production and market centres.
●​ Link such places to state or national highways.
●​ Lower design standards than NH and SH.
4. Other District Roads (ODR)
●​ Roads serving rural areas, connecting villages to market centres, taluk/block headquarters
or main roads.
●​ Lower geometric and design standards than MDR.
5. Village Roads (VR)
●​ Roads connecting villages or groups of villages with each other and to higher category
roads.
●​ Intended to replace farm tracks with regulated roads.

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Modified Classification (Third 20‑Year Road Development Plan, 1981–2001)

Under the Third Road Development Plan, the non‑urban road network was reorganised into
three functional systems for planning, jurisdiction and prioritisation:
1. Primary System
Consists of:
●​ Expressways
○​ Separate class with high standards, controlled access, divided carriageways, grade
separations and fencing.
○​ Only fast‑moving traffic is permitted.
●​ National Highways (NH)
○​ Strategic long‑distance network.
2. Secondary System
Consists of:
●​ State Highways (SH)
●​ Major District Roads (MDR)​
These carry moderate to heavy inter‑regional and intra‑district traffic.
3. Tertiary System (Rural Roads)
Consists of:
●​ Other District Roads (ODR)
●​ Village Roads (VR)​
Covering rural connectivity and access to higher category roads.
●​ The definitions of NH, SH, MDR, ODR and VR remain the same as in the Nagpur
classification.
Classification of Urban Roads
Urban road systems form a separate category, not included in Third 20‑Year Plan road length
targets. Urban authorities are responsible for these roads. They are classified into: (
1. Arterial Roads
●​ Major through routes in cities facilitating continuous, long‑distance movement of traffic.
2. Sub‑arterial Roads
●​ Distribute traffic from arterial roads; slightly lower mobility than arterials.

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3. Collector Streets
●​ Collect and distribute traffic between local streets and arterial/sub‑arterial roads.
4. Local Streets
●​ Provide access to adjacent properties and carry local traffic.

❖​ ROAD PATTERNS
The various road patterns may be classified as follows:
(a) Rectangular or block pattern
(b) Radial or star and block pattern
(c) Radial or star and circular patternRO
(d) Radial or star and grid pattern
(e) Hexagonal pattern
(f) Minimum travel pattern

Each of these patterns have their advantages and limitations. There can be a number of other
geometric patterns also. The choice of the pattern very much depends on the locality, the layout
of different towns, villages, industrial and production centres and on the choice of the planning
engineer.

The rectangular or the block pattern has been adopted in the city roads of Chandigarh. But from
traffic operation point this is not considered convenient. An example of radial and circular
pattern is the road net work of Connaught Place in New Delhi. The Nagpur road plan formulae
were prepared assuming Star and Grid pattern.

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❖​ Highway alignment
Once the necessity of the highway is assessed, the next process is deciding the alignment. The
highway alignment can be either horizontal or vertical and they are described in detail in the
following sections.
●​ Alignment
The position or the layout of the central line of the highway on the ground is called the
alignment. Horizontal alignment includes straight and curved paths. Vertical alignment includes
level and gradients. Alignment decision is important because a bad alignment will enhance the
construction, maintenance and vehicle operating costs. Once an alignment is fixed and
constructed, it is not easy to change it due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction
of costly structures by the roadside.
●​ Requirements
The requirements of an ideal alignment are

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1.​ The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as possible be
straight, but due to some practical considerations deviations may be needed.
2.​ The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should be easy for the
operation of vehicles. So to the maximum extent easy gradients and curves should be
provided.
3.​ It should be safe both from the construction and operating point of view especially at
slopes, embankments, and cutting. It should have safe geometric features.
4.​ The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so only when the initial
cost, maintenance cost, and operating cost are minimum.

●​ Factors controlling alignment

We have seen the requirements of an alignment. But it is not always possible to satisfy all these
requirements. Hence we have to make a judicial choice considering all the factors.
The various factors that control the alignment are as follows:
1.​ Obligatory points: These are the control points governing the highway alignment. These
points are classified into two categories. Points through which it should pass and points
through which it should not pass. Some of the examples are:
a.​ bridge site: The bridge can be located only where the river has straight and
permanent path and also where the abutment and pier can be strongly founded.
The road approach to the bridge should not be curved and skew crossing should
be avoided as possible. Thus to locate a bridge the highway alignment may be
changed.
b.​ mountain: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various
alternatives are to either construct a tunnel or to go round the hills. The suitability
of the alternative depends on factors like topography, site conditions and
construction and operation cost.
c.​ intermediate town: The alignment may be slightly deviated to connect an
intermediate town or village nearby.
2.​ These were some of the obligatory points through which the alignment should pass.
Coming to the second category, that is the points through which the alignment should not
pass are:

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a.​ religious places: These have been protected by the law from being acquired for
any purpose. Therefore, these points should be avoided while aligning.
b.​ very costly structures: Acquiring such structures means heavy compensation
which would result in an increase in initial cost. So the alignment may be deviated
not to pass through that point.
c.​ lakes/ponds etc: The presence of a lake or pond on the alignment path would also
necessitate deviation of the alignment.
3.​ Traffic: The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Based on the
origin-destination data of the area, the desire lines should be drawn. The new alignment
should be drawn keeping in view the desired lines, traffic flow pattern etc.
4.​ Geometric design: Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve, sight
distance etc. also govern the alignment of the highway. To keep the radius of curve
minimum, it may be required to change the alignment. The alignments should be
finalized such that the obstructions to visibility do not restrict the minimum requirements
of sight distance. The design standards vary with the class of road and the terrain and
accordingly the highway should be aligned.
5.​ Economy:The alignment finalised should be economical. All the three costs i.e.
construction, maintenance, and operating cost should be minimum. The construction cost
can be decreased much if it is possible to maintain a balance between cutting and filling.
Also try to avoid very high embankments and very deep cuttings as the construction cost
will be very high in these cases.
6.​ Other considerations : various other factors that govern the alignment are drainage
considerations, political factors and monotony.
a.​ Drainage:
b.​ Political: If a foreign territory comes across a straight alignment, we will have to
deviate the alignment around the foreign land.
c.​ Monotony: For flat terrain it is possible to provide a straight alignment, but it will
be monotonous for driving. Hence a slight bend may be provided after a few
kilometres of straight road to keep the driver alert by breaking the monotony.

