Pinnacle Physics

⬥ Energy (E) = Capacity to do work.

Physics inertia × Angular velocity , [M L T ] , 1 2 -1

[M1L2T-2] , SI Unit - J (Joule) SI Unit - kgm2s-1

⬥ Impulse (I) = Force × Time, [M1L1T-1],
Units and Measurements SI Unit - Newton-second (N-s).
⬥Planck’s constant (h) =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
,

The dimensional formulas of momentum [M1L2T-1] , SI Unit - Js

The base units for length, mass and time
in CGS, FPS, and MKS systems are
and impulse are the same. ⬥ Buoyant force = Force, [M1L1T-2] ,
In the CGS system they are centimetre, 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 SI Unit - N
⬥Pressure (P) = , [M1L-1T-2],
gram and second respectively. 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
In the FPS system they are foot, pound SI Unit - Nm-2 or Pascal (Pa) ⬥Pressure gradient= ,
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
and second respectively. 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 [M1L-2T-2] , SI Unit - Nm-3
In the MKS system they are metre, ⬥Power (P) = , [M1L2T-3],
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
⬥Torque = Moment of inertia × Angular
kilogram and second respectively. SI Unit - watt (W) acceleration , [M1L2T-2] , SI Unit - Nm
⬥Moment of inertia (I) = Mass × (distance)2
SI ( International System) unit .
, M1L2T0] , SI Unit - kgm2 ⬥Velocity gradient (
𝑑𝑣
) = Velocity /
𝑑𝑥
SI unit is an international system of ⬥Moment of force, moment of couple = Distance, [M0L0T-1], SI Unit - s-1
measurements that are used universally Force × distance , [M1L2T-2], SI Unit - Nm 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
in technical and scientific research to ⬥Rate flow = , [ M0L3T-1] ,
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
avoid the confusion with the units. ⬥Surface tension (T) = , [M1L0T-2], SI Unit - m3s-1
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
SI Unit - Nm , CGS Unit - Dyne/cm ⬥Wavelength = Length of a wavelength,
-1

7 SI Fundamental units are Length (l) -

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 [M0L1T0] , SI Unit - m
Meter (m), Mass (M) - Kilogram (Kg), ⬥Surface energy (E) = , [M1L0T-2],
Time (T) - Seconds (s), Electric current (i)
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
⬥Angular frequency (ω) = 2π ×
- Ampere (A), Thermodynamic SI Unit - Nm-1 frequency , [M0L0T-1], SI unit - rad s-1
temperature (Θ) - kelvin (K), Amount of ⬥Pressure energy= Pressure × Volume ,
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
⬥Force constant (x) =
substance (n) - Mole (mol), Luminous 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
[M1L2T-2] , SI Unit - J
intensity (J) - Candela (cd). [M1L0T-2] , SI Unit - Nm-1
⬥Temperature = [ M0L0T0K1 ] ,
⬥Coefficient of viscosity ( η ) = SI Unit - K (Kelvin)
Physical Quantity and its
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Dimensional Formulas , [M1L-1T-1] , ⬥Heat (Q) = [M1L2T-2], SI Unit - J (Joule)
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
SI Unit - Nsm-2 ⬥Latent heat (L)= Heat / Mass , [M0L2T-2],
⬥ Area (A)= Length × Breadth , [ M L T ]0 2 0
SI Unit - Jkg-1
SI Unit - m2 ⬥Thrust (F) = Force, [M1L1T-2], SI Unit - N
⬥Specific heat (S)= 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 ,
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡
⬥Volume (V)= Length × Breadth × Height ⬥Tension (T) = Force, [M1L1T-2] , SI Unit - N
[ M0L3T0 ] , SI Unit - m3 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 [M0L2T-2K-1] , SI Unit - Jkg-1K-1
⬥ Stress= , [ M1L-1T-2 ], SI Unit- Nm-2
⬥Thermal expansion coefficient or thermal
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
⬥Density (d) = , [ M1L-3T0 ],
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
⬥Strain = , expansivity= 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 ,
SI Unit - kg m-3 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
No dimensions [M0L0T0], SI Unit - No unit [ M0L0T0K-1 ] , SI Unit - K-1
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
⬥ Speed (s) = , [ M0L1T-1 ], ⬥Thermal conductivity =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
⬥Modulus of Elasticity (E) = , 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 × 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
SI Unit - ms -1 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
,
[ M L T ] , SI Unit - Nm
1 -1 -2 -2 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
⬥ Velocity (v)= , [M0L1T-1], [M1L1T-3K-1] , SI Unit - Wm-1K-1
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 ⬥Radius of gyration (k) = Distance,
SI Unit - ms-1 [M0L1T0], SI Unit - m ⬥Centripetal acceleration
2
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ⬥Angle (θ), Angular displacement = (𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)
,
⬥Acceleration (a) = =
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
[M0L1T-2]
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
, dimensionless [M0L0T-0],
[M0L1T-2], SI Unit - ms-2 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦/𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
⬥Stefan constant (σ) =
⬥Acceleration due to gravity (g) = SI Unit - rad 4
(𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 ) ⬥Trigonometric ratio (sin θ, cos θ, tan θ, , [M1L0T-3K-4] , SI Unit - Wm-2K-4
,
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
etc) = , No dimensions 1
[ M0L1T-2 ] , SI Unit - ms-2 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ⬥Power of lens = ,
𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 [M0L0T-0] , No unit.
