Chapter 1: FIELDS

Fields parts A
1.1 Gravitational Fields
A gravitational field is the region around an object where any other object experiences a
force.

1.1.1 Kepler’s laws of planetary motion

Kepler came out with three laws;

1) The law of orbits.

This law states that “Planets orbit the sun in ellipse, with the sun at one of the foci of the ellipse”.

2)The law of areas.

This law states that “The radius vector linking the sun and the planets sweeps out equal areas in equal
times”.

3)The law of periods.

This law states that “The square of the time of revolution of a planet around the sun is directly
proportional to the cubic mean radius of the planet orbit”. ie T2  r3.

1.1.2 Newton’s universal law of Gravitation

It states “The force F, between two masses m1 and m2 is directly proportional to the product of their
𝑚1𝑚2
masses and inversely proportional to the square of their separations”. ie F 2
𝑟
𝐺𝑚 𝑚
𝐹⃗ = 13 2 𝑟⃗ where G is the universal gravitational
𝑟
constant
with G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2
Newton’s universal law of gravitation and Kepler’s law of planetary
motion
We need to understand that, the weight of the planets is actually the
one providing the centripetal force. i.e, W=Fc
 𝑚𝑣 2 2𝜋 2 42 𝑟
but Fc= = mw2r →W= mw2r →mg= mw2r →g=( )r →g=
𝑟 𝑇 𝑇2

𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀 42 𝑟 4𝜋2
but g =  = , 𝑇 2 =( )𝑟 3 𝑇 2 =k𝑟 3 . Hence 𝑇 2 𝛼 𝑟 3
𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑇2 𝐺𝑀

1.1.3 Gravitational field strength

The gravitation field strength is the force acting on a unit mass within the earth’s surface.

⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 𝐺𝑚 𝑚 𝑟⃗ 𝐺𝑀𝑚𝑟⃗ 𝐺𝑀𝑚𝑟̂
𝑔⃗ = , but 𝐹⃗ = 13 2  𝑔⃗ = 3 or 𝑔⃗ = 2
𝑚 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
The gravitational field strength is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Hence, g obeys the inverse square law.

1. g outside the earth’s surface.

consider a body of mass m situated at the height of h above the earth surface, the gravitational field
strength at this point is derived as follows.
𝐺𝑀
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑔 =
𝑅𝑒 2

𝐺𝑀
𝑔ℎ =
(𝑅𝑒 +ℎ)2

𝑔ℎ 𝑅𝑒 2
=
𝑔 (𝑅𝑒 +ℎ)2
𝑅𝑒 2
𝑔ℎ = 𝑔
(𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)2
2) g inside the earth’s surface.
 𝐺𝑀
𝑔=
𝑅𝑒 2
𝑚
from 𝜌 =
𝑣

𝑣 = ∫ 𝐴 𝑑𝑟

but 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑅𝑒 2
𝑅 4𝜋𝑅𝑒 3 𝑀 4𝜋𝑅𝑒 3
𝑣 = ∫0 𝑒 4𝜋𝑅𝑒 2 𝑑𝑅𝑒 = ,∴ 𝜌 = 4𝜋𝑅𝑒 3
⟹𝑀=𝜌 ,𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑀′ =
3 3
3
4𝜋𝑟 3
𝜌
3
4𝜋𝑅𝑒 3 4𝜋𝑟3
𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀′ 𝐺𝜌
3
𝐺𝜌
3
𝑏𝑢𝑡, 𝑔𝑜 = and 𝑔 = →𝑔𝑜 = →𝑔 =
𝑅𝑒 2 𝑟2 𝑅𝑒 2 𝑟 2

𝑔 𝑟
Dividing g by go  = , M is the mass of the earth, M’ is the mass of the derived part of the
𝑔𝑜 𝑅𝑒
earth of radius r.

(𝑹𝒆 − 𝒉)
∴ 𝒈 = 𝒈𝒐 ( )
𝑹𝒆
The graph illustrating the variation of g from the center
of the earth.
 1.1.4 Gravitational Potential
It is the work done per unit mass in bringing a unit mass from a point in the gravitational field to infinity.
𝑊 𝑟 𝐹 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑟 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑉𝑔 = 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑊 = ∫∞ 𝑑𝑟 and 𝐹 = ⟹ 𝑊 = ∫∞ 𝑑𝑟 =
𝑚 𝑚 𝑟2 𝑚𝑟 2
𝐺𝑀 𝑟
− ]
𝑟 ∞

𝐺𝑀 1 𝐺𝑀
=− − −𝐺𝑀( lim ), → 𝑊 = − +0
𝑟 𝑟⟶∞ 𝑟 𝑟
𝑮𝑴
𝑽𝒈 = −
𝒓
differentiating 𝑽𝒈 ,
𝑑𝑉𝑔 −1 𝑑𝑉𝑔 𝐺𝑚 𝑑𝑣
= 𝐺𝑀 ( 2 ) → =− 2 ⟹𝑔=−
𝑑𝑟 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
−𝒅𝒗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ =
𝒈
𝒅𝒓
hence the gravitational field strength is equal to negative the gradient of the potential.