23
 Transportation Engineering

d.​ Hydrological (rainfall/water table):The pavement should be as high above the

water table as possible, so that saturation/submergence and subsequent damage to
subgrade are avoided.

●​ Highway Survey and Planning

Before finalising a highway alignment, detailed engineering surveys are conducted to

ensure that the selected route satisfies engineering, economic, environmental, and safety
requirements. According to standard highway engineering practice (as followed in India),
engineering surveys are carried out in four stages: Map Study, Reconnaissance Survey,
Preliminary Survey, and Final Location & Detailed Survey. Each stage progressively refines the
alignment from broad selection to exact ground positioning.

1) Map Study

24
 Transportation Engineering

Map study is the first stage of highway alignment. It is conducted in the office using
topographic maps obtained from the Survey of India, generally having 15 m or 30 m contour
intervals. These maps show important natural and man-made features such as rivers, hills,
valleys, ridges, lakes, ponds, forests, and settlements.

From the map study, probable alignments are suggested by examining:

●​ Avoidance of valleys, marshy lands, ponds, and lakes.

●​ Selection of suitable mountain passes when crossing hill ranges.
●​ Identification of suitable bridge sites while avoiding river bends.
●​ Selection of routes satisfying ruling and maximum permissible gradients when
connecting hilltops and foothills.

Thus, map study helps in proposing alternative routes and eliminating unsuitable alignments due
to major obstructions. It provides rough guidance for further field investigations.

2) Reconnaissance Survey

Reconnaissance survey is the second stage and involves a rapid field inspection of the
alternative routes suggested during map study. The engineer visits the site with a small survey
team and uses simple instruments to collect approximate but essential data.

During reconnaissance, the following information is gathered:

●​ Details of valleys, ridges, marshy lands, ponds, and permanent structures not shown on
maps.
●​ Approximate gradients, curve radii, and lengths of slopes.
●​ Number and type of cross-drainage works; maximum flood level (HFL) and groundwater
level.
●​ Soil type based on field identification and geological observations.
●​ Availability of construction materials, water sources, and quarry locations.
●​ In hilly terrain, geological formations, dip of strata, seepage flow, and stability of hill
slopes.

25
 Transportation Engineering

Aerial reconnaissance may be adopted for vast or difficult terrain. Based on this survey,
alignment proposals may be modified or rejected.

3) Preliminary Survey

The preliminary survey is conducted to compare alternative alignments in detail and select the
most suitable one. It aims to collect complete physical, topographical, drainage, soil, and traffic
data and estimate quantities and cost.

Objectives:

●​ Detailed survey of alternative alignments.

●​ Comparison based on engineering, economic, and aesthetic considerations.
●​ Estimation of earthwork, materials, and construction cost.

Methods:

●​ Conventional ground survey using theodolite and levelling instruments.

●​ Aerial survey and photogrammetric techniques.
●​ Modern techniques using GPS.

Important Components:

Primary Traverse:​
The centre line is established using accurate theodolite measurements. Since it is an open
traverse, angles must be measured precisely.

Topographical Survey:​
All natural and man-made features within the required width are recorded and plotted.

Levelling Work:​
Profiles and cross-sections are taken. Benchmarks are established and connected to GTS datum.
Cross-sections are taken at:

●​ 100–200 m in plain terrain

26
 Transportation Engineering

●​ 50 m in rolling terrain
●​ 30 m in hilly terrain

Drainage & Hydrological Studies:​

Data such as HFL, water table depth, and runoff are collected to design cross-drainage structures
and grade lines.

Soil Survey:​
Soil samples are collected using augers up to 1–3 m depth or twice the embankment height. Soil
profile is prepared and groundwater depth recorded.

Material Survey:​
Availability of aggregates, stone, sand, cement, lime, and brick sources is identified.

Traffic Survey:​
Traffic volume counts (24 hours for 7 days), classified traffic studies, and origin-destination
surveys are conducted. Forecasting is done for 10–20 years.

After analysis, the final centre line is selected in the office and geometric design (horizontal and
vertical alignment) is prepared.

4) Final Location and Detailed Survey

This is the last stage where the approved alignment is transferred to the ground and detailed data
are collected for construction drawings.

Location:

●​ The centre line is set out using a transit theodolite.

●​ Stakes are fixed at 50 m intervals in plain/rolling terrain and 20 m in hilly terrain.
●​ Control points and centre pegs are established.

Detailed Survey:

●​ Temporary benchmarks are fixed every 250 m and near drainage structures.

27
 Transportation Engineering

●​ Longitudinal levels are taken along the centre line.

●​ Cross-sections are taken at:
○​ 50–100 m in plain terrain
○​ 50–75 m in rolling terrain
○​ 50 m in built-up areas
○​ 20 m in hilly terrain
●​ River crossings and valleys are surveyed in detail.
●​ Detailed soil investigation is carried out (1.5–3 m depth or twice embankment height).
●​ CBR tests are conducted for pavement design.

All collected data are used to prepare detailed plans, estimates, design drawings, and
construction documents.

28
BTCVC603 Transportation Engineering

By
Mr. S. B. Deshmukh
Civil Engineering Department
[Deogiri Institute of Engineering and Management Studies, Aurangabad]
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
 Course Structure for Semester VI
[Third Year]
 Course Title : BTCVC603 Transportation Engineering
 Evaluation Scheme
 CA 20 Marks
 (CA1 + CA2 = 20 Marks)
 MSE 20 Marks
 ESE 60 Marks
 Total 100 Marks
 Detailed Syllabus
Transportation Engineering
 Module 1: Introduction
 Importance of various modes of transportation, Highway Engineering, Road
Classification, Developments in Road Construction, Highway Planning,
Alignment and Surveys

 Module 2 :
 Geometric Design- Cross section elements, Sight distances, Horizontal
alignment, Vertical alignment, Intersections, Construction of Pavements,
Construction and Maintenance of Drainage, Road Arboriculture

 Module 3 : Highway Materials:

 Soil – relevant properties, Various tests, Aggregates – strength, hardness,
toughness, soundness, durability, shape, specific gravity, water absorption,
Bituminous materials – Bitumen, Tar, and Asphalt – various properties, Design
of Bituminous paving mixes-Marshall stability test.
 Module 4: Traffic Engineering
 Traffic Characteristics, Speed, Journey Time and Delays, Vehicle Volume
Counts, Origin and Destination Studies, Analysis and Interpretation of
Survey Data, Traffic Operations, Design of Signals and Rotary intersections,
Parking Space Design, Highway Lighting, Planning and Administration,
Road Markings, Signs
 Road Accidents and Safety: Classification, Causes, Mitigation and Control
Measures, Aspects of Safety in Usage of Roads, Type and Design of anti-
crash barriers, Introduction to Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS).