⬥Specific gravity = [M0 L- 1T0], SI Unit - D (dioptre)
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 4°𝐶 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
⬥Angular velocity (ω)= , [M0L0T-1], 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
No dimensions [M0L0T-0], No units 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 ⬥ Magnification = ,
𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
⬥Linear momentum (p)= Mass x SI Unit - rad/s
No Dimensions , No unit
Velocity, [M1L1T-1], SI Unit - kg ms-1 ⬥Angular acceleration (α) =
⬥ Fluid flow rate =
⬥Force (F) = Mass × Acceleration, 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
, [M0L0T-2] , 4
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (π/8)(𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒) × (𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠)
[M1L1T-2], SI Unit - Newton 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
,
SI Unit - rad/ s2
⬥Work (W) = Force × Distance, [M L T ],1 2 -2
[M L T ] , SI Unit - m s
0 3 -1 3 -1
⬥ Angular momentum (J)=Moment of
SI Unit - J (Joule)
⬥Capacitive reactance (Xc) =
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1 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
⬥Magnetic dipole moment = ,
2л × (𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 × 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒) 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
(Angular frequency × capacitance), Or current × area , [M0L2T0A1] , SI Unit - Am2 [M1L2T-3] , SI Unit - W sr-1 (Watt/steradian)
[ M1L2T - 3A- 2], SI Unit - ohms (Ω) ⬥Magnetic field strength (H), magnetic ⬥Luminous power or luminous flux of
⬥Inductive reactance (XL) = Angular intensity or magnetic moment density - 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
source = ,
frequency × inductance) , [ M1L2T- 3A - 2 ] , Magnetic moment / volume, [M0L-1T0A1], 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
SI Unit - ohms (Ω) SI Unit - Am-1. [M1L2T- 3] , SI Unit - lm (lumen)
⬥Wien constant = Wavelength × ⬥Luminous intensity or illuminating
The unit of magnetic intensity in the CGS
temperature , [M0L1T0K1] , SI Unit - mK power of source - Luminous flux / Solid
system is Oersted.
angle, [M1L2T- 3], SI Unit - cd (candela)
⬥Gas constant (R) = 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ⬥Hubble constant= , ⬥Intensity of illumination or luminance
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
,
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 × 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 [M0L0T-1] , SI Unit - s-1 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
(Lv) - 2 , [M1L0T- 3 ],
[M1L2T-2K-1] , SI Unit - JK-1mol-1 (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
⬥Intensity of wave= (Energy / time) /
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 SI Unit - cd m-2 .
⬥Boltzmann constant (K)= area , [M1L0T-3] , SI Unit - Wm-2
𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
⬥Radiation pressure = Intensity of wave “nit” is a non SI unit of Luminance used
, [M1L2T-2K-1] , SI Unit - JK-1 to measure a multitude of light intensity.
/ speed of light , [M1L-1T-2]
⬥Charge (q) = Current × time, ⬥Luminous efficiency = (Total luminous
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
[M0L0T1A1], SI Unit - Coulomb (C) ⬥Energy density = , [M1L-1T-2] , flux / Total radiant flux) , No dimensions ,
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 No unit
⬥Current density= , [M0L-2T0A1], SI Unit - Jm-3
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
SI Unit → Am-2 ⬥Critical velocity = ⬥Illuminance =
𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡
,
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑'𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 × 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
⬥Electric potential (V), voltage, 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 [M1L0T- 3], SI Unit - lx (lux)

electromotive force =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
,
[M0L1T-1], SI Unit - ms-1 ⬥Mass defect = (Sum of masses of
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
⬥Escape velocity = (acceleration due to nucleons) – (mass of the nucleus),
[M1L2T-3A-1] , SI Unit - Weber per second 1/2 [M1L0T0]
which is equivalent to volt. gravity × planet's radius) , [M0L1T-1] ,
SI Unit - ms-1 ⬥Binding energy of nucleus = mass
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
⬥Resistance (R) = 1
defect × (speed of light in vaccum)2,
⬥Kinetic energy =
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
mass × (velocity)2 [M1L2T- 2]
, [M L T A ] , SI Unit → ohms (Ω)
1 2 -3 -2 2
[M1L2T-2] , SI Unit - J ⬥Decay constant = 0.693 / half-life ,
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
⬥Capacitance = , [ M0L0T-1 ]
𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ⬥Potential energy - Mass × acceleration
[M L T A ], SI Unit → F (Farad)
-1 -2 4 2
due to gravity × height, [M1L2T-2], SI Unit - J ⬥Resonant frequency =
1
⬥Electrical resistivity or (electrical 1 ,
⬥Rotational kinetic energy = × 2π × (𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2
conductivity)-1 = , [M0L0T- 1A0]
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ moment of inertia × (angular velocity)2 ,
[M1L3T- 3A-2] , SI Unit - Ωm ( resistivity) [M1L2T-2], SI Unit - J ⬥Quality factor or Q-factor of coil =
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 2Π × 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 × 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
⬥Electric field (E) = , [M1L1T-3A-1] ⬥Efficiency =
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
, No 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
,
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
, SI Unit - NC-1 It is a dimensionless and unitless
dimensions [M0L0T0] , No unit
quantity.