1.1.5 Gravitational Potential Energy (Ug)

Gravitational potential energy is the work done in moving a unit mass from infinity to a point in a
gravitational field. Let us deduce this Ug
𝑑𝑈𝑔 = 𝑑𝑤→𝑑𝑤 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑟
𝑟 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑟
→ ∫ 𝑑𝑈𝑔 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 𝑑𝑟 = − ]
∞ 𝑟2 𝑟2 ∞
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑮𝑴𝒎
=− − − lim →𝑼𝒈 = −
𝑟 𝑟→∞ 𝑟 𝒓

1.1.6 Weightlessness
Weightlessness does not really mean absence of weight but it is just a physical sensation of not having a
weight. This is simply because the weight depends on the gravitational field strength. So, at points
where g=0, weight=0 even though we still have a mass.
Example of situations we feel weightless:
 Someone on a parachutist
 When orbiting the earth
 Someone at the center of the earth
 Someone at the boundary between the fields of the moon and the earth(infinity)
 Someone in a cut lift
Geostationary or Geosynchronous orbit
This orbit has a period of 24hrs.

1.1.7 Escape velocity

This is the velocity that is needed to make a body leave completely the earth’s field.
To calculate the escape velocity of a body, we should make sure that the total energy on the body
escaping is 0.

−𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾𝐸 = , ET =PE + KE, when ET = 0,
𝑟 𝑟

𝑚𝑣 2 −𝐺𝑀𝑚 2𝐺𝑀
⇒ =0⇒𝑣=√
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

Hence, v=√𝟐𝒈𝒐 𝑹𝒆

1.1.8 Satellite motion

Calculating the speed of the satellite revolving about the earth.

The centripetal force keeps the satellite in motion and this force is provided by its weight.

𝑚𝑣 2
⇒ = 𝑚𝑔𝑣 2 = 𝑟𝑔
𝑟
𝑅𝑒 2
but r= Re + h and g= go ( )
(𝑅𝑒 +ℎ)2

𝑹𝒆 𝟐
⇒ 𝒗 = √𝐠𝐨 ( )
(𝑹𝒆 + 𝒉)𝟐

Deducing the energies of the satellite

1. The potential energy
 −𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑃𝐸 = where r = Re+h
𝑟

2. The kinetic energy

Since the centripetal force of the satellite is provided by its weight,

𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
⇒ = 𝑚𝑔 ⇒ = 2 ⇒ =
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 2 2𝑟
𝑮𝑴𝒎
Hence ,KE=
𝟐𝒓

3. The total energy

−𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
ET = PE + KE = +
𝑟 2𝑟
−𝑮𝑴𝒎
ET= , ET=-KE
𝟐𝒓

The validity of mgh

Back in the days, we have been using p.e=mgh so far, now the question is, is the potential energy derived
above wrong? Or is the mgh we have been using not correct anymore? Our mine is filled with doubts.
Well, the two formulae are used in different situations. Now, when do we use mgh?
Suppose NGALI of mass m jumps vertically from point A to B of height h,

∆PE=PEB -PEA
−𝐺𝑀𝑚 −𝐺𝑀𝑚 1 1
= −− = −𝐺𝑀𝑚 ( − ) , 𝑟𝐴 = 𝑅𝑒, 𝑟𝐵 = 𝑅𝑒 + ℎ
𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴
1 1
⇒ ∆PE = −𝐺𝑀𝑚( − )
𝑟𝑒 + ℎ 𝑟𝑒
−𝐺𝑀𝑚(ℎ)
∆PE =
𝑅𝑒 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)
𝐺𝑀
For h<<Re, Re +h ≈R and Re(Re +h) ≈ 𝑅𝑒 2 ⇒ ∆PE= (mh)
𝑅𝑒 2

∆PE = mgh
Hence, mgh is used to calculate the PE of bodies near the earth’s surface, meanwhile the other derived
potential energy is used when a body is very far away from the earth surface. Great! Then we do not have
doubts anymore.
EXERCISE
Ngali was asked to setup a communication satellite of mass m that orbits the earth with an angular
velocity 𝜔1 and at an altitude of 𝐻1 . This satellite stayed for years but it had less performance because it
was far away from the earth surface. Ngali was sent again to increase it performance, this time his
mission was to reduce the orbiting radius. He reduced the previous altitude to 𝐻2 and the satellite had a
new angular speed 𝜔2.
a. Find the relation between 𝜔1 and 𝜔2

b. Suppose the linear velocity corresponding to𝜔1 and 𝜔2 are 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 respectively,

i. Justify if there will be a lost or a gain in the kinetic energy of the satellite when Ngali
increased it performance

ii. Calculate the new speed of the satellite when it moved from the orbit 𝐻1 to 𝐻2

iii. Calculate the lost or the gain in kinetic energy of the satellite when Ngali increased it
performance

iv. Deduce the relation between 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 and justify if the satellite would speed up or
not when it orbits was changed.

c. Justify whether the keplers law of orbit is satisfied on the satellite.

d. Calculate the potential energy gain or lost after the modification

e. What is the total work done on the satellite when it moved from the orbit 𝐻1 to 𝐻2 ?

f. Justify if this satellite will orbit the earth forever.