 Module 5: Pavement Design

 Basic Principles, Methods for different Types of Pavements, Design of
flexible pavement using IRC: 37- 2012, Design of rigid pavement using IRC:
58-2011
 Other modes of Transport Introduction to Railways, Airways, Waterways,
Pipeline Transportation, Classification, Requirements, Comparative Studies
 Textbooks/Reference Books
 Khanna and Justo, “Highway Engineering” ,
 Khanna S.K., “Highway Engineering” ,
 Arora N. L., “ Transportation Engineering”
 Bindra and Arora, “Highway Engineering” , Standard
Publishers
 Vazirani V.N. and Chandola S.P., “ Transportation
Engineering” ,
 Shahani P.B, “Road Techniques” Khanna Publishers, N.
Delhi
 Kadiyali L.R, “ Traffic Engineering and Transport Planning”
, Khanna Publishers, N. Delhi.
 Course Outcomes
On completion of the course, the students will be able to:

CO1: Comprehend various types of transportation systems and

their history of the development.

CO2: Comprehend to various types of pavements

CO3: Design the pavements by considering various aspects

associated with traffic safety measures.
Subject-Wise Weightage in GATE EXAM
 GATE Syllabus (Sub - Transportation Engineering)
 Transportation Infrastructure: Geometric design of highways - cross-
sectional elements, sight distances, horizontal and vertical alignments.
 Geometric design of railway Track – Speed and Cant.
 Concept of airport runway length, calculations and corrections; taxiway and
exit taxiway design.
 Highway Pavements: Highway materials - desirable properties and tests;
Desirable properties of bituminous paving mixes; Design factors for flexible
and rigid pavements; Design of flexible and rigid pavement using IRC codes
 Traffic Engineering: Traffic studies on flow and speed, peak hour factor,
accident study, statistical analysis of traffic data; Microscopic and
macroscopic parameters of traffic flow, fundamental relationships; Traffic
signs; Signal design by Webster’s method; Types of intersections; Highway
capacity.
 Transportation Engineering
 Transportation Engineering is the application of
technology and scientific principles to the planning,
functional design, operation and management of facilities
for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the
safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
economical, and environmentally compatible movement
of people and goods from one place to other.
MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
Basic Mode of transportation are
 Land
• Roadway or Highway (Tunnel and Bridge)
• Railway (Tunnel and Bridge)
 Water
 Air
 MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
• Highways
Car, Bus, Truck, non- motorized ..etc
• Railways
Passenger and Goods
• Airways
Aircraft and Helicopters
• Waterways
Ships, boats…
• Continuous Flow systems
Pipelines,belts,elevetor,ropeway…etc.
Airways
• Fastest among all other modes
• More comfortable
• Time saving
• Uneconomical
Waterways
• slowest among all other modes
• It needs minimum energy to haul unit load
through unit distance.
• This can be possible between ports on the sea
routes or along the river
• economical
 Railways
• The transportation along the railways track could
be advantageous by railways between the stations
both for the passengers and goods, particularly
for long distance.
• It depends upon the road transport i.e. road could
serve as a feeder system.
• Energy require to haul a unit load through unit
distance by the railway is only ¼ to 1/5 of that
required by road.
• Safety
 Highways
• It gives the maximum service to one and all
• It gives maximum flexibility for travel with reference to
route, direction, time and speed of travel
• It provide door to door service
• Other modes are dependent on it
• It requires small investment for the government
• Motor vehicles are cheaper than other carriers like rail
locomotive and wagons
• It saves the time for short distance
• High degree of accident due to flexibility of
movement
 Scope of Highway Engineering

• Development, planning and location

• Highway design, geometric and structure

• Traffic performance and its control

• Materials, construction and maintenance

• Economic, finance and administration

 Highway Engineering
 Highway Engineering: It is the branch of

Transportation Engineering that involves the

planning, design, construction, operation &
maintenance of roads, bridge & tunnel to ensure
safe & effective transportation of people & goods.
 It is also called Road Engineering.
 Highway Engineering
 Highways: Highway refers to an important public road that
connects major cities and towns.
 The roads of national or state importance, in a country, are known
as highways.
 National Highways are constructed and maintained by the
National Highway Authority of India. This body works under the
supervision of the Central Public Works Department or the
CPWD.
 History of Highway Engineering
Ancient Roads

By foot

These human pathways would have been developed for specie

purposes leading to camp sites, food, streams for drinking water
etc.

The next major mode of transport was the use of animals

For transporting both men and materials. Since these loaded
animals required more horizontal and vertical clearances than
the walking man, track ways emerged.
 The Invention of wheel
• Led to the development of animal drawn vehicles.
• Then it became necessary that the road surface should be capable
of carrying greater loads.
• Thus, roads with harder surfaces emerged.

• After the invention of wheel, animal drawn vehicles were

developed and the need for hard surface road emerged.

• Traces of such hard roads were obtained from various ancient

civilization dated as old as 3500 BC.
• The earliest authentic record of road was found from Assyrian
empire constructed about 1900 BC.
 History of Highway Engineering

Roman roads

• The earliest large scale road construction is attributed to

Romans who constructed an extensive system of roads
radiating in many directions from Rome.

• Appian way which was build by Romans in 312 B.C.

extended over a length of about 580 KM.
 Features of Roman roads

• An earthed road with a graveled surface.

• They were built straight without any gradient.

• The soft soil from top was removed till the hard
stratum was reached.

• The total thickness of road section worked out as high

as 750 mm to 1200 mm.
 Other oldest road transport are

• Treasaguet construction (France) (1716-1796)

• Metcalf construction (England) (1717-1810)

• Telford construction (England) (1757-1834)

• Mecadam construction (England) (1756-1856)

 French roads or Tresaguet road
• The next major development in the road construction occurred
during the regime of Napoleon.
• The signicant contributions were given by Tresaguet in 1764 and
a typical cross section of this road is given in Figure 2:2.

