CHAPTER: 9

CONTOURING
(6 MARKS)
Some Pictures that makes Easy to Understand Contour & its Features
 Hill or peak
Hill or Peak
contour
3D View
Depression
3D view Depression
Contour
Contour Farming
Saddle: A saddle is a dip or low point between two areas of higher
ground.
Saddle
Saddle
Saddle Pass
Gentle Slope: Contour lines showing a uniform, gentle slope will be
evenly spaced and wide apart. Easy walking.
Steep Slope: Contour lines showing a uniform, steep slope on a map will
be evenly spaced, but close together. Very challenging, or impossible
walking.
Concave Slope: Contour lines showing a concave slope on a map will be
closely spaced at the top of the terrain feature and widely spaced at the
bottom.
Convex Slope: Contour lines showing a convex slope on a map will be
widely spaced at the top and closely spaced at the bottom.
Hills, peaks, mountains: A hill, peak or mountain is a raised area of
land. From the top, the ground slopes downward in all directions. On a
map, a hill is represented by concentric contour lines, with the smallest
closed circle indicating the hilltop.
Ridge: A ridge is a raised, sloping area of land. From the center, there is low
ground in three directions and high ground in one. Crossing a ridge at a right
angle involves a steep climb and descent; while following it may have a gentle
or noticeable slope. Contour lines of a ridge are typically U- or V-shaped.
Gully or Valley: A gully is a long, narrow groove in the land, often formed by
water, with high ground on three sides. Water may flow through it, from high to low.
The contour lines of a gully are typically U- or V-shaped, and the direction of water
flow can be determined by the contour lines.
Depression: A depression is a low area or sinkhole, surrounded by higher ground.
It’s typically shown on maps with closed contour lines, marked with ticks pointing
toward the low ground, and usually only depressions larger than the contour interval
are depicted.
Cliff: A cliff is a steep, vertical land feature. When contours converge into a single
line, it may have tick marks pointing toward low ground. Cliffs are also represented by
closely spaced contour lines, sometimes touching.
 Contour:
▪ Contour is an imaginary line on the ground surface
joining the points of equal elevation is known as
contour.
▪ Contouring is the science of representing the vertical
dimension of the terrain on a two-dimensional map.

Introduction Contouring:
▪ The process of tracing contour lines on the surface of
the earth is called Contouring.

Contour Map:
▪ A map showing contour lines is known as Contour map.
▪ A contour map gives an idea of the altitudes of the
surface features as well as their relative positions in
plan serves the purpose of both, a plan and a section.
Types of Contour Line:
1. Index or Major Contour:
Starting at zero elevation or mean sea level, every fifth contour line is a
heavier line. These are known as index contour lines. Typically, each index
contour line is numbered at some point. This number is the elevation of that
line.

2. Intermediate or Minor Contour:

The contour lines falling between the index contour lines are called
intermediate contour lines. These lines are finer and do not have their
elevations given. There are usually four intermediate contour lines between
index contour lines.

3. Supplementary
These contour lines resemble dashes. They show changes in elevation of at
least one-half the contour interval. Supplementary lines occur where there is
very little change in elevation such as on fairly level terrain.
 Characteristics or features of Contour:
1. All points in a contour line have the same elevation.
2. Contour lines cannot merge or cross one 3. Contours of different elevations do not unite to
another on map except in the case of an form a single contour except in case of vertical
overhanging cliff. cliff.
Characteristics or features of Contour:………
4. Following contour line indicates:
a. Steep slope: closely spaced contour lines
b. Gentle slope: widely spaced contour lines
c. Uniform slope: equally spaced contour lines
d. Plane surface: series of parallel, straight and equidistant lines
 Characteristics or features of Contour:……………

5. A series of closed contour lines on the map 6. A series of closed contour lines on the map
represent a hill, if the higher values are inside. indicate a depression or pond, if the higher values
are outside.
Characteristics or features of Contour:……….
7. Contour line cross ridge or valley line at right angles.

If the higher values are inside the bend or If the higher values are outside the
loop in the contour, it indicates a Ridge. bend, it represents a Valley.
? ?
Characteristics or features of Contour:……….

8. The same contours must appear on both side of ridge or valley.

9. Contours do not have sharp turnings.

10. A contour line must close upon itself, though not necessarily within the limits of the map.

11. Contours do not pass-through permanent structures such as buildings.

Characteristics or features of Contour:……….