1.2 B) ELECTRIC FIELDS

An electric field is a region around a charged object where another charged object will experience a
force.

1.2.1 The coulomb’s law

It states that “The force between two charges q1 and q2 separated by the distance r, is directly proportional
to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of their separation”. This simply
means that the electric force obeys the inverse square law;
𝟏
𝑭∝
𝒓𝟐
𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐 𝑄1 𝑄2 1
⃗⃗ =
𝑭 ⃗⃗ or 𝐹 =
𝒓 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 9 𝑥 109 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟑 𝜺 𝟎 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0

1.2.2 Electric Field Strength

This is the force acting per unit charge in an electric field.
 ⃗⃗
𝑭
⃗𝑬
⃗⃗ =
𝑸
𝑄2 𝑄 𝑸
but 𝐹⃗ = 𝑟⃗, ⟹ 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ or 𝑬 =
4𝜋𝑟 3 𝜀 0 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟3 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐

Note: The electric field strength inside the sphere is a constant and decreases when one moves away
from the charge.

1.2.3 The electric potential

This is the work done per unit charge in moving a positive charge from one point to another in an electric
field.
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑄
𝑟 𝑄2
But, 𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑟 ⇒ 𝑊 = ∫∞ 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

𝑄2 1 𝑟 𝑄2 −𝑸
= [− ] = − ⇒𝑽=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 ∞ 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓
𝑄 𝑄 𝑑𝑣 𝑄 𝒅𝒗
Also,𝐸 = 2
,𝑉 = − ⇒ = ⇒𝑬=−
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝒅𝒓

The negative sign is added to show that the change in potential is a decrease.

1.2.4 Electric Potential Energy

This is the work done in moving a positive charge from one point to another in an electric field.
U=W, but 𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑟

𝑟 𝑄2 𝑄2 𝑸𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
⇒ 𝑊 = ∫∞ 2 𝑑𝑟 ⇒ 𝑊 = − , ∆𝑼 = ( − )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝑨 𝒓𝑩

NB: The electric field strength in a sphere is constant hence, the electric potential is 0.
1.2.5 The trajectory of an electron in an electric field
The path or the trajectory or the locus of an electron in an electric field is parabolic. Let us deduce this
trajectory and study the motion of an electron entering an electric field produced by two plate capacitors.
Consider an electron being accelerated from rest with a potential of U0. This electron enters the electric
field E horizontally, with two plate capacitors each of length l, separated by the distance d. The trajectory
of the electron is deduced as follows;
 1
Using the equation of motion, 𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2

in horizontal motion, 𝑎𝑥 = 0
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 ….(1)
1
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
2
𝐹
in vertical motion, 𝑢𝑦 = 0, from 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, 𝑎 =
𝑚
𝑒 𝐸𝑒
⇒𝐹= 𝑒 ⇒ 𝐹 = 𝐸𝑒, ⇒⇒ 𝑎 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2 𝑚
𝑬𝒆 𝟐
∴ 𝒚(𝒕)= 𝒕
𝟐𝒎
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑬𝒆 𝟐
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑡 = ,⇒ 𝒚= 𝒙
𝑣 𝟐𝒎𝒗𝟐
Hence the motion is parabolic

Finding an expression for the velocity, v and kinetic energy of an

electron
Remember the work done on the electron equal its K.E

𝑄2 𝑄
𝑊=− =− 𝑄 = 𝑈0 𝑄
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

⇒ 𝑲𝒆 = 𝑼𝟎 𝒆
The kinetic energy of an electron outside the field equals the kinetic energy of the electron inside the
field. That is, the kinetic energy is conserved
 𝑚𝑣 2
𝐾𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝑒𝑈0 , Since kinetic energy is conserved,
2𝑟

𝑚𝑣 2 𝟐𝒆𝑼𝟎
= 𝑒𝑈0 ⇒ 𝒗 = √
2𝑟 𝒎
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑈 𝑑 𝑈
Also,𝐸 = ⇒ ∫0 𝐸 𝑑𝑟 = ∫0 0 𝑑𝑣 ⇒ 𝐸 [𝑟] = 𝑣] 0 ⇒ 𝐸𝑑 = 𝑈0
𝑑𝑟 0 0
𝑼𝟎
𝑬=
𝒅
𝐸𝑒
Substituting E and v in 𝑦 = 𝑥 2,
2𝑚𝑣 2
𝑈0 2
𝑥 𝑥2
⇒ 𝑦= 𝑑 ⇒𝑦= , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟒𝒅𝒚
4𝑚𝑒𝑈0 4𝑑
𝑚
For those who study conic sections, this is an equation of a parabola. Hence 𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦 is the standard
equation of a parabola where a is just the length of the capacitor like d.

1.3 CAPACITORS

A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in its electric field. It is a passive electronic
component with two terminals (a positive and a negative terminal).