• He developed a cheaper method of construction than the

locally unsuccessful revival of Roman practice

• The pavement used 200 mm pieces of stone of a more compact form

and shaped such that they had at least one at side which was placed
on a compact formation.

• Smaller pieces of broken stones were then compacted into the spaces
between larger stones to provide a level surface.

• Finally, the running layer was made with a layer of 25 mm

sized broken stone.
 Telford Construction
• The next development was done by Scottish engineer Thoms Telford
(1757-1834).

• The foundation was prepared for a road with width of 9m and it was
levelled.

• Large size stones of width equal to 40 mm and depth 170 to 220

mm were then laid.

• After filling the spaces between foundation stones, two layers of

stones having compacted thickness of 100 and 50 mm
respectively laid in the center of 5.4 m. of width.

• The top layer of road was made of 40 mm thick binding layer of

gravel.
 British roads or Macadam Road
• John macadam (1756 to 1836) put forward an entirely new method
of road construction as compared to all the previous methods.

• The first attempt to improve the road conditions was made by him
in 1815.

• Macadam was the Surveyor General of Road in England and his

new concept of road construction become known by the year 1827.
The important modification made in Therefore, method with
respect to the older method and the main feature of the proposed
method are given below
• Macadam realised that the soil subgrade being the lowest portion of
the pavement should be prepared properly and kept drained
Similarly, carry the load transmitted through the payment.
Therefore, the subgrade was compacted and was prepared with a
cross section of 1 in 36.
• He was the first engineer to suggest that heavy Foundation stone are
not at all necessary to be placed at the bottom layer of construction.
• Macadam suggest that instead of placing large Foundation stone,
small size broken stone shall be spread over the prepared soil
subgrade and compacted.
• Similarly, the next layer of the pavement also was constructed
above this layer with small broken stone.
• The total thickness of construction was less than previous method,
this technique could serve as a carriage way in a better way.
 The construction steps are:
• Subgrade is compacted and prepared with a cross slope of 1
in 36 upto a desired width (about 9 m).
• Broken stones of strong variety, all passing through 5 cm
size sieve were compacted to a uniform thickness of 10 cm.
• The second layer of stone broken stones of size 3.75 CM
was compacted to thickness of 10 cm.
• The top layer consisted of stones of size less than 2 cm
compacted to a thickness of about 5 cm and finished so that
the cross slope of pavement surface was also 1 in 36.
• A typical cross section of British roads is given in Figure
2:3.
 Difference between Telford and Macadam
road construction
Parameter Telford Macadam

Subgrade slope Horizontal 1 in 36

Foundation stone From 170 mm to 220 mm. From 50 mm to 100 mm.

Base course Two layers of broken One layer of broken stone

stones

Surface course 40 mm thick with slope 1 50 mm thick with slope 1

in 45 in 36

Thickness of cross section 410 mm at center and Uniform 250 mm only.

350 at edge
 Roman roads

French
roads

British roads
Flexible Pavement

Modern
Concrete Pavement roads
 Modern Highway
Roman Roads
 Indian Roads

• India has a large road network of over 3.314 million

kilometers of roadways (2.1 million miles), making
it 3rd largest road network in the world.
• At 0.66 km of highway per square kilometer of land
the density of India’s highway network is higher
than that of the United States (0.65) and far higher
than that of China's (0.16) or Brazil's (0.20).
 Highway Development in India
• Jayakar Committee (1927)
• Central Road Fund (1929)
• Indian Roads Congress (IRC), 1934
• Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), 1950
• Motor vehicle act (1939)
• National Highway Authority of India (NHAI),1995
• First twenty-year road plan ( 1943-63)
• Second twenty-year road plan ( 1961-81 )
• Highway Research board ( 1973 )
• National Transport Policy committee (NTPC),1978
• Third twenty-year road plan ( 1981-2001 )
 Jayakar Committee,1927
• After the first World War, motor vehicle using the roads
increases, this demanded a better road network.
• In 1927,Indian road development committee was appointed by the
government with M.R. Jaykar as chairman.
• Road development in the country should be made as a national
interest since local govt. do not have financial and technical capacity
for road development.
• An extra tax should be levied on petrol from road users to create the
road development fund called Central Road Fund.
• To establish a semi-official ,technical institution to pool
technical knowledge, sharing of ideas and to act as an advisory
body.
• To create a national level institution to carry research ,
development works and consultation.
 Central Road Fund
• It was formed on 1st March 1929
• The consumers of petrol were charged an extra leavy of 2.64 paisa
per litre of petrol to built up this road development fund.
• From this 20% of annual reveneu is to be retain as a central reveneu
for research and experimental work expenses..etc
• Balance 80% is allowed by central govt. to various states
based on actual petrol consumption or revenue collected.
• CRF Act has been revised in 2000.
• The rate of duty on petrol and high-speed diesel was then
fixed as 1Rs/Lit.
• At present revised cess collected on petrol and diesel towards
CRF @ 6 Rs/Lit. As of 2017
 Central Road Fund , 1929
CRF Act , 2000

Distribution of 100% cess on petrol as follows:

➢57.5% for NH MORTH (Ministry Of Roads Transportation
➢30% for SH and Highways)

➢12.5% for safety works on rail-Road crossing.

50% cess on diesel for Rural Road Development

 Indian Roads Congress, 1934
• Central semi-official body known as IRC was formed in 1934.
• To provide national forum for regular pooling of experience and
ideas on matters related to construction and maintenance of
highways.
• It is guidelines active body controlling the specification,
standardization and recommendations on materials, design of
roads and bridges.
• It publishes journals, research publications and standard
specifications guidelines.
• To provide a platform for expression of professional opinion on
matters relating to roads and road transport.
 Motor vehicle act

• It was formed in 1939

• To regulate the road traffic in the form of
traffic laws, ordinances and regulations.
• Three phases primarily covered are
control of driver, vehicle ownership and
vehicle operation
• It was revised in 1988
 Central Road Research Institute(1950)
➢ Engaged in carrying out research and development projects.

➢ Design, construction and maintenance of roads and runways,

traffic and transportation planning of mega and medium cities,
management of roads in different terrains,

➢ Improvement of marginal materials.