⬥Electric flux = Electric field × area , ⬥Angular impulse = Torque × time ,
[M1L3T-3A-1] , SI Unit - Nm2C-1 [M1L2T-1] , SI Unit - Js (Joule second) Derived SI units :-
⬥Electric dipole moment =
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 ⬥Permeability constant (of free space) =
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 Force - Newton (N) or (Kg. m /s2), and
2π × 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
, [M1L1T-2A-2] , CGS - Dyne ([Link] /s2)
, [M0L1T1A1] , SI Unit - C m 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
SI Unit - NA-2 Electrical conductance - Siemens (℧).
⬥Electric field strength or electric
1 calorie of heat energy is approximately
⬥Refractive index=
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
intensity = , 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 equal to 4.2 Joules. CGS unit of work -
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
It is a dimensionless and unitless quantity. Erg (dyne-cm) or Dyne-centimetre.
[M1L1T-3A-1] , SI Unit - NC-1
⬥Faraday constant (F) = Avogadro Electron-volt is a unit of energy. It is
⬥Magnetic field (B), magnetic flux
constant × elementary charge, commonly used in atomic and nuclear
density, magnetic induction =
[M0L0T1A1mol- 1] , SI Unit - C mol- 1 physics. One electron volt is equal to
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
, [M1L0T-2A-1] , 2π 1.602 × 10
−12
erg, or 1.602 × 10
−19
joule.
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ×𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
⬥Wave number = , [M0L-1T0]
SI Unit - T (Tesla) 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Potential difference unit is Joules per
⬥Magnetic flux (Φ)= Magnetic field × ⬥Radiant flux, Radiant power = Energy coulomb.
area, [M1L2T-2A-1] , SI Unit - Wb (Weber) emitted / time, [M1L2T-3], SI Unit - W(Watt) Coulomb per second is equivalent to
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 ⬥Luminosity of radiant flux or radiant ampere.
⬥Inductance = , [M1L2T-2A-2]
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 intensity = Plane angle is the physical quantity for
, SI Unit - H (Henry) the expression arc/radius. It is measured

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 Pinnacle Physics
in radians (2π radians in a circle) or The knot is a unit of speed. pressure inside the eyes of a person.
degrees (360 degrees to a circle). 1 Knot equal to 1.852 km/h. The Hubble Constant is the unit of
Solid Angle is measured in steradian. The pound is a unit of mass. 1 pound is measurement used to describe the
equal to 16 ounces. One pound is expansion of the universe.
Radioactivity - Becquerel (Bq)
approximately equal to 0.45359237 The cosmos has been getting bigger
A physical quantity not having
kilograms (kg). since the Big Bang kick-started the
dimensions called a dimensionless
growth about 13.82 billion years ago.
quantity. A dimensionless quantity may The SI unit of Pressure is Pascal (Pa),
possess a unit or it may be unitless. which is N/m² (Newton per square A nautical mile is equal to 1852 metres.
Example - Angular displacement (θ) meter). Nautical mile is used in air and water
coefficient of friction, Strain, Mass CGS unit of pressure - Dyne / cm2. navigation as a unit of measurement.
fraction, Molar fraction, Relative humidity, Torr is a unit of pressure.
Mach number, refractive index, Specific 1 torr is equal to 133.32 Pa.
Important Scientific Instruments and
gravity. Angle of Friction are The standard atmospheric pressure is their Usage :
dimensionless quantities. 101325 Pa.
The physical quantities which have only Accumulator - It is used to store
Horsepower is a unit of measurement of electrical energy.
magnitude are known as scalar
power. 1 Horsepower is equal to 746
quantities. Example - mass, length, time , Wattmeter - It is an instrument for
watt.
speed temperature, electric current, measuring the electric active power in
volume, density , energy. Kilowatt hour (KWh) commercial unit of watts of any given circuit.
electric energy. 1 kilowatt hour = 3.6 ×
Vector Quantities are those which have Ammeter - It is used to measure either
106 joules. 1kw = 3600 KJ/h.
both magnitude and direction. Examples direct or alternating electric current.
of Vector Quantities – Force, Electric Watt-hour is a unit of energy. It is often
Galvanometer - It measures the electric
field, Angular Momentum, Magnetic used to measure the amount of electrical
current of low magnitude in the circuit.
Moment, Linear Momentum, Average energy consumed.
Velocity, Torque, Impulse, Acceleration Potentiometer - It is used for comparing
Eight original SI prefixes were officially
and Gravitational Intensity. the electromotive force of cells.
adopted: deca, hecto, kilo, myria, deci,
Chain and statute mile was a unit of centi, milli, and myrio. Voltmeter - It measures the electric
length. potential difference between two points.
