Biodiversity
Evolution
cumulative changes in heritable characteristics
induced by chance events environmentalpressures humaninternet
Lamarck early theory 1801
species evolve bas habitat use or disuse of trait
flowed bas modified characteristics werenotheritable
Darwin 1858
characteristics were not acquired but selected
traits suitable to conditions would be morefrequent
Represented a paradigm shift attire time
Evidence for Evolution
change between ancestral and modern species fossils
Shared characteristics in diff species
Process of Evolution
selective breeding of domestic animals and crops
Homologous structures
vestigial structures
molecular evidence
Selective Breeding artificial selection
marked exaggeration of characteristics
Dog breeds reflect spesific characteristics
Agricultural crops wild mustardplant
brocoli cabbage kale cauliflower
Homologous Structures
conserved characteristics found in diff species bcs of
shared common ancestry
Rise bcs of divergent evolution
Include
anatomical structures pentodactyl limb
vestigial structures
embryological similarities
Divergent Evolution
Closely related species became more dissimilar over time
Dentadactyl Limb
All vertebrate tetrapods share similar arrangement of bones
One bone proximal to body
Two bones distal to body
A cluster of little bones
Digit bones
Vestigial structures
demonstrate evolutionary divergence
environmental conditions made these structures redund
ex whole pelvic bone suggests whales evolved from
land based ancestor
Comparative Embryology
All animal embryos undergo similar stages
All terrestrial land based embryos have pharyngeal slits
suggest aquatic origin
Analogous Structures
Superficially similar but do not share common ancestry
convergent evolution unrelated species having
ex similar traits
Streamlined shape of dolphin whole shark
wings in bees birds bats
Homologous us Analogous
some structure different structures
different use some use
Molecular Evidence
use DNA as genetic material to produce proteins of amine aa
over time mutations within a nucleic acid or proteinseamen
Differences between comparable sequences denote the
degree of evolutionary divergence
Molecular evidence is more reliable than structural evidence
Genetic Differences
mutation cause differences
variation in alleles
phenotypic new
variations are normally continuous
AS species interbreed variations will be in gene pool
Speciation
if two populations become reproductively isolated the genetic
differences accumulate
if two populations diverge to the point that they can no longerinterbreed
they become separate species
ex
Ancestors of chimpanzee and bonobo monkeys were physically
separated by cargo river and exposed to diffconditions
leading to divergence and speciation
Classification
the Binomial System
according to relationships based on decent from
common ancestor
Taxonomy
science of classification
each organism has a Latin name
genus species
American grizzly bear Urus americanus
Ex Pole Bear Ex_Lemon tree
1 Domain Eukarya Eukarya
2 Kingdom Animalia Plantae
3 Phylum Chordata Angiospermata
4 Class mammalian Dicotyledoneae
5 Order Carnivora Geraniales
6 Family Ursidae Rutaceae
7 Genus ursus Citrus
8 Species maritimus limon
there are 3 domains
Today
Archea Embacteria Enkarya
was proposed in 1977
base on differences in RNA rRNA
generally thought to none evolved from
LUCA
Drobleme of classifying asexual organisms
_definition of species is
organisms that can
interbreed cannot be used for asexual
thus bacteria are
organized into 5 groups
to their basic shapes
according
4 main reasons for classification
for order ana
organisation
for [Link] naea unique name
for evolutionary characteristics
for predicting characteristics
Dichotomous key
Series of steps involving a decision
ELIEL
Cladistics
DNA and Protein Structures
All organisms from DMA proteins from amino
acids ate
Cladistics method of classification according
to characteristics that have evolved most recently
Separate branches called clades
are related to cladistic
Phylogenetics closely
Phylogeny diagram showing relationships btw
diff organisms that represent their
history
ex Number of amino acid differences
human rhesus 1 rabbit 9
chimpanzee 0 mouse 9
rhesus
evinize
1
mF
9
ex of shapes
S
reptiles bina
mammals
amphibians feathers memels
[Link] tm
reptice
bony
Ctene
skeleton fE amphibians
O
harks
Human Effects on Evolution
Industrial pollution
black moth in England bcs of fumes
Antibiotic Resistance
Resistance to pesticides
Gene Pools
Processes that increase or decrease variation in
a population Alter proportions of alleles
Natural populations can gain allele variations
with immigration Ana can be lost_in emigration
Domestic form animals show they lost some from the
gene pool
Inbreeding Depression