12. Depressions between summits is called a saddle. It is represented by four sets

of contours as shown.
Identify the Feature….. ?
1. _________
2. ________
3. ________
4. ________
5. _________
6. _________
7. __________
8. __________
9. __________
10.__________
Verify Your Answer……
 Contour Interval:
▪ The constant vertical distance between two consecutive contours is called the
contour interval.
▪ Suppose a map includes contour lines of 200m, 185m, 170 m and so on .The
contour interval here is 15 m.
 Contour Interval……

▪ Contour intervals for flat terrain are generally small, e g. 0.25 m, 0.5 m,
0.75m etc.

▪ Contour interval for a steep slope in a hilly area is generally greater e.g., 5m.
10 m, 15 m etc.

▪ It should be remembered that the contour interval for a particular map is

Constant.
 Contour Interval:
For general topographical maps, the contour interval may be decided from the following
rules,
20
CI = meter
[Link] centimetres per km

50
CI = feet
[Link] inches per mile

Example:
Q. Find the suitable contour interval on a map of scale 1:50000
Here, scale = 1:50,000
50,000 m = 1m = 100 cm
1000 m = 100*1000/50,000
= 2 cm
20
CI = = 20/2 = 10 meters
[Link] centimetres per km
HORIZONTAL EQUIVALENT

The horizontal distance between any

two adjacent contours is called as
horizontal equivalent.

▪ The contour interval is constant

between the consecutive contours.

▪ But the horizontal equivalent is

variable and depends upon the slope
of the ground.
Contour Interval ?
Factors affecting the choice of contour interval:

A. The Nature of the Ground:

▪ In flat and uniformly sloping country, the contour interval is small, but in broken and
mountainous region the contour interval should be large otherwise the contours will
come too close to each other.

1
CI 
Flatness of ground

B. The purpose & extent of survey:

▪ The contour interval on a map also depends upon the purpose for which the map is to
be utilized. If the map is prepared for setting out a highway on hill slope, CI is large.
But if the map is prepared for construction work small CI is required for accurate
work.
Factors affecting the choice of contour interval:
C. The Scale of the Map
▪ The CI should be in the inverse ratio to the scale of the map i.e. the smaller the
scale, the greater is the contour interval & vice versa. If the scale of the map is small
and contour interval kept also small, then two contours might unite.

1
CI 
Scale of Map

D. Availability of time and fund:

▪ If the time available is less, greater contour interval is adopted to complete the
project in time. The smaller the interval, the greater is the amount of field-work and
plotting work. Similarly, the economic factor also affects the CI.
 USES/PURPOSES OF CONTOUR MAP
▪ A contour map gives information regarding the features of the ground, whether it is
flat, undulating or mountainous without visiting on the ground.

▪ From a contour map, sections may be easily drawn in any direction.

▪ Intervisibility between two ground points plotted on map can be ascertained.

▪ It enables an engineer to approximately select the most economical or suitable site

for an engineering project such as a road, a railway, a canal or a pipeline etc.

▪ Catchment area and capacity of a reservoir may be determined from the contour map.

▪ Contour map may be used to determine the quantities of earth work cut fill volume.

▪ To decide the best locations for the emergency settlement of people during disaster,
earthquake, flood etc.
 USES/PURPOSES OF CONTOUR MAP ……………
▪ To decide the best locations for the storage of guns, ballasting materials and
camping grounds by the army commanders during wars.

▪ To locate the alignment of a canal so that it should follow a ridge line.

▪ To mark the best alignment of roads and railways so that the quantity of
earthwork both in cutting and filling should be minimum.

▪ To trace out the given grade of a particular route.

▪ To locate the physical features of the ground such as a pond depression, hill,
steep or mild slopes.
USES/PURPOSES OF CONTOUR MAP ……….

To draw or extract cross-section from Contour Map

USES/PURPOSES OF CONTOUR MAP ……….

Determination of intervisibility between Points

USES/PURPOSES OF CONTOUR MAP ……….

Calculation of Area & Volume

USES/PURPOSES OF CONTOUR MAP ……….

Selection of Alignment of Irrigation canal & land to be irrigated

USES/PURPOSES OF CONTOUR MAP ……….