SI Prefixes -
A rod, a perch or a pole is a unit of length (1024, Yotta, Y), (1021, Zetta, Z), (1018, Exa, Commutator - An instrument to change
in the imperial and US systems. E), (1015, Peta, P), (1012, Tera, T), (109, or remove the direction of an electric
Giga, G), (106, Mega, M), (103, kilo, k), current. In dynamo it is used to convert
Stevenson screen is a unit designed for
(102, Hecto, h), (101, deca, da), (10-1, deci, alternating current into direct current.
wet and dry bulb thermometers to
protect temperature sensors from being d), (10-2, centi, c), (10-3, milli, ml ), (10-6, Electroscope - It detects the presence of
affected by direct or reflected sunlight. micro, µ), (10-9, nano, n), (10-12, pico, p), an electric charge.
(10-15, femto, f), (10-18, atto, a), (10-21,
Light year is the distance light travels in Transistor - A small device which may be
zepto, z), (10-24, yocto, y).
1 yr (3.15 × 107 s) with a speed of 3.00 × used to amplify currents and perform
108 m/s. Larger stellar and extragalactic The Dobson Unit is the most common other functions usually performed by a
distances are measured in Light year. unit for measuring ozone concentration. thermionic valve.
One light-year is about 6 trillion miles Candela is the SI base unit for Anemometer - It measures the force and
(9 trillion km) (9.46 × 1012 km). photometry. velocity of the wind.
Astronomical unit (AU) is a unit of ‘mho’ is the unit of electrical conductivity Wind vane - It is an instrument that
length. It is effectively equal to the of a substance. measures the direction of wind.
average distance between Earth and the Resistance and conductance are inverse Barograph - It is a barometer that
Sun. 1 Astronomical Unit = 1.496 × 1011 1
of each other that is why mho ∝ . records the barometric pressure over
m (92,955,807.3 miles) 𝑜ℎ𝑚 time in graphical form.
The parsec is a unit of length used to Ohmmeter is used for measuring
Turbidity Meter - It is used to measure
measure vast distances between electrical resistance.
the turbidity. Turbidity is the measure of
astronomical objects outside the Solar The Svedberg unit is a measurement of relative clarity of a liquid.
System. 1 parsec = 3.085677581 × 1016 the sedimentation rate of a particle when
metres. One parsec is approximately Binocular - It is used to view distant
it is centrifuged. It is actually a measure
equal to 3.26 light-years. objects.
of time and is defined as exactly 10−13
The unit of calorific value of fuel is seconds. Altimeter - It measures altitudes and is
kilojoule per kilogram i.e. kJ/kg. used in aircraft.
Dioptre is the unit of measurement of
Calorimetry - It is the process of
A fathom is a unit of length, it is used power of a lens. Diopter is equal to the
measuring the amount of heat released
especially for measuring the depth of reciprocal of focal length of the lens.
or absorbed during a chemical reaction.
water. 1 fathom equal to 6 feet or 1.8288 Ophthalmology is a branch of medicine
m. Carburettor - It is used by an internal
which deals with diagnosis of eye
combustion engine to control and mix air
Angstrom (Å), unit of length, equal to disorders.
and fuel entering the engine.
10-10 metre, or 0.1 nanometre. It is used Tonometer is used to measure the
in measuring wavelengths of light. Cinematography - It is an instrument
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 Pinnacle Physics
used in cinema making to throw on Tachometer - An instrument used in Teleprinter - This instrument receives
screen an enlarged image of a measuring speeds of aeroplanes and and sends typed messages from one
photograph. motor boats. place to another.
Quartz Clock - A highly accurate clock Odometer - It is used to measure Telescope - It views distant objects in
used in astronomical observations and distance travelled by vehicle. space.
other precision work. Cathetometer - It is a device used for Theodolite - It measures horizontal and
Colorimeter - It is an instrument that accurate measurement of small vertical vertical angles.
compares the amount of light getting distances.
through a solution with the amount that Thermostat - It regulates the
Photometer - It is used to measure the temperature at a particular point.
can get through a sample of pure intensity of light.
solvent. Venturi meter - It measures flow of
Radar - It uses radio waves to determine liquid.
Cyclotron - A charged particle the distance (ranging), angle, or velocity
accelerator which can accelerate of objects. It can be used to detect Vernier - An adjustable scale for
charged particles to high energies. aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided measuring small subdivisions of scale.
Dynamo - It converts mechanical energy missiles, motor vehicles. Viscometer - It measures the viscosity of
into electrical energy. Radiometer - It measures the emission liquids.
Dynamometer - It measures force, of radiant energy. Planimeter - It is also known as a
torque, and power of engine and motor. Rain Gauge - An apparatus for recording platometer, is a measuring instrument
Endoscope - It is a thin tube like rainfall per unit area at a particular place. used to determine the area (irregular) of
instrument with an attached camera an arbitrary two-dimensional shape.