1.3.1 Capacitance.
It is the ability of a capacitor to store charges. The capacitor actually stores energy in its electric field
generated by the two oppositely charged plates.
The capacitance of a capacitor is measured in Farads(F). The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the
cross sectional area of the capacitor plates, the distance between the plates, and the dielectric constant

𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝐴 𝜀𝐴
𝑖. 𝑒, 𝐶= = , 𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
𝑑 𝑑
𝜀0 = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜀𝑟 = 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 𝑪𝟎 (𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄)
𝜺𝒓 =
𝑪(𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄)
The capacitance of a capacitor also depends on the charge it produces and the supply voltage .

𝑸
𝑪=
𝑽
Let us try to see how we can charge a capacitor.

1.3.2 Charging a capacitor

Consider the circuit for charging the capacitor below;
Applying KVL on the loop,

𝐸 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶
𝑉𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐶 are the voltages across the resistor and the
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦
We are interested in knowing the
relationship between the supplied emf, E and the voltage on the capacitor VC at any time t.

𝑠𝑜, 𝐸 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶
𝑑𝑞 = 𝐼𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑑𝑞 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑉𝑐 ⇒ 𝐶 𝑑𝑉𝑐 = 𝐼 𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑑𝑉𝑐
But 𝐼 = , so, we come out with the differential equation
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝑽𝒄
𝑬 = 𝑹𝑪 + 𝑽𝒄
𝒅𝒕
Let us try solving the D.E

𝑑𝑉𝑐
𝐸 − 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑅𝐶 ⇒ (𝐸 − 𝑉𝑐 )𝑑𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑉𝑐
𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 1
⇒∫ =∫ 𝑑𝑉𝑐
0 𝑅𝐶 0 𝐸 − 𝑉𝑐
𝑡 𝐸 − 𝑉𝑐
⇒− = ln ( )
𝑅𝐶 𝐸
Taking e on both sides,
 𝑡
−𝑅𝐶 𝐸0 − 𝑉𝑐 𝒕
−𝑹𝑪
𝑒 = ⇒ 𝑽𝒄 = 𝑬𝟎 (𝟏 − 𝒆 )
𝐸0
𝑅𝐶 = 𝜏(time constant), this is the relation between the voltage across the capacitor and the supplied emf.
Time constant is the time taken for a capacitor to charge 63.7% of its final charge.
Let us deduce the charge,
𝑡
−
𝑄(𝑡) = 𝑄0 (1 − 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 )

We realize that it is an exponential increase. This simply means that, in the steady state, that is, as
time goes to infinity, the VC will be equals to the supplied voltage, E. That is,
𝑡
𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝜏 )
𝑡
−𝜏
as t tends to infinity (t⟶ ∞), lim 𝑒 = 0
𝑡→∞
𝑡
⟹ 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸0 (1 − lim 𝑒 −𝜏 ) ⇒ 𝑉𝑐 = 𝐸0
∞
This shows that when a capacitor is fully charged, the voltage of the capacitor equals the supplied emf.
Also, QC = Q

Note: No current flows in the circuit when the capacitor is fully charged.

Studying the function 𝑽𝒄 (𝒕)

𝑡
𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝐸0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 ),
Studying the asymptote of 𝑽𝒄 (𝒕)
lim 𝑉(𝑡) = 𝐸0 , meaning the line 𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝐸0 is the horizontal asymptote to the curve of 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑐 (𝑡)
t⟶∞

Studying the monotony of 𝑽𝒄 (𝒕)

𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) 𝐸0 −
= 𝑒 𝜏 > 0, within the domain of definition ]-ꚙ,+∞[, 𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) is
𝑑𝑡 𝜏
monotonous increasing

Determining the Intercepts

at t=0, 𝑉𝑐 (0) = 0 , so, p(0,0) is the only Intercept
Sketching 𝑽𝒄 (𝒕)

1.3.3 Discharging a capacitor through a resistor, R

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸 = 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑅
𝐸=0
𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑅 = 0

𝑑𝑣
𝑅𝐶 + 𝑉𝑐 = 0
𝑑𝑡

𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) 𝑡
1 −1
∫ 𝑑𝑉𝑐 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐 0 𝑅𝐶

We are trying to find the voltage of the capacitor not at infinity but at any time, t as it is discharging

−1
ln(𝑉𝑐 (𝑡)) − ln(𝑉𝑐 ) =
𝑅𝐶
taking e on both sides,

𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) 𝑡 𝒕
= 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 → 𝑽𝒄 (𝒕) = 𝑽𝒄 𝒆−𝑹𝑪
𝑉𝑐
This is the relationship between the potential on a capacitor at initial time t=0 and the potential on a
capacitor at any time, t during the discharging process.
 𝒕
−
Studying the function 𝑽𝒄 (𝒕) = 𝑽𝒄 𝒆 𝑹𝑪 ,
Domain of definition
𝐷𝑓 : ]−∞, +∞[
studying the limits at the boundaries of the domain
lim 𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) = 0, meaning the line 𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) = 0 is the horizontal asymptote to the curve of 𝑉𝑐 (𝑡)
𝑡⟶∞
The interpretation here is that in the steady state, the voltage on the capacitor is 0.