➢ Utilization of industrial waste in road construction.

➢ Landslide control.

➢ Ground improvements, environmental pollution.

➢ Road traffic safety.

 Ministry of Road Transport & Highways
(MORTH)
• Planning, development and maintenance of
National Highways in the country.
• Extends technical and financial support to State
Governments for the development of state roads and
the roads of inter-state connectivity and economic
importance.
• Evolves standard specifications for roads and
bridges in the country.
• It stores the data related to technical knowledge on
roads and bridges.
 Highway Research Board(1973)

• To ascertain the nature and extent of research

required
• To correlate research information from various
organisation in India and abroad.
• To collect and correlation services.
• To collect result on research
• To channelise consultative services
Table shows the Total length of India's road network by type of
road and Administering Authority as of 31 March 2020
Category Managing Authority Length (km) Length percentages

National Ministry of Road Transport and

151,000 2.19%
Highways Highways

Public works department of

State highways 186,528 3.00%
state/union territory

Public works department of

District Roads 632,154 10.17%
state

Rural roads Panchayats and PMGSY 4,535,511 72.97%

Municipal corporations and

Urban roads 544,683 8.76%
municipalities

Various government
Project roads 354,921 5.70%
departments of states

Total Total roadways 6,215,797 100%

 Classification of Highways
Depending on weather
➢ All weather roads
 Roads that are usable in all seasons.
 Constructed with proper drainage and weather-resistant materials like
bitumen or concrete.
 Example: National highways and major state highways.

➢ Fair weather roads

 Roads that are accessible only in certain seasons, typically during dry
weather.
 Often made of gravel, earth, or unpaved materials and become impassable
during heavy rains or snow.
 Example: Rural dirt roads
 Classification of Highways
Depending the type of Carriage way
➢ Paved roads (Hard Pavement)
 Roads with a strong, durable surface like bitumen, asphalt, or concrete.
 Suitable for heavy traffic and long-term use.
 Example: Expressways and major highways .

➢ Unpaved roads (earth road or gravel road)

 Made of compacted soil, gravel, or loose materials.
 Often found in rural and remote areas with low traffic.
 Example: Village roads and forest roads
 Classification of Highways
Depending the type of Carriage way
➢ Surfaced roads (bituminous or cement concrete road)
 Roads covered with bituminous material (asphalt) or cement concrete.
 Provide a smooth ride, durability, and weather resistance.
 Example: City roads, highways, and expressways.

➢ Unsurfaced roads
 Roads without any hard pavement layer.
 Made of compacted earth or loose gravel, prone to erosion and weather
damage.
 Example: Temporary construction roads, rural roads in undeveloped areas
 Classification of Highways

Based on location and function ( First Twenty-Year Plan- Nagpur

road plan )

➢ National Highway (NH)

➢ State Highway (SH)

➢ Major District Road (MDR)

➢ Other District Road (ODR)

➢ Village Road (VR)

 Classification of Highways
Based on Modified Road Classification as per third 20-year road
development plan

• Primary System
➢ Expressways
➢ National Highways

• Secondary System
➢ SH
➢ MDR

• Tertiary System
➢ ODR
➢ VR
 Expressways
•Heavy traffic at high speed (120km/hr)
•Land Width (90m)
•Full access control
•Connects major points of traffic generation
•No slow-moving traffic allowed
•No loading, unloading,
parking.

The Mumbai-Pune Expressway as seen

from Khandala
 National Highways
• NH are the main highways running through the length and breadth
of India, connecting major parts,foreign highways,capital of large
states and large industrial and tourist centres including roads
required for strategic movements for the defence of India.
• The national highways have a total length of 70,548 kms. Indian
highways cover 2% of the total road network of India and carry 40%
of the total traffic.
• The highway connecting Delhi-Ambala-Amritsar is denoted as NH-
1, whereas a bifurcation of this highway beyond Jalandar to Srinagar
and Uri is denoted NH-1-A
• The longest highway in India is NH7 which stretches from Varansi
in Uttar Pradesh to Kanyakumari in the southern most point of
Indian mainland.
 National Highways cont…
 The shortest highway is NH47A which stretches from
Ernakulam to Kochi and covers total length of 4 Kms.
• Golden Quadrilateral – (5,846 Kms) connecting Delhi-Kolkata-
Chennai-Mumbai
➢ NH-2 Delhi- Kol (1453 km)

➢ NH 4,7&46 Che-Mum (1290km

➢ NH5&6 Kol- Che (1684 m)

➢ NH 8 Del- Mum (1419 km)

 State Highways
• They are the arterial roads of a state, connecting
up with the national highways of adjacent states,
district head quarters and important cities within
the state.

• Total length of all SH in the country is 1,37,119

Kms.
• Speed 80 kmph
 Major District Roads

• Important roads within a district serving areas

of production and markets , connecting those
with each other or with the major highways.

• India has a total of 4,70,000 kms of MDR.

• Speed 60-80kmph
 Other District Roads
▪ Serving rural areas of production and providing
them with outlet to market centers, taluka head
quarters, important roads like MDR or SH.
▪ Speed 50-60kmph

Village roads

• They are roads connecting villages or group of villages

with each other or to the nearest road of a higher
category like ODR or MDR.
• India has 26,50,000 kms of ODR+VR out of the total
33,15,231 kms of all type of roads.
• Speed-40-50kmph
 Urban Road Classification
• Arterial Roads
• Sub Arterial
• Collector Streets
• Local Street
• Pathway
• Driveway
 Road Patterns
1. Rectangular or Block Pattern
2. Hexagonal Pattern
3. Radial or Star and Block Pattern
4. Radial or Star and Circular Pattern
5. Radial or Star and Grid Pattern
[Link] or Block Pattern
[Link] Pattern
[Link] or Star and Block Pattern
[Link] or Star and Circular Pattern
[Link] or Star and Grid Pattern
Concept of Star and Grid Pattern
 First 20-years road plan(1943-63)
• The conference of chief engineer held at Nagpur in
1943 finalized the first 20-years road development
plan for India called Nagpur road plan.
• Road network was classified into five categories.
• The responsibility of construction maintenance of NH
was assigned to central govt.
• The target road length was 5,32,700 km at the end of
1961.
• Density of about 16 km of road length per 100 sq.
km area would be available in the country by the year
1963.
 First 20-years road plan cont…
• The formulae were based on star and grid
pattern of road `network.
• An allowance of 15% is provided for
agricultural & industrial development during
the next 20-years
• The length of railway track in the area was
also consider in deciding the length of first
category road.
• The length or railway track is directly
subtracted from the estimated road length
of metalled roads.
 The total length of the first category or surfaced roads for NH & SH
& MDR in km is given by