Udometer - It is used to measure the
used to examine the internal parts of the amount of liquid precipitation over a set Cartometer- It consists of a small wheel
body. period of time. It is also called Rain and a calibrated dial used to measure
Eudiometer - A glass tube for measuring Gauge. distances on a map by following the
volume changes in chemical reactions desired route.
Pirani gauge - It measures pressure in
between gases. the vacuum systems. Segmometer- It is a modified tape
Fathometer - It measures the depth of measure with tips used for body
Rectifier - An instrument used for the measurements (anthropometry) and
the ocean. conversion of Alternating Current into lengths of bones.
Hydrometer - It measures the specific Direct Current.
gravity of liquids. Piezoelectric meter - It is a device that
Saccharimeter - It measures the amount uses the piezoelectric effect to measure
Hydrophone - It is used to detect of sugar in the solution. changes in pressure, acceleration,
acoustic signals underwater. Salinometer - It determines the salinity temperature, strain, or force by
Hygrometer - It measures relative of solution. converting them to an electrical charge.
humidity in the air. The concentration of Seismograph - It measures the intensity Pyranometer - It is an instrument that is
Moisture present in the air is known as of earthquake shocks. used by meteorologists to measure the
humidity. solar radiation from the region of the
Sextant - This is used by navigators to
Kymograph - It graphically records find the latitude of a place by measuring hemisphere of incidence on a flat
physiological movements (Blood the elevation above the horizon of the surface.
pressure and heartbeat). sun or another star. It measures the Thermopile - It is an instrument that
Lactometer - It determines the purity of angle between two visible objects. measures small quantities of radiant
milk. heat.
Spectrometer - It is an instrument for
Manometer - It measures the pressure of measuring the energy distribution of a Bolometer - It is a device to measure
gases. particular type of radiation. infra - red radiation. Bolometer is used
for measuring radiant heat by means of a
Mariner’s compass - It is an instrument Spectroscope - An instrument used for
material having a temperature-dependent
used by the sailors to determine the spectrum analysis.
electrical resistance.
direction. Spherometer- It is an instrument used
Chronometer- It is an extraordinarily
Microphone - It converts the sound for the precise measurement of the
accurate timepiece, with an original
waves into electrical vibrations. radius of curvature of a sphere or a
focus on the needs of maritime
Phonograph - An instrument for curved surface.
navigation.
producing sound. Sphygmomanometer - It measures blood
pressure. Hypsometer - It is an instrument for
Intensity of sound (noise)- It is measuring height or elevation.
measured in Decibels. Stereoscope - It is used to view two
dimensional pictures. Pyrheliometer - It is an instrument
Machmeter- It is used to measure the designed specifically to measure the
speed of an aircraft in terms of the speed Stethoscope - An instrument which is direct beam solar irradiance.
of sound. used by the doctors to hear and analyse
heart and lung sounds. Sling Psychrometer- It is used to
Speedometer - It is used to measure the measure both the dry bulb and wet bulb
speed of the vehicle. Stroboscope - It is used to view rapidly temperatures at times.
moving objects.
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Pyrometer - It measures a very high said to travel with constant speed. ∆𝑝
F∝
temperature of the surfaces. ∆𝑡
Average speed is the total distance Which can be further derived in terms of
Reaumur Scale- It is used to measure
traveled by the object in a particular time Force, mass and acceleration.
Temperature.
interval. Force = mass x acceleration (F = m x a)
Electrocardiogram (ECG)- It is a simple If an object is moving with an actual speed.
test that can be used to check your speed of ‘x’ in uniform motion its average Example - An aircraft’s motion resulting
heart's rhythm and electrical activity. speed will also be ‘x’. from aerodynamic forces, aircraft weight,
Polygraph (commonly referred to as a lie and thrust.
Velocity (v) is defined as the speed at
detector)- It is an instrument that
which something moves in a particular Newton’s Third Law of motion : It is also
measures and records several
direction. It is displacement per unit called Action and Reaction law.
physiological responses such as blood.
time. The SI unit of velocity is metre per The third law states that for every action
Chandrasekhar limit- It is the maximum second (m/s). (force) in nature there is an equal and
mass of a stable white dwarf star. The velocity of an object can be uniform opposite reaction acting on different
Vernier caliper - It is an instrument used or variable. It can be changed by bodies.
to measure the diameter of round and changing the object’s speed, direction of
Example - Movement of horse drawn
cylindrical objects by positioning the motion or both.
carriage. Rocket propulsion technology.
jaws of the caliper on either side of the The motion of lift from an airfoil. The
Average velocity is defined as the
circumference. It was introduced in 1631 motion of a spinning ball, the air is
change in position or displacement (Δx)
by Pierre Vernier. deflected to one side, and the ball reacts
divided by the time intervals (Δt), when
In a vernier caliper, a retainer is used to an object is moving along a straight line. by moving in the opposite direction.
block a movable part to allow the easy In case the velocity of the object is In the Jet Airplanes, the gas is released
transferring of a measurement. changing at a uniform rate, then backwards in the form of a jet by the
Least Count of Vernier Caliper is 0.1 mm. Average Velocity explosion. The gas propels the airplane
Least count = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 + 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 forward by applying a reaction force,
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = which makes the airplane fly forward
2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 with a high velocity.