-Intercepts
when t⟶ 0, 𝑉𝑐 (0) = 𝑉𝑐 →p(0. 𝑉𝑐 ) is the intersept
The interpretation here is that, before we start discharging the capacitor (at t=0), the capacitor has a
voltage VC.

Studying the monotony of the function Vc(t)

𝑑𝑉𝑐 (𝑡) 𝑉𝑐 − 𝑡
=− 𝑒 𝑅𝐶 < 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
VC(t) is monotonous decreasing in its domain of definition
Sketching VC(t)

This gives us the second definition of the time constant which is the time taken for the capacitor to
discharge 36.3% of its initial charge.

1.3.4 Capacitors in series

Capacitors in series behave like resistors in parallel. Consider a system of n capacitors connected in
series. The effective capacitance is given by;
 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +⋯
𝑪𝑻 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑 𝑪𝒏

𝒏
𝟏 𝟏
𝑖𝑒 =∑
𝑪𝒕 𝑪𝒌
𝒌=𝟏

1.3.5 Capacitors in parallel

Capacitors in parallel behaves like resistors in series hence, the effective

capacitance is given by;
𝐶𝑇 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛
𝒏

𝒊𝒆 𝑪𝑻 = ∑ 𝑪𝒌
𝒌=𝟏

1.3.6 Energy stored in a capacitor

𝐼𝑄 𝑑𝑣
From 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉,→𝐼𝑄 = 𝐼𝐶𝑉 → 𝑃 = →𝑃=𝑄
𝐶 𝑑𝑡

→𝑃𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑣
𝑤 𝑣
=∫0 𝑑𝑤 = ∫0 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑣
𝟏
Hence 𝑬 = 𝑪𝒗𝟐
𝟐

FIELDS PART B
1.4 C) MAGNETIC FIELD

A magnetic field is a region around a magnet where any other magnet or magnetic material will
experience a force. Where is the origin of this force? As the magnetic field lines around the magnet move
from the north pole to the south pole, this lead to the creation of the magnetic flux density. Magnetic flux
density refers to the number of magnetic field lines passing through the unit surface area of a material. It
is also called magnetic induction.
A magnetic flux is the product of the average magnetic field and the perpendicular area that it penetrates.
It’s given by:
 ∅ = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃
It is measured in wb(weber)
If we have N coils, then,
∅ = 𝐵𝐴𝑁 cos 𝜃
1.4.1 The force on a moving electron in a magnetic field
When a moving electron enters a magnetic field, it experiences a force which depends on its velocity, the
charge it carries and the magnetic field strength. This force is given in vector force as,

⃗⃗ = 𝒒(𝑩
𝑭 ⃗⃗⃗ ∧ 𝒗
⃗⃗)
⃗𝑭⃗ = 𝒒(‖𝑩
⃗⃗⃗‖‖𝒗 ⃗⃗⃗, 𝒗
⃗⃗‖ 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝑩 ⃗⃗)
The force on an electron varies with respect to the direction in which it enters the magnetic field.
When the electron enters the field perpendicularly,
||𝐹⃗ || = 𝑞(‖𝐵
⃗⃗‖‖𝑣⃗ ‖ sin(90)

𝑭 = 𝑩𝒒𝒗
When the electron enters the field in a parallel direction,

||𝐹⃗ || = 𝑞(‖𝐵
⃗⃗‖‖𝑣⃗ ‖ sin(0)
𝑭=𝟎
𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑭 = 𝑩𝒒𝒗 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
The direction of this force is determined by the flemming’s left hand rule. which states that, “If the first
finger, the second finger and the thumb are placed mutually perpendicular to each other, the first finger
points in the direction of the field, the second points in the direction of current and the thumb points in the
direction of the force(thumb).”

The magnetic field strength generated by a current carrying

conductor
The aim is to deduce the magnetic field strength that is generated around a conductor when current passes
through it. This can be done from two laws, the Biot sarvart’s law and the Ampere’s law.

I. Biot sarvart’s law

Consider a conductor of length l, carrying a current I. We want to deduce the
magnetic induction at point m at a distance d away from this conductor. This law
states that
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑼𝒐 𝑰 𝒅𝒍 ∧ 𝑷𝑴
⃗⃗⃗ =
𝒅𝑩
𝟒𝝅 𝑷𝑴𝟑
Integrating both sides

⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑀
𝐼𝑈𝑜 𝑑𝑙 ∧ 𝑃𝑀 𝐼𝑈 ̂
𝑑𝑙 ∧ 𝑈 𝐼𝑈 ̂
𝑑𝑙 ∧ 𝑈
⃗⃗ =
𝐵 ∫ 𝑑𝑃𝑀 → 𝐵⃗⃗ = 𝑜 ∫ → ⃗⃗ = 𝑜 ∫
𝐵
4𝜋 𝑃𝑀2 4𝜋 𝑃𝑀2 4𝜋 𝑟2
̂ = ‖𝑑𝑙‖‖𝑈‖ sin(𝑑𝑙, 𝑈
but 𝑑𝑙 ∧ 𝑈 ̂)
=𝑑𝑙 cos 𝛼
𝐼𝑈𝑜 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝛼 𝑑𝑥
→𝐵 = ∫ , 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑙, tan 𝛼 =
4𝜋 𝑟2 𝑑