A B 
Length of (NH + SH + MDR),km =  + + 1.6 N + 8T  + D − R
 Where
 8 32 
 A = Agricultural area,𝑘𝑚2
 B = Non-agricultural area,𝑘𝑚2
 N = Number of towns and villages with population range
2001-5000
 T = Number of towns and villages with population over
5000
 D = Development allowance of 15% of road length
calculated for agricultural and Industrial development
during the next 20 years
 R=Existing length of railway track
 The total length of the second category roads for
ODR & VR in km is given by
Lenth of (ODR + VR), km = 0.32V + 0.8Q + 1.6 P + 3.2S  + D

 Where
 V = Number of villages with population 500 or less
 Q = Number of villages with population range 501-1000
 P = Number of villages with population range 1001-2000
 S = Number of villages with population range 2001-5000
 D = Development allowance of 15% for next 20 years
 Second 20-years road plan(1961-81)
• It was initiated by the IRC and was finalised in
1959 at the meeting of chief engineers.
• It is known as the Bombay road plan.
• The target road length was almost double that of
Nagpur road plan i.e. 10,57,330 km.
• Density about 32 km per 100 sq. km.
• Every town with population above 2000 in plans
and above 1000 in semi hill area and above
500 in hilly area should be connected by metal
road.
 Second 20-years road plan

• The maximum distance from any place in a semi

develop area would be 12.8 km from metalled
road and 4.8 from any road
• Expressways have also been considered in this plan
and 1600km of length has been included in the
proposed target NH
• Length of railway track is considered
independent of road system
 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐻, 𝑘𝑚 = + + + 32𝐾 + 8𝑀 + 𝐷
64 80 96

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐻 + 𝑆𝐻 , 𝑘𝑚 = + + +
20 24 32
48𝐾 + 24𝑀 + 11.2𝑁 + 1.6𝑃 + 𝐷

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐻 + 𝑆𝐻 + 𝑀𝐷𝑅 , 𝑘𝑚 = + + +
8 16 24
48𝐾 + 24𝑀 + 11.2𝑁 + 9.6𝑃 + 6.4𝑄 + 2.4𝑅 + 𝐷
 3𝐴 3𝐵
 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐻 + 𝑆𝐻 + 𝑀𝐷𝑅 + 𝑂𝐷𝑅 , 𝑘𝑚 = ቂ + +
16 32
𝐶
+ ሾ48𝐾 + 24𝑀 + 11.2𝑁 + 9.6𝑃 + 12.8𝑄 + 4𝑅 +
ቃ
16
0.8𝑆 + 0.32𝑇ሿ + 𝐷

 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐻 + 𝑆𝐻 + 𝑀𝐷𝑅 + 𝑂𝐷𝑅 + 𝑉𝑅 , 𝑘𝑚 =

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
+ + + ሾ48𝐾 + 24𝑀 + 11.2𝑁 + 9.6𝑃 + 12.8𝑄 +
4 8 12
5.9𝑅 + 1.6𝑆 + 0.64𝑇 + 0.2𝑉 ሿ + 𝐷
 Where
 A = Developed Agricultural area,𝑘𝑚2
 B = Semi-developed area,𝑘𝑚2
 C = Undeveloped area,𝑘𝑚2
 K = Number of towns with population over 1,00,000
 M = Number of towns with population range 50,000 – 1,00,000
 N = Number of towns with population range 20,000 – 50,000
 P = Number of towns with population range 10,000 – 20,000
 Q = Number of towns with population range 5,000 – 10,000
 R = Number of towns with population range 2,000 – 5,000
 S = Number of towns with population range 1,000 – 2,000
 T = Number of towns with population range 500 – 1,000
 V = Number of towns with population range below 500
 D = Development allowance of 5% of road length calculated for
further development
 Third twenty years road plan (Lucknow Plan)
(1981-2001)
• The future road development should be based on the
revised classification of roads system i.e. primary,
secondary and tertiary
• Develop the rural economy and small towns with all
essential features.
• Population over 500 should be connected by all
weather roads.
• Density increases to 82 km per 100 sq. km.
• The NH network should be expanded to form a
square grids of 100 km sides so that no part of the
country is more than 50 km away from the NH
 Third twenty years road plan
• Expressway should be constructed along major
traffic corridors
• All towns and villages with population over 1500
should be connected by MDR and villages with
population 1000-1500 by ODR.
• Road should be built in less industrialized areas to
attract the growth of industries.
• The existing roads should be improved by rectifying
the defects in the road geometry, widening and
strengthening the existing pavement to save
vehicle operation cost and thus to conserve energy.
 Road length by third 20-year road development plan,
(1981-2001)
I. Primary Road system
1. Expressway of total length 2000 km to be developed for fast travel
based on traffic requirement.
2. National Highways are to be based on the concept of [Link]
grid,
 by providing 100 + 100 = 200 km of road length per
100x100=10000 [Link] area
 i.e 1 km per 50 [Link] area.
 Therefore, the total length of NH in the country or in a state could
be obtained by dividing the total area of the country by 50.
 Length of NH in the country, km = 32,87,782/50=65,756 km.
 The target length of NH to be achieved by the year 2001 was
fixed as 66,000 km.
II. Secondary Road system
1. State Highways (SH)
 The road consists of NH & SH should pass through every town or
urban area; there are 3364 such towns in the country as defined by 1981
census.
 Therefore, the area of each of the square grid would be equal to total
area divided by the number of towns
 = 32,87,782 / 3,364 = 977.3 [Link], with sides 𝟗𝟕𝟕. 𝟑 =
𝟑𝟏. 𝟐𝟔 𝐤𝐦.
 Therefore, the length of NH + SH will be 𝟐 × 𝟑𝟏. 𝟐𝟔 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟓𝒌𝒎 for
each such a square grid.
 Thus, the total length of NH+SH for 3364 town in the country =
𝟔𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟑𝟑𝟔𝟒 = 𝟐𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝑘𝑚.
 The total length of NH for the country as determined earlier is 66,000
km.
 Thus, the total length of SH in the country = 𝟐𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟎 − 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 =
𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒎 𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒂𝒚 𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒎.
The total length of SH required for any State may be
determined for the following two relations