Acceleration (a) is the rate of change of
Uniform Motion - It is defined as the
Speed and Laws of Motion velocity. In non-uniform motion, velocity
motion of an object in which the object
varies with time. It has different values at
different instants and at different points travels in a straight line, and its velocity
Motion is a change in position of an
of the path. When an object moves in a remains constant along that line as it
object with respect to time.
circular path at a constant speed, it is covers equal distances in equal intervals
Distance - The total length traveled by an still accelerating, because the direction of time, irrespective of the duration of the
object from one point to another in a of its velocity is changing. time.
given time interval is called distance. It is The SI unit of acceleration is the meter If a body is involved in rectilinear motion
a scalar quantity. SI unit is meter. per second square or ms-2. and the motion is consistent, then the
Acceleration is defined as the change in acceleration of the body must be zero.
Distance-time graphs are used to find the velocity of an object per unit time.
the speed of objects. The slope of the 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 Non Uniform Motion - The motion of an
Acceleration = object in which the object travels with
curve in the distance-time graph 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
represents the instantaneous speed. varied speed and it does not cover the
Newton’s First Law of motion : It is also same distance in equal time intervals,
Displacement is defined as the change in called the law of Inertia. irrespective of the time interval duration.
position of an object or the shortest Newton’s first law states that every
If a body is involved in rectilinear motion,
length between initial and final position . object will remain at rest or in uniform
and if the motion is not consistent, then
It doesn’t depend on the path. It has both motion in a straight line unless
the acceleration of the body must be non
direction and magnitude. It is a vector compelled to change its state by the
- zero.
quantity. The SI unit is meter. action of unbalanced external forces.
Example - If a car covers 10 meters in
Displacement is the area under the curve Example - Passengers sitting in a the first 2 seconds and 15 meters in the
of a velocity-time graph included stopped vehicle tend to lean backwards next 2 seconds.
between itself and two time when a stopped vehicle starts moving ,
co-ordinates. shaking the tree causes its fruits to break Uniform Circular Motion - When a body
and fall down etc. moves with a constant speed in a
Speed is defined as the distance traveled circular path. Its motion is said to be the
per unit time. It is a scalar quantity and Newton’s Second Law of motion : uniform circular motion. Velocity is not
its SI unit is metre per second (m/s). The rate of change of momentum of any constant due to continuous change in
If an object covers a distance ‘d’ in time body is proportional to the force applied the direction of motion.
𝑑 and its (momentum change) direction is Example - Revolution of the earth around
‘t’, then its speed, s =
𝑡 the same as that of the force. Newton’s the sun. Second, minute and hour hands
second law gives the magnitude of force. of watch.
When the distance traveled by an object
is directly proportional to the time, it is Non Uniform Circular Motion - It is a
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circular motion when the speed of the increases. According to Hooke’s law, “the restoring
body doesn't remain constant. The body (ii) When lift accelerates downwards, the force is directly proportional to the
has both normal as well as tangential apparent weight of the person inside displacement from the equilibrium
acceleration. Its velocity would change decreases. position”.
every second. (iii) When lift is at rest or moving with
Fs = – kx , the negative sign shows that
Example - Motion of a body on a vertical uniform velocity upward or downward
the force is acting against the
circle. then apparent weight is equal to actual
displacement (x).
weight.
Rectilinear motion is the motion in which (iv) When a person in the lift falls freely, Inertia is the inherent property of a body
objects move along the straight path. So, he feels weightlessness. that makes it oppose any force that
a car moving in the straight path, lifting The weight of the body at the centre of would cause a change in its motion.
of an object up and down, the free fall of the earth is zero.
a heavy object are examples of a W = mg = 0 According to the law of inertia, an object
Rectilinear motion. (g at the centre of the earth is zero). will continue to be in the state of rest or
in a state of motion unless an external
The motion of an object moving in a
Oscillatory Motion force acts on it.
curved path is called curvilinear motion.
A stone thrown up in the air at an angle is Types of Inertia :-
A motion that repeats itself at equal
an example of Curvilinear Motion.
intervals of time is called periodic or
Inertia of Rest - When the resistance is
Projectile Motion or Parabolic motion is oscillatory motion. The to-and-fro motion
offered by the body to continue in the
the motion of an object traveling along a of an object relative to its mean position
state of rest unless an external force
path in the shape of a parabola, such as is referred to as oscillatory motion.
acts on it.
the path of a golf ball and the throwing of
Examples of Oscillatory Motion: Example - Dust particles remain at rest
a stone.
Oscillation of a simple pendulum, until the carpet is shaken.
