Communication Systems Midsem Notes

(Modulation, Generation, Demodulation)

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Definition

Amplitude Modulation is the process in which the amplitude of a high‑frequency carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating (message) signal while frequency and phase
remain constant.

Standard Equation

S(t) = Ac cos(2πfct) [1 + μ cos(2πfmt)]

Where: - Ac = Carrier amplitude - fc = Carrier frequency - fm = Message frequency - μ = Modulation index

The modulated signal consists of: - Carrier component at fc - Upper Sideband (USB) at fc + fm - Lower
Sideband (LSB) at fc − fm

Modulation Index

μ = Am / Ac

Types: - Under‑modulation → μ < 1 - Critical modulation → μ = 1 - Over‑modulation → μ > 1 (causes

distortion and phase reversal)

Bandwidth

BW = 2B = 2fm

Efficiency

Maximum efficiency of AM = 33.3%

Generation Methods

Square Law Modulator

Uses a nonlinear device such as a diode or transistor.

Process: 1. Message signal and carrier are added. 2. Signal is applied to nonlinear device. 3. Output contains
several frequency components. 4. Band Pass Filter selects the AM component.

1
Switching Modulator

Carrier acts as a switching signal for a diode.

Process: 1. Carrier switches diode ON and OFF. 2. Message signal passes during switching. 3. Band Pass
Filter extracts AM signal.

Detection (Demodulation)

Square Law Detector

1. Signal applied to nonlinear device.

2. Low Pass Filter removes high frequency components.
3. Remaining signal is the original message.

Envelope Detector

Most commonly used AM detector.

Components: - Diode - Capacitor - Resistor

Working: 1. Diode rectifies AM signal. 2. Capacitor charges to peak value. 3. Capacitor slowly discharges
through resistor. 4. Output follows the envelope of the signal.

Rectifier Detector

Diode rectifies AM signal and LPF removes carrier component.

2. Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB‑SC)

Definition

A modulation technique where only the sidebands are transmitted and the carrier is suppressed.

Power Efficiency

DSB‑SC saves about 66.67% power compared to AM. Efficiency ≈ 100% because no carrier power is
transmitted.

Bandwidth

BW = 2B

2
Generation Methods

Product Modulator

Multiplies message signal with carrier signal.

s(t) = m(t) × c(t)

Balanced Modulator

Two modulators arranged so carrier components cancel while sidebands remain.

Ring Modulator

Uses four diodes arranged in a ring configuration. Carrier switches the diodes to suppress the carrier
component.

Detection

Coherent Detection

1. Received signal multiplied with locally generated carrier.

2. Carrier must be synchronized in frequency and phase.
3. Output passed through Low Pass Filter to recover message.

3. Single Sideband (SSB)

Definition

Only one sideband (either USB or LSB) is transmitted and the carrier is suppressed.

Bandwidth

BW = B

Advantages

• Efficient use of bandwidth

• Reduced transmitted power
• Better signal‑to‑noise ratio
• Increased communication range

3
Generation Methods

Filter Method (Frequency Discrimination Method)

1. First generate DSB‑SC signal.

2. Pass signal through sharp Band Pass Filter.
3. Filter removes unwanted sideband.
4. Remaining sideband is transmitted.

Phase Shift Method

Uses phase shifting to cancel one sideband.

Components: - Two product modulators - 90° phase shifter for message - 90° phase shifter for carrier -
Adder circuit

Working: Signals combine in such a way that one sideband cancels out.

4. Vestigial Sideband (VSB)

Definition

A modulation technique where one complete sideband and a small portion (vestige) of the other sideband
are transmitted.

Bandwidth

BW = B + vestige

Generation

1. Generate DSB‑SC signal.

2. Pass signal through a VSB filter.
3. Filter passes one full sideband and part of the other.

Demodulation

Coherent detection method is used: - Multiply with carrier - Low Pass Filter recovers message

Application

Used in television broadcasting for transmitting video signals.

4
5. Frequency Modulation (FM)

Definition

Frequency of carrier varies in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal while
amplitude remains constant.

FM Equation

S(t) = Ac cos [ωct + kf ∫ m(t) dt]

Frequency Deviation

Maximum shift of frequency from carrier frequency.

Δf = kf Am

Modulation Index

mf = Δf / fm

Carson's Rule (Bandwidth)

BW = 2 (Δf + fm)

Types of FM

Narrowband FM (NBFM)

mf ≤ 1 Used in two‑way radio communication such as police wireless.

Wideband FM (WBFM)

mf > 1 Used in high‑fidelity broadcasting such as FM radio.

Advantages of FM

• Better noise immunity

• Constant transmitted power
• Capture effect
• High fidelity

5
6. FM Generation

Reactance Modulator

Uses variable reactance in an oscillator circuit to vary frequency with input signal.

Varactor Diode Method

Varactor diode acts as voltage‑controlled capacitor.

Process: 1. Modulating signal changes diode capacitance. 2. Capacitance variation changes oscillator
frequency. 3. Resulting output is FM signal.

Armstrong Method (Indirect Method)

1. Stable crystal oscillator generates carrier.

2. Phase modulation produces NBFM.
3. Frequency multipliers increase deviation.
4. Resulting signal becomes WBFM.

Advantage: Very stable carrier frequency.

7. FM Demodulation

Slope Detector

1. FM signal applied to LC circuit tuned slightly off resonance.

2. Frequency variations converted to amplitude variations.
3. Diode detector recovers message.

Limitation: - Nonlinear response - Sensitive to noise

Foster‑Seeley Discriminator

Uses center‑tapped transformer and two diodes. Output voltage proportional to frequency deviation.

Ratio Detector

Improved version of Foster‑Seeley detector. Includes potential divider to reduce amplitude noise.

PLL Demodulator

Consists of: - Phase detector - Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) - Low Pass Filter

Working: PLL locks onto input signal frequency and error voltage becomes the demodulated signal.

6
Zero Crossing Detector

1. Hard limiter converts signal to constant amplitude.

2. Differentiator produces pulses at zero crossings.
3. Pulse density corresponds to frequency variation.
4. LPF recovers message.

8. Pulse Modulation

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

Definition: Amplitude of pulses varies according to message signal.

Generation: Sample‑and‑hold circuit using switch and capacitor.

Demodulation: Holding circuit followed by Low Pass Filter.

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

Definition: Width of pulses varies according to message signal.

Generation: 1. Message signal applied to comparator. 2. Sawtooth wave applied to comparator. 3.

Comparator output produces variable width pulses.

Detection: 1. Pulse generator shapes pulses. 2. Ramp generator converts PWM to PAM. 3. Low Pass Filter
recovers message.

Applications: - DC motor speed control - LED brightness control - Power electronics - Servo motors in
robotics

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

Definition: Position of pulses varies according to message signal while width remains constant.

Generation: PWM pulses trigger monostable multivibrator at trailing edge.

Detection: S‑R flip‑flop recreates PWM which is then demodulated.

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Definition: Technique used to convert analog signals into digital form.

7
Steps:

1. Sampling Continuous signal converted to discrete‑time samples.

2. Quantization Each sample approximated to nearest discrete level.

3. Encoding Quantized levels represented using binary code.