Tracing of Contour Gradient

USES/PURPOSES OF CONTOUR MAP ……….
Tracing Road Alignment
 USES/PURPOSES OF CONTOUR MAP ……….

Measurement of Catchment Area

& storage capacity of reservoir
METHODS OF CONTOURING

Contouring involves providing the vertical control for location of points on the
contours and horizontal control for planimetric plotting of points. Field works for
locating the contours depends upon the instrument. Following are the methods of
locating contours:-

Direct Method Square Method

Method of
contouring
Cross-section
Indirect Method
method

Radial line /tacheometric

method
METHODS OF CONTOURING…….
Direct Method:
In this method, the contours to be located are directly
traced out in the field points which happen to fall on a
desired contour are only surveyed and plotted on plan
and the contours drawn through them.

In this method the whole field work may be divided into

two steps:
▪ The location of points on the contour i.e., Vertical
control

▪ Plotting of the points on the plane table survey i.e.,

Horizontal control
METHODS OF CONTOURING……. Direct Method:

Vertical control:
Instrument: level machine, staff, plane table

Procedure:
a. To start with, a B.M is established near the area to be surveyed.
b. The level is then set up in such a position so that the maximum number of points
can be commanded from the instrument station.
c. HI = RL of BM + BS
d. If the HI is 50.500m., then the staff readings required to locate 50, 48 and 46m
contours are 0.500, 2.500 and 4.500 m, respectively.
e. The staff is held on an approximate position of point and then moved up and down
the slope until the desired reading is obtained. The point is marked with a peg.
f. Similarly, various other points are marked on each contour. The line joining all
these points give the required contour.
g. If necessary, shift the level to another commanding station & proceed in a similar
manner till the entire area is contoured.
METHODS OF CONTOURING……. Direct Method:

Horizontal control:
Instrument: plane table & its accessories, tape or chain

Procedure:
a. After having located the points for various contours vertically they
are to be surveyed with a suitable control system for horizontally
located.
b. For this, the location of points is traced by the method of plane
tabling, chain survey or theodolite.
c. Then the contour is drawn through these points by radial method.
d. For accurate contouring, sufficient number of the points at close
interval are required.
e. The plotted positions of the consecutive points of any contour are
simply joined by straight lines to form contour lines.
METHODS OF CONTOURING…….

Indirect Method:
▪ This method is commonly employed in all kinds of surveys as this is cheaper, quicker
and less tedious as compared to direct method.
▪ In this method some suitable guide points are selected, and their elevations are found.
▪ The location of such points is plotted, and contours are drawn by interpolation.
▪ While interpolating, it is considered that the slope between any two adjacent guide
points is uniform.
▪ Several representative points representing hills, depressions, ridge and valley lines and
the changes in the slope all over the area to be contoured are also observed.
▪ This method of contouring is also known as contouring by spot levels.
 METHODS OF CONTOURING……. Indirect Method

A. Square Method:
▪ In this method, the whole area is divided into number of squares, the side of which may vary from
5m to 30m depending upon the nature of the ground and the contour interval.
▪ The corners of the squares are pegged out and the reduced levels of these points are determined
with a level.
▪ The squares are plotted, and the reduced levels of the corners are written on the plan.
▪ This method is suitable in low undulations without any vegetative covers.
 METHODS OF CONTOURING……. Indirect Method
B. Cross-section Method:
▪ This method is most suitable for the surveys of long narrow
strips such as a road, railway or canal alignment etc.
▪ In this method cross sections perpendicular to the center line
of the area are set out.
▪ The spacing of the cross-section depends upon the contour
interval, scale of plan and the characteristic of ground.
▪ The common value is 10 to 20 m in hilly country and 20-30m
in flat country.
▪ The center line and cross sections are plotted along with
important features on the desired scale and their RLs are
entered.
▪ The contours are then interpolated with respect to these RLs.
METHODS OF CONTOURING……. Indirect Method

B. Radial line/tacheometric Method:

▪ This method is most suitable in hilly areas as the
number of stations which can be commanded by a
tacheometer is far more than those by a level and thus
the number of instrument settings are considerably
reduced.
▪ Several radial lines are laid out at a known angular
interval and representative points are marked by pegs
along these radial lines.
▪ Their elevations and distances are then calculated and
plotted on the plan and the contour lines are then
interpolated.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIRECT AND INDIRECT METHODS OF CONTOURING
S.N Direct Method Indirect Method

1 Most accurate but slow & tedious Not much accurate but rapid & less tedious

2 Expensive Reasonable cost

Calculations & plotting are done in Data is collected in field and calculation &
3
field plotting are done as office works

4 Requires more resources Less resources are required

5 Suitable for contouring of small area Suitable for large and hilly areas

Contours are physically located on the

6 Contours are interpolated in the office
field
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS

▪ The process of locating the contours proportionally

between the plotted ground points is termed as
interpolation of contours.