𝑰𝑼𝒐 𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶
⇒𝑩= ∫
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
After this integration, we deduce that the magnetic field strength at the point m due
to the current carrying conductor is given by,

𝑰𝑼𝒐 𝑰𝑼𝒐
[𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶] → 𝑩 =
𝑩=
𝟐𝒅𝝅 𝟐𝒅𝝅
II. The Ampere’s law
⃗⃗𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼𝑈𝑜 ”
Ampere’s law states that “∮ 𝐵
𝑈𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−12 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑅𝑑𝜃

⃗⃗ 𝑅𝑑𝜃 = 𝐼𝑈𝑜
∮𝐵

𝐼𝑈𝑜
𝐵=
∮ 𝑅𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
but ∮0 𝑑𝜃 = 2𝜋 for a closed circuit,
𝑰𝑼𝒐
→B= , r=radius
𝟐𝒓𝝅

1.4.2 The force on a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field

 Conducting materials are made up of electrons. Electrons are affected by a magnetic
field, so all the electrons in a conductor will surely be affected if the conductor is placed
in a magnetic field. The force on these electrons therefore will be the force the conductor
will experience. Consider a conductor of length l, with a current I passing through it,
making a magnetic field B to be generated around it. Therefore, the force experienced by
the conductor is given by,

𝑭 = 𝒃𝒒𝒗
𝑙 𝑙
but V= → 𝐹 = 𝐵𝑞
𝑡 𝑡
𝑞
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑞 = 𝐼𝑡 → 𝐼 =
𝑡

Also, 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚, 𝐹⃗ = 𝐵

⃗⃗ ∧ 𝐼𝐿
⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗, 𝐹⃗ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
(𝐵 𝐼𝐿) The magnetic induction 𝐵⃗⃗, the force 𝐹⃗ and the current length ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝐿 are all
perpendicular to each other see the diagram above.

1.4.3 The force between two current carrying conductors

Consider two conductors A and B,
Both conductors generate magnetic fields B1 and B2 respectively. Deducing the force on
conductor A due to conductor B is given by,

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 = 𝐵2 𝐼1 𝑙
B2 since conductor A is
in the field of conductor B
𝑈𝑜 𝐼2 𝑼 𝒐 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒍
𝐵2 = → 𝑭𝟏 =
2𝜋𝑎 𝟐𝝅𝒂

Similarly, from Newton’s third law, action and reaction forces are acting on equal but
opposite directions. This means that the magnitude of the force on conductor B due to
conductor A is given by,

𝑼 𝒐 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒍
𝑭𝟐 =
𝟐𝝅𝒂
 When current flows in opposite directions, these two forces are attractive but in the same
direction, they repel. This leads us to the law which states that “Like currents attract
while unlike currents repel”.

1.4.4 The Lorenz Force

Lorenz force is given by the sum of the electric force and the magnetic force on a moving
electron in a field.

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐿 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⇒ 𝐹 𝐹𝐸 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑀
𝐹⃗ = 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗ + 𝑞𝑉
⃗⃗ ∧ 𝐵
⃗⃗ → ⃗𝑭⃗ = 𝒒(𝑬
⃗⃗ + ⃗𝑽⃗ ∧ ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗)
NB: Lorenz force is from electromagnetism while de Laplace force is from mechanics.

1.4.5 The locus of an electron in a magnetic field

Consider an electron of charge e, entering at an angle 𝜃 in a magnetic field B with a
velocity v.

Proofs
The force that makes the electron to be in a circle is the centripetal force, which is
provided by the magnetic force.

𝑚𝑣 2
from 𝐹𝑚 = 𝐵𝑒𝑣 , 𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
but 𝐹𝑚 = 𝐹𝑐 → 𝐵𝑒𝑣 =
𝑟
𝑩𝒆
→𝐵𝑒 = 𝑚𝜔 → 𝝎 =
𝒎

The appearance of an angular velocity 𝜔 shows that the path of the electron is circular.
𝟐𝝅 𝑴
So, 𝑻 = =𝟐𝝅( )
𝝎 𝑩𝒆
1 𝐵𝑒
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 , 𝑓 = →𝑓=
𝑇 2𝜋𝑀

1.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

This is the production of an emf across a conductor situated in a changing magnetic field.
 1.5.1 Magnetic flux and magnetic flux linkage
The magnetic flux ∅ is given by the number of magnetic field lines passing through a unit
surface area. It is the quantitative measure of the number of magnetic field lines passing
perpendicular to a given area.