Rotational motion can be defined as the vibrating strings of musical instruments,
movement of spring, freely hanging bob, Inertia of direction - When the resistance
motion of an object around a circular
alternating Current. is offered by the body to continue the
path, in a fixed orbit.
motion in the same direction unless an
Example - The motion of the wheel,
Simple Pendulum - The simple external force acts on it.
gears, motors, is rotational motion. The
pendulum comprises a small metallic Example - When a moving bus takes a
motion of the blades of the helicopter is
ball, called bob, of mass ‘m’ suspended sharp turn at a circular path, we fall in the
also rotatory motion.
by a thin string secured to a platform at opposite direction.
Three equations of motion its upper end of length (l).
Inertia of Motion - A body in uniform
Amplitude of a simple pendulum is motion does not get accelerated or
Velocity time equation - defined as the distance travelled by the retarded on its own. It also can not come
First Equation of motion : v = u + at. pendulum from the equilibrium position to rest on its own.
Position time equation - to one side. Example - When a car comes to stop
Second Equation of motion : Length of a simple pendulum is defined suddenly the passenger sitting inside the
1 2 car leans forward.
s = ut + at . as the distance between the point of
2
suspension to the centre of the bob and Other Examples of inertia - Tendency of
Position velocity equation - is denoted by “l”. moving back when the stationary bus
Third Equation of motion : v² = u² + 2as. starts to move, jerk experienced when
Note: If the temperature of a system
u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, changes then the time period of the the lift operates suddenly, moving
a = acceleration, s = displacement, simple pendulum changes due to a forward when a sudden break is applied.
t = time. change in length of the pendulum.
Moment of inertia is the phenomenon by
When an object is traveling in a straight Examples: In summer, the pendulum which the body in motion opposes the
line with equal increase in velocity at clocks takes more time to complete one change in its rotational motion.
equal intervals of time, then the object is oscillation because length of string The magnitude of MOI is directly
said to be in uniform acceleration. increases (due to thermal expansion) as proportional to the square of the
The motion of a freely falling body is an Time period ∝ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ . distance between the mass and the axis
example of uniform accelerated motion. of rotation.
Time period of a pendulum increases at
The motion of the body moving along a It is also called the rotational inertia of
the Moon. Gravity on moon is one sixth
circular path is an accelerated motion. the body. It is a scalar quantity.
of the gravity on the earth and time
period is inversely proportional to g i.e. Inertia is directly proportional to mass.
Retardation is when a moving object is
1 so Inertia will increase if mass
losing speed continuously with time. Time period ∝ .
𝑔 increases.
Retardation is negative acceleration.
Moment of Inertia, I = m × r2. where, m =
Apparent weight of a person inside a lift: Simple harmonic motion - A simple form
sum of the product of the mass, r =
of oscillatory motion is called Simple
distance from the axis of the rotation.
(i) When lift accelerates upwards, the Harmonic Motion (SHM).
apparent weight of the person inside The moment of inertia depends on the

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following factors - The density of the Friction force, f = µ N. acting between two electrically charged
material, shape and size of the body, axis µ = coefficient of friction, N = normal objects.
of rotation (distribution of mass relative force. Gravitational force, magnetic force,
to the axis). electrostatic force and Nuclear force are
An object slips less on rough surfaces non-contact forces.
Moment of inertia of a thin rod of mass than a smooth surface.
'M' and length 'L' about the axis Example - Applying brakes to stop a Buoyant Force - It is an upthrust force
perpendicular to the rod and passing moving vehicle. exerted by fluid opposing the weight of
2
𝑀𝐿 the object that is fully or partially
through its centre is
12
. Type of Friction :- immersed in that fluid.
Buoyancy is generally caused by the
Relativity is a theorem formulated by Static friction is defined as the frictional
differences in pressure acting on
Albert Einstein, which states that space force that acts between the surfaces
opposite sides of an object immersed in
and time are relative, and all motion must when they are at rest with respect to
a static fluid.
be relative to a frame of reference. each other. Example - Table lamp resting
on the table. Tension Force - Tension force acts when
Albert Einstein’s Theory of Relativity
encompasses two theories: a rope or string or any similar object is
Rolling friction or Rolling drag is the
pulled by forces acting from the opposite
force resisting the motion when a body
Special Theory of Relativity - It deals direction. It is directed over the length of
rolls on a surface. Example - Wheels of
with the structure of space-time (time the wire or the string.
the moving vehicles.
interval). The laws of physics are the
same for all, irrespective of the Drag Force - It is the resistant force
Sliding friction is a frictional force that
observer’s velocity. caused by the motion of a body through
appears when two bodies come into
Special relativity implies consequences a fluid. It also acts in a fluid like water or
sliding contact. Example - Sliding of the
of mass-energy equivalence, relativity of air. Drag is an example of mechanical
block across the floor.
simultaneity, length contraction, and a force.
universal speed limit. Note: Static friction > Sliding friction >
Spring Force - It is a type of restoring
Rolling friction
General Theory of Relativity - It states force. This is because the force exerted
that being at rest in the gravitational field by the spring is always in the opposite
The substances which reduce friction are
and accelerating are identical physically. direction to the displacement.
called Lubricants.