▪ While interpolation of contours the ground

between any two points is assumed to be uniformly
sloping. It is done by:
A. Estimation
B. Arithmetical calculations
C. Graphical or mechanical method
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS…….
A. Estimation
▪ The position of the contour points between ground points are
estimated roughly and the contours are then drawn through
these points.
▪ This is a rough method and is suitable for small scale maps.
▪ Accuracy of work depends upon the skill and experience of
surveyor.
▪ Contour lines are drawn as fine and smooth free hand curved
lines.
▪ Every fifth contour is made thicker as index contour.
▪ The elevation of contours must be written in a uniform
manner, either on the higher side or in a gap left in the line.
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS…….

B. Arithmetical calculations

▪ This is very tedious & time consuming but accurate

method.

▪ The positions of contour points between the guide

points are located by arithmetic calculation.
▪ Used for small areas where accurate results are
necessary.

▪ Let, A, B, C & D are four plotted points at 2 cm

apart and their RLs are shown fig. it is required to
draw contours at 2 m vertical interval.
INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS…….

B. Arithmetical calculations
Interpolation along AD:

Total elevation difference between A & D = 59.2-57.5 = 1.7 m

Level difference between point A & 58 m contour = 58 – 57.5 = 0.5 m

0.5
 The distance of 58m contour from A = ∗ 2 𝑐𝑚 = 0.59 𝑐𝑚 = 5.9 𝑚𝑚
1.7
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS…….

B. Arithmetical calculations
Interpolation along AB:

Total elevation difference between A & B = 63.2 - 57.5 = 5.7 m

Level difference between point A & 58 m contour = 58 – 57.5 = 0.5 m

0.5
 The distance of 58m contour from A along AB = 5.7
∗ 2 𝑐𝑚 = 0.18 𝑐𝑚 = 1.8 𝑚𝑚

Similarly, for 60 m contour,

Level difference between point A & 60 m contour = 60 – 57.5 = 2.5 m

2.5
 The distance of 60m contour from A along AB = ∗ 2 𝑐𝑚 = 0.88 𝑐𝑚 = 8.8 𝑚𝑚
5.7

And so on along BC & CD

 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS…….
B. Graphical Method
▪ simpler as compared to arithmetical method and
the results obtained are accurate.

▪ On a sheet of tracing paper, a line AB is drawn &

divided into equal parts. The radial lines are
drawn from O to the divisions on AB.

▪ The lines 1-1, 2-2, 3-3…… are drawn parallel to

line AB, these line serves as guidelines.

▪ The boundary lines and every fifth lines are

marked with thick or red color.
 INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS…….
B. Graphical Method
▪ Suppose, we have to interpolate a 2 m CI between
points ‘a’ & ‘b’ of RL 92.5 & 100.85 m

▪ Let us consider the lowest radial line OB to

represent an RL of 90 m. so every fifth line which is
bold red color will represent 95, 100, 105 m contour
etc.

▪ The tracing paper is moved over the plan until point

‘a’ lies at 92.5 m & point ‘b’ at 100.85 m and the
line should be parallel to AB.

▪ Now points at 94, 96, 98, 100 m are pricked through

to obtain the positions of the required contour.
 CONTOUR GRADIENT
▪ A line laying on the ground which maintains a constant
inclination to the horizontal is known as contour
gradient.
▪ The inclination of a contour gradient is generally given
either as rising gradient or falling gradient and is
expressed as ratio of the vertical height to a specified
horizontal distance.
▪ If the inclination of a contour gradient is 1 in 50, it
means that for every 50 m horizontal distance, there is
a rise (or fall) of 1 m.
▪ To locate the contour gradient in the field, abney level,
theodolite or a level may be used.