∅ = 𝐵𝐴𝑁
The magnetic flux linkage is given by an equation, 𝐵𝐴𝑁 cos 𝜃
1.5.2 The law of electromagnetic induction

I. The Faraday’s law

Faraday came out with two laws(for this course). The first law states that, “An emf is
induced whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked to the circuit”.
The second law states that, “The magnitude of the emf induced in a coil is proportional to
the rate of change of flux linked to the coil and the number of turns in the coil”

𝒅∅
𝑬𝜶𝑵
𝒅𝒕
II. Lenz law
It state’s that “The magnitude of the induced emf acts so as to oppose the change
producing it”

Emf in a rotating coil

∆𝑥
The flux linked in a rotating coil is given by

𝐵𝐴𝑁(cos 𝜔𝑡)
where 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
From, here we can deduce the emf of a rotating
coil.

l
𝑑(∅𝑁)
⇒ 𝐸=−
𝑑𝑡
 𝑑(𝐵𝐴𝑁 cos 𝜔𝑡)
=−
𝑑𝑡
𝑬 = −𝑩𝑨𝑵𝝎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
amplitude = BAN𝜔
Let us deduce an expression of the emf induced in a changing magnetic field B, given
that the conductor has length l.

∆∅ ∆𝐵𝐴 ∆𝑥
𝐸= ⇒ ∅ = 𝐵𝐴 ⇒ 𝐸 = ⇒ 𝐸 = 𝐵𝑙
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
⇒ 𝑬 = 𝑩𝒍𝒗
1.5.3 Inductance and Inductors
The effects in which a changing current in a circuit induces an emf in the same circuit is referred to as
self-induction or induction.
The ability of a coil to give rise to a counter or back emf is called self-inductance of the
coil. This shows that the magnetic flux depends on the current flow, that is,

From 𝑁∅ 𝛼 𝐼 ⇒ 𝑁∅ = 𝐿𝐼
𝑵∅
⇒𝑳=
𝑰
This constant of proportionality is what we call inductance, which is measured in
Henry(H)

Inductance of a solenoid
𝑁∅ 𝑩𝑨𝑵
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐿 = , ∅ = 𝐵𝐴 ⇒ 𝑳 =
𝐼 𝑰
where, B= magnetic field of the solenoid
𝑁
n=number of turns per unit length that is, 𝑛=
𝑙
𝑈𝑜 𝑁𝐼
from 𝐵𝑠 = 𝑈𝑜 𝑛𝐼 ⇒ 𝐵𝑠 =
𝑙

𝑼𝒐 𝑵𝟐 𝑨𝑰
∴𝑳=
𝑰
where, l=length of solenoid,A=cross sectional area of solenoid,Uo=permeability
N=number of turns of the coils of solenoid

Self-inductance
Self-inductance refers to the ability of a coil to give rise to a counter or back emf. The
emf induced in a circuit due to its own current is directly proportional to the rate at which
the current in it changes. This is called self-induction. An expression for self-inductance
is given by,

𝒅(∅)
𝑬𝒍 = −𝑵
𝒅𝒕
𝑑(𝐿𝐼)
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑁∅ = 𝐿𝐼, 𝐸𝑙 = −
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝑰
⇒ 𝑬𝒍 = −𝑳
𝒅𝒕
Where 𝐸𝑙 = 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

A torque on a conductor in a magnetic field

A torque is the turning effect of a moment. The torque of a conductor in a magnetic field
at an angle 𝜃 to the horizontal of length b is given by,

𝑇 = 𝐹. 𝑏 cos 𝜃 = 𝐵𝐼𝑏 2 cos 𝜃

⇒ 𝑻 = 𝑩𝑰𝑨𝑵 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
Where N=number of turns

Energy stored in an Inductor

A current carrying inductor stores energy in its magnetic field. This energy arises because
a generator does work to establish a current in an inductor. As the current through an
𝑑𝐼
inductor increases, we have the emf, 𝐸 = −𝐿 which increases as well.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
from 𝐸 = −𝐿 ×𝐼
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼
𝐸𝐼 = −𝐿𝐼 ⇒ 𝑃 = −𝐿𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑤
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝑃 = ⇒ 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑃𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑃𝑑𝑡 = −𝐿𝐼 𝑑𝐼
𝑑𝑡
 𝑤 𝐼
⇒ ∫ 𝑑𝑤 = 𝐿 ∫ 𝐼 𝑑𝐼
0 0

𝑳𝑰𝟐
⇒𝑾=
𝟐
Mutual inductance

The circuit above has two sections, the primary winding and the secondary winding.
When I1 is made to change by opening and closing the switch, an emf is induced in the
primary winding. This emf produced in the primary coil is called back emf. Furthermore,
the flux produced in the primary coil is linked up with the secondary coil and this also
makes an emf to be induced in the secondary coil due to their close proximity. This emf
in the secondary coil is called an induced emf that is, mutual inductance.

So, 𝑁1 ∅1 ∝ 𝐼1 ⇒ 𝑁1 ∅1 ∝ 𝑀12 𝐼1 − − − (1

𝑁2 ∅2 ∝ 𝐼2 ⇒ 𝑁2 ∅2 ∝ 𝑀21 𝐼2 − − − (2
Where M12 is the mutual inductance of 1 due to 2. We can also deduce
this.