Reduction of fitness in population due to lack
of healthy mates and low diversity
ex Snakes in Sweden
Types of Selection
Allele Frequency and Evolution
when frequency of alleles increase the population
evolves
Stabilising Selection
for a population to be adapted some alleles are
selected maintaining a stable population
stabilising
is
ⁿ selection
A
Directional Selection
some individuals have alleles that are
favourable
diectional
no
Sa
A
en
selection
1h
Disruptive Selection
formation of two new forms
disruptive
Öğretin
selection
si3ii
Sexual Selection
individuals select mates with characteristics
Resilience ability of a population to recover quickly
from changes in environment
ex for sexual selection
fancy tails of more peacocks
Factors that Affect Allele Frequencies in Populations
Dominant Allele frequency increase is more rapid
Genetic Drift
Change in allele frequency in gene pool due to chance
events
Founder effect
Genetic drift can occur when a small number of founders
separate from a
largergroup and establish a new population
ex Finches in Galapagos Islands
e Amish community in Pennsylvania from Germany
The Hardy weinberg Principle
Produced Mathematical models of frequency of alle
2
p 2Pa 92 pta 1
p frequency of dominant allele g frequency ofrecessiveoiler
ex if a population has 100 individuals there is 200 elle
170 is dominant
85 0.85 p
ILE
100
30 is recessive
v00 15 0.15
2 9
more Hele
A cps a
car
7ps p Pa p 2pata 1
all possibilities
8 Pa 92
Conditions for using the Equation
no mutations
no natural selection
is
population large
all members of population breed
Mating is random btw individuals
Each mating produces some number offspring
No immigration or emmigration
Speciation
Allopathic speciation
new
species arise bas of a geographic
barrier may include mountain ranges rivers etc
congo river Chimpanzees bonobos
Sympatric speciation
new
species arise from an existing species
living in same area
temporal or behavioral isolation
Hybrids
Hybrids between species are
interspecific
hybrids
Most are usually sterile Prevents genesmoving so species are keptsefere
Most are bcs their parents have diff chromosomes
ex Mules male donkey female horse
Most organisms are diploid 2M but polyploid cells
contain more than two sets
Poliploidy is widespread in plants but rare in animals
instant speciation
ex Japanese knotweed is sterile but a very invasive species
Effects of Isolation in Gene Pool
Reproductive Isolation
Geographical
Temporal
Behavioral
Ecological Niches
habitat living space for multiple organisms
includes physical and abiotic non physico
factors
niche particular environment and lifestyle that
is
adopted by species
Organisms living living in a niche affect
each other
Habitat comprises of many niches
Tolerance Limits
Abiotic aspects survival and distribution
Plants Temperature water light pH
Animals 1 Temperature water breeding sites food supply
territory
Coral Reefs
Cnidarian same class as deniz anası
excretes an exoskeleton of calcium carbonate
Do not
photosynthesize
Forms symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae
Sensitive underwater ecosystem
Can only form and survive with
oxygen carbon dioxide
water at correct salinity pre
light moderate amount
shallow depth of water
have declined about 50
coral reef safe area for zooxanthellae
zooxanthellae food for coral reef
Mangrove Trees
tropical areas near the sea
They can survive in waterlogged and
anoxic Cno oxygen soil
Either remove saffron water with ultron
filiation or have floors that secrete
salt
when their root becomes flooded they grow
aerial root called prematrophores
Obligate Anaerobes
microbes killed by concentrations of oxygen
bacteria cause tetanus
Archea are
obligate anaerobes
Facultative Anaerobes
can use oxygen but can respirate anaerobiede
Experiment to understand distribution ofSpecies
Quadrants
portable squares
Transects
tape or
rope stretched across point
of interest
Niches and competition
Ecosystems here
emergent properties
Competition occurs when two organisms
require some limited resource
In most cases competition leads to exclusion
of one of the species
Plants also compete for light space
Fundamental Niche
potential way of life often species with
the adaptations
The POTENTIAL
Realised Niche
More restrictive lifestyle is realised niche
The REALITY
Competition in Identical Niches
two species cannot hone exactly the same
niche and coexist
ex Gause's paramecium experiment
Adaptations to Different Niches
Organisms sometime adapt to extreme niches
to encounter less stress from competition
Hot Deserts
Plants appear swollen spiny and have no
leaves
Store water in
fleshy stars roots
waxy cuticles
Freezing conditions Emperor Penguins
Dry Conditions Marron Grass
to environments
xerophyte plants adopted dry