a) By total area - SH km = Area of the state [Link]/25

b) By total number of town and area in the state SH, km
 = 62.5 X number of towns in the State - area of the state [Link]/50.
 The target length of SH to be achieved by the year 2001 was fixed
was 1,45,000 km.
2. Major district road (MDR)
 The total length of MDR in the country has been worked out as
3,00,000 km.
 The total length of MDR required in the state is determined from
one of the following formula :
a) By total area, MDR, km = Area of the state [Link]/12.5
b) By number of towns in the State, MDR, km = 90 X number of
towns in the State
 The target length of MDR to be achieved by the year 2001 was
fixed as 3,00,000 kilometre.
III. Tertiary Road system or rural roads
 The tertiary road system consist of other district road (ODR) and
village road (VR) or Rural roads.
 The target length of rural roads consisting of ODR and VR are to
be achieved by the year 2001 was fixed as 21,89,000 km.
Example

 The area of a certain district in India is 13,700 square

km and there are 13 towns as per 1981 census. Determine
the length of a different categories of roads to be provided
in this district by the year 2001.
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana
(PMGSY)
➢ An accelerated village road development program called Pradhan Mantri
Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) was launched by the central government in
December 2000 to provide village connectivity with all weather roads.
➢ The Ministry of Rural Development was vested with the responsibility to
prepare the master plan in consultation with the state government.
➢ The objective of PMGSY is to provide connectivity to all unconnected
habitations having populations of 500 and above with all weather roads.
➢ The above population limit is relaxed in the case of Hills and Desert
area of the country.
National Highways Development Project
(NHDP)
• The total length of various categories of road in the country as per the
target of third 20 year road development plan 1981 - 2001 was
27,00,000 km.
• A higher road length of 31,76,000 km was achieved by the year 2000
itself.
• However the length of NH achieved was only 57,700 km against
the target of 66,000 km and the length of SH achieved was only
1,24,300 km as against the target of 1,45,000 km.
• Realizing the deficiencies in the NH System in the country.
• The National Highway Authority of India (NHAI) took up the
National Highways Development Project (NHDP) by the Year 2000,in
different phase.
• Phase - I of NHDP is called the Golden Quadrilateral of total
length 5846 km connecting 4 major metropolitan cities.
• The four sides of the quadrilaterals are
I. Delhi - Mumbai
II. Mumbai - Chennai via Bangalore
III. Chennai - Kolkata
[Link] – Delhi
• This project was started in December 2000 and was planned to
be completed in 6 year.
• Phase – II of NHDP consists of a (a) North - South Corridor
connecting Srinagar to Kanyakumari and (b) East - West
corridor connecting Silchar to Porbandar of total length 7,300
km.
• Further development of selected stretches of NH was plant in
phase III, IV and V.
• Development of expressways was planned as phase VI and
improvement of urban road network as phase VII.
Road Development Plan - Vision Document
• The fourth 20 year road development plan of the country for
the period 2001 - 2021 has not yet been got approved as an
official plan document for development of roads.
• Instead Road Development Plan Vision 2021 has been
formulated for the period 2001 to 2021.
• This document covers (i) primary road system consisting of
expressways and NH (ii) secondary road system consisting
of SH and MDR.
• In addition of separate document Rural Road Development
Plan Vision 2025 has been got prepared at the initiative of
Ministry of Rural Development Government of India for the
20 years period 2005 to 2025.
• This document provide the tertiary road system consisting
of ODR and VR or low volume rural road of the country.
Road Development Plan : Vision 2021
• At the end of year 2000 was compared with the plan
targets.
• It was observed that actual length of NH and SH achieved
fell short of plan target.
• The total length of NH achieved was 57,700 km as against
the target of 66,000 km and that of SH achieved was
1,24,300 km as against the target of 1,45,000 km.
• The total target length of MDR + ODR + VR was 24,89,000 km
where as the actual achieved was 29,94,000 km.
• Thus against the overall total target road length all
categories of roads of 27,00,000 km the total length achieved
was 31,76,000 km.
• This vision document has considered the need of overall
development of road system in the country.
The total target length of primary and secondary road system
to be achieved in the country by the year 2020 are given below
a) Primary highway system consisting of 15,766 km of
expressway and 80,000 km of national highways.
b) Secondary road system consisting of 1,60,000 km of
state highway and 3,20,000 km of major district roads.

• Tertiary system of rural road consisting of other district

roads and village roads are to be developed in order to
provide all weather road connectivity to all villages of the
country in a phase manner.
Rural Road Development Plan : Vision
2025
• Rural road development plan vision 2025 for the 20 year
period of 2005 to 2025 to provide basic access to village in
phases

1. Phase – I, villages with population above 1000

2. Phase – II, villages with population above 500
3. Phase – III, villages with population below 500

• Lower population limits were fixed for under developed

region including hills and desert and tribal area
Highway Alignment and Surveys
 Highway Alignment
• The position or lay out of centre line of the highway
on the ground is called the alignment.
• Alignment is an arrangement in a straight line or in
correct relative positions.
• Horizontal alignment includes straight and curved
paths.
• Vertical alignment includes level and gradients.
• Alignment decision is important because,
➢ Increase in construction
➢ Increase in maintenance cost
➢ Increase in vehicle operation cost
➢ Increase in accident cost
• Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is
not easy to change the alignment due to
increase in cost of adjoining land and
construction of costly structure.
 Types of Alignment

➢Horizontal Alignment : Horizontal alignment in road design

consists of straight sections of road, known as tangents,
connected by circular horizontal curves.

➢It is the design of the road in the horizontal plane.

➢Consists of a series of tangents (straight lines), circular curves

and transition curves.

➢Should provide safe travel at a uniform design speed.

Vertical Alignment :

• Vertical alignment is the longitudinal section (shown on the

y-axis of a road), it consists of straight grades joined by
vertical curves.