1.5.4 Transformers
Transformers make use of mutual inductance. The circuit above is an example of a
transformer. A transformer can be a step-up or a step-down transformer depending on the
number of turns in the primary and the secondary. The emf produced in the primary
winding is given by;

𝑑∅ 𝑑∅
(𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑒𝑚𝑓 )𝐸𝑝 = 𝑁𝑝 , (𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓 )𝐸𝑠 = 𝑁𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 𝑬𝒔 𝑵𝒔
Hence = =𝒏
𝑬𝒑 𝑵𝒑
Where n is the turn ratio or transformer ratio
 When n<1, the number of turns in the primary coil exceeds the number of turns
in the secondary coil and the transformer is said to be a step-down transformer.
 When n>1, the number of turns in the primary coil is smaller than the number of
coils in the secondary coil and the transformer is said to be a step-up transformer.
 When n=1, the transformer is neutral. That is, Ns=Np. Transformers like this are
rarely used because it will make no sense if the current entering the transformer
is the same as the current leaving the transformer. This is not different from a
cable.
We can proceed with equation 3 to have,

𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
= ⇒ 𝑽𝒔 𝑰𝒑 = 𝑽𝒑 𝑰𝒔
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝
The efficiency of a transformer
The efficiency of a transformer E, is given by

𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑬= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝐿𝑠 𝐼2 2
𝐸𝑠 2 𝑳𝒔 𝑰𝟐 𝟐
= × 100% = ⇒𝑬=
𝐸𝑝 𝐿𝑝 𝐼1 2 𝑳𝒑 𝑰𝟏 𝟐
2
NB: Efficiency is a measure of how strong a transformer is.

1.6 The LR-Circuit

Consider a circuit where a resistor, an inductor, a battery, are connected in series. The
inductor has inductance, L and resistor has resistance, R.
Let us determine the current in the circuit with respect to time.

Applying kirchhoff’s voltage law;

𝐸 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 → 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝑅 − 𝐸 = 0 this gives us the D.E

𝒅𝑰
𝑳 + 𝑰𝑹 − 𝑬 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕
Let us solve the D.E
𝑑𝐼
𝐿 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑅
𝑑𝑡
𝐼 𝑡
1 1
→∫ 𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
0 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑅 0 𝐿
ln(𝐸−𝐼𝑅) 𝐼 𝑡 𝑡
→− ] = ]
𝑅 0 𝐿 𝑜
𝐿 𝐿
→− ln(𝐸 − 𝐼𝑅) + ln(𝐸) = 𝑡
𝑅 𝑅
𝐿 𝐸
→𝑡 = ln( )
𝑅 𝐸−𝐼𝑅
𝑅𝑡 𝐸
→ = ln( )
𝐿 𝐸−𝐼𝑅

Taking 𝑒 on both sides,

𝑅𝑡 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑅 𝐸 𝑅𝑡
𝑒− 𝐿 = → 𝐼 = (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 )
𝐸 𝑅
𝒕
𝑬 −𝑳 𝑳
⁄𝑹
Hence 𝑰(𝒕) = (𝟏 − 𝒆 ) , 𝝉=
𝑹 𝑹

Studying the function,

𝐸 𝑅𝑡
𝐼= (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 )
𝑅
At the initial state when t=0, there is no back-emf. In the steady state, lets deduce the
behavior of the current.
Deducing the horizontal asymptote to the curve I(t),

𝐸 𝑅𝑡
−𝐿
lim 𝐼(𝑡) = (1 − lim 𝑒 )
𝑡⟶∞ 𝑅 𝑡⟶∞
𝑅𝑡
(1 − lim 𝑒 − 𝐿 ) ⟶ 0
𝑡⟶∞
𝐸
⟹ lim 𝐼 (𝑡) =
𝑡⟶∞ 𝑅
 𝐸
It means that in the steady state, the current in the circuit is 𝑅 which is the maximum
current in the circuit, and when the current is maximum, there is no flux change hence
there is no back emf at maximum current
Illustration
𝑑𝐼
from 𝐸𝑙 = −𝐿 , we know that the derivative of a function at its extremums is
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
null. Therefore, at I=Imax, = 0.
𝑑𝑡
⟹ 𝐸𝐿 = 0 , t⟶ +∞
hence, there is no back emf at steady state.

Studying the monotony of I(t),

𝑑𝐼(𝑡) 𝐸 𝑅 −𝑅𝑡
= ( )𝑒 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝐿
𝑅𝑡
𝐸 −𝐿
𝑒 > 0 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼(𝑡)𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 when t=0, I=0
𝑅

Sketching I(t),

𝑬
The time taken for the current to rise up to 63% of the final steady current (𝑹) is
𝑳
given by 𝑹 which is called inductive time constant.

Congratulations, you have reached the end of this chapter. Thank you so much for following me along in
this chapter. My name is Ngali Khabir. I hope I have given you the basic understanding of fields. If you
have any question, notify me via ngaliabiru@[Link] See you in the next chapter