• Vertical alignment specifies the elevations of points along the

roadway.
Requrements of Highway Alignment
➢ Short
➢ Easy
➢ Safe
➢ Economical
• Short- desirable to have a short alignment between two
terminal stations.
• Easy- easy to construct and maintain the road with
minimum problem also easy for operation of vehicle.
• Safe- safe enough for construction and maintenance from
the viewpoint of stability of natural hill slope, embankment
and cut slope also safe for traffic operation.
• Economical- total cost including initial cost, maintenance
cost and vehicle operation cost should be minimum.
 Factors Controlling Alignment
➢ Obligatory points
➢Traffic
➢ Geometric design
➢ Economics
➢ Other considerations

Additional care in hill roads

➢ Stability
➢ Drainage
➢ Geometric standards of hill roads
 Factors Controlling Alignment
Obligatory Points
▪ Obligatory points through which alignment is to pass
Examples:-bridge site, intermediate town , Mountain pass etc…
▪ Obligatory points through which alignment should not
pass. Examples:-religious places, costly structure, unsuitable land
etc…
Traffic
• The road alignment should be decided on the
requirement of road traffic.
• Origin and destination survey should be carried out in
the area and the desire lines be drawn showing the
trend of traffic flow.
• New road to be aligned should keep in view the desired
lines, traffic flow patterns and future trends.
Geometric Design
• Design factors such as gradient ,radius of curve and sight
distance also govern the final alignment of the highway.
• Gradient should be flat and less than the ruling gradient or
design gradient.
• Avoid sudden changes in sight distance, especially near
crossings
• Avoid sharp horizontal curves
• Avoid road intersections near bend
Economy
• Alignment finalised based on total cost including initial cost,
maintenance cost and vehicle operation cost.
Other Consideration
• Drainage consideration, political consideration
• Surface water level, high flood level
• Environmental consideration
 Topographical Control Points
• The alignment, where possible should avoid passing
through
▪ Marshy and low-lying land with poor drainage
▪ Flood prone areas
▪ Unstable hilly features

Materials and Constructional Features

▪ Deep cutting should be avoided
▪ Earth work is to be balanced; quantities for filling and
excavation
▪ Alignment should preferably be through better soil area to
minimize pavement thickness
▪ Location may be near sources of embankment and
pavement materials
Drainage
• Avoid the cross-drainage structure
• The number of cross drainage structure should be minimum.
Geometric standard of Hilly Road
• Gradient, curve and speed
• Sight distance, radius of curve
Engineering Surveys for Highway
locations
Engineering Surveys: The process of collecting data
related to the physical features of land to aid in highway
planning and construction.
Engineering Surveys for Highway locations

▪ Before a highway alignment is finalised in highway

project, the engineering survey are to be carried out.
The various stages of engineering surveys are

➢ Map study (Provisional alignment Identification)

➢ Reconnaissance survey

➢ Preliminary survey

➢ Final location and detailed surveys

 MAP STUDY
• If the topographical map of the area is available, it is possible to
suggest the likely route of the road
• In India, topographic maps are available from the Survey of India
with 15- or 30-meter contour intervals
• From the map alternative routes can be suggested in the office, if the
topographic map of that area is available.
• The probable alignment can be located on the map from the following
details available on the map.
➢ Avoiding valleys, ponds or lake

➢ Avoiding bend of river

• Map study gives a rough guidance of the routes to be further surveyed

in the field
 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY
• To analyze the general terrain and determine
potential highway routes.
• Satellite imagery, aerial photography, field visits,
and studying existing maps.
• Factors Considered:
• Terrain and land features
• Existing roads and settlements
• Environmental constraints
• Economic feasibility
 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY
• The second stage of Engineering surveys for Highway
alignment is the reconnaissance survey.
• During the reconnaissance survey, the engineer visits
the site and examines the general characteristics of
the area before deciding the most feasible route for
detailed study.
• To confirm features indicated on map.
• A survey party may inspect along the proposed
alternative routes of the map in the field.
• To collect additional details.
 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY cont..
• Details to be collected from alternative routes during this
survey are,
➢ Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, hill, permanent structure
and other obstruction along the route which are not available in the map
➢ Approximate Value of gradient, length of gradient and radius of curve.
➢ Number and type of cross drainage structures,
➢ Maximum Flood Level
➢ Soil Characteristics, Geological features.
➢ Source of construction materials- stone quarries, water sources.
• Prepare a report on merits and demerits of different alternative
routs.
• As a result, a few alternate alignments may be chosen for
further study based on practical considerations observed at
the site.
 Preliminary Survey
• The preliminary survey is carried out to collect all the physical
information which are necessary in connection with the
proposed highway alignment
Objective of preliminary survey are:
• To survey the various alternative alignments proposed after
the reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary physical
information and detail of topography, drainage and soil.
• To compare the different proposals in view of the
requirements of the good alignment.
• To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and other
construction aspect and to workout the cost of the alternate
proposals.
• To finalise the best alignment from all considerations.
 Final Location and Detailed Survey
• The alignment finalised at the design office after the
preliminary survey is to be first located on the field by
establishing the centre line.
Location survey:
• Transferring the alignment on to ground.
• This is done by transit theodolite.
• Major and minor control points are established on the ground
and centre pegs are driven, checking the geometric design
requirements.
• Centre line stacks are driven at suitable intervals, say 50m
interval in plane and rolling terrains and 20m in hilly terrain.
 Final Location and Detailed Survey
Detailed Survey:
• Temporary benchmarks are fixed at intervals of about 250m
and at all drainage and under pass structure.
• Earthwork calculations and drainage details are to be workout
from the level books.
• Cross sectional levels are taken at intervals of 50-100m in
Plane terrain, 50-75m in Rolling terrain, 50m in built-up area,
20m in Hill terrain.
• Detail soil survey is to be carried out.
• CBR value of the soils along the alignment may be determined
for design of pavement.
• The data during detailed survey should be elaborate and
complete for preparing detailed plans, design and estimates of
project.
 Drawing
▪ Key map
▪ Index map
▪ Preliminary survey plans
▪ Detailed plan and longitudinal section
▪ Detailed cross section (1 cm= 2.0 to 2.5m)
▪ Land acquisition plans (1 cm= 40m or less)
▪ Drawings of cross drainage and other retaining
structures (1 cm = 1m to 10m)
▪ Drawings of road intersections
▪ Land plans showing quarries etc
THANK YOU………