For example, an observer can see the ball
Nuclear Force - It is the force acting
fall the same way on the rocket and on Fluid friction (viscosity) is defined as the
between two neutrons, between two
Earth. This is due to the rocket’s friction that exists between the layers of
protons or between a neutron and a
acceleration, which equals 9.8 m/s2. the fluid when they are moving relative to
proton. A nuclear force is always an
each other. Examples - The flow of ink in
attractive force.
pens, break oil and engine oil.
Force and Pressure
Shear force is a force acting in a
Air resistance force - It is a force that is
Force is an external agent capable of direction that's parallel to (over the top
caused due to air when an object moves
changing a body’s state of rest or of) a surface or cross section of a body.
through it.
motion. It has a magnitude and a
Shearing Stress is defined as a type of
direction. Muscular Force - When force is caused
stress that acts coplanar with a cross
The Force can be measured using a or carried out by the action of muscles is
section of material. The SI unit is pascal.
spring balance. called muscular force. It is a contact
The SI unit of force is Newton (N). force. A longitudinal strain is defined as the
1 kg = 9.81 N. ratio of change in the length due to
Other types of contact forces are:
applied force to the original length of an
If two forces act on an object from Frictional force, Tension force, Normal
object. It is caused due to longitudinal
opposite directions, then the magnitude Force, Air Resistance Force, Applied
stress.
of the net force acting on it is the Force, Spring Force.
difference of the magnitudes of the two Tensile stress or compressive stress can
forces and which is equal to, mass х Gravitational Force - Earth exerts a pull
also be termed as Longitudinal stress.
acceleration. on all objects or bodies towards itself.
This pull is known as gravitational force.
Centripetal force - When an object
Types of Forces : As a result of gravitational force, every
moves in a circular path, a force acting
object in this universe, irrespective of its
towards the center of the object is called
Frictional Force - The force of friction size and shape, exerts some force on
centripetal force. It is responsible for the
always opposes the applied forces. every other object.
motion of the Moon around the Earth.
Friction is the force resisting the relative
motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and Electrostatic Force - It is a force applied
Exogenic forces - The forces which
material elements sliding against each by a charged body on another charged or
derive their strength from the earth's
other. It depends on the smoothness of uncharged body called electrostatic
exterior or originate within the earth's
the surfaces. When a surface is rough, force. In other words, the electrostatic
atmosphere are called exogenic forces
frictional force increases. force is an attractive or repulsive force
or external forces.
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 Pinnacle Physics
Example - Weathering and Erosion. Conservation of linear momentum : SI Unit of Torque is Newton meter.
According to the conservation of linear The unit of work and energy is also
London forces are a temporary attractive momentum, If the net external force Newton-meter or Joule.
force, and the interaction energy is acting on a system of bodies is zero,
inversely proportional to the sixth power then the momentum of the system The measure of the force that can cause
of the distance between two interacting remains constant. an object to rotate about an axis is called
particles. These forces are also known Torque.
as dispersion forces. The Jet engine works on the principle of
Conservation of linear momentum. Type of energy :-
These are the weakest intermolecular
attractive forces. Examples - gasoline Impulse is a large amount of force you Radiant energy is the physical energy
and petroleum jelly, which are mostly apply for a very short amount of time to resulting from electromagnetic radiation,
made of alkanes of varying lengths. cause a change in linear momentum. The usually observed as it radiates from a
SI unit of impulse is Newton-seconds source into the surrounding environment.
Conservative force - It is a force with the (Ns) or kg m/s. Its sources include the entire
property that the total work done in a electromagnetic radiation spectrum,
moving particle between two points is Work and Energy including gamma rays, x-rays, radio
independent of the path taken. frequencies, microwaves, light and heat.
Work is said to be done when a force is Example - Solar Thermal plant.
Properties of Conservative Forces : applied on an object and the object
Work done by it is completely reversible. moves due to the force in the direction of Nuclear energy - It is a form of energy
A conservative force is one in which work the force. released from the nucleus, the core of
done by or against it depends only on the atoms, made up of protons and neutrons.
Work Done = Force × Displacement.
starting and ending points of a motion. This source of energy can be produced in
The stored energy is reversible as work. The SI unit of work is Joule (J). It is a two ways: fission (when nuclei of atoms
scalar quantity. split into several parts) or fusion (when
Torsion balance is used to measure nuclei fuse together).
small forces. It is based on the principle When the Force of 2N moves an object of
that a wire or thread resists twisting with 2 gram, 2 meters in the direction of force Geothermal energy is the energy derived
a force that is proportional to the stress. then Work is done 4 joules. from underground heat of the earth.
A conservative force is a force with the Geothermal power plants use steam to
Pressure - It is defined as the force property that the total work done in produce electricity.
(thrust) exerted on a surface divided by moving a particle between two points is
the area. Solar energy is created by nuclear fusion
independent of the path taken.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 that takes place in the sun. It is
Pressure (P) = Gravitational force and elastic spring
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 necessary for life on Earth, and can be
The SI unit is Newtons per meter square forces are two examples of conservative harvested for human uses such as
(N/m2), and this unit is given a new forces. electricity. Solar cell panels are used to
name, Pascals (Pa) or Bar or Torr, 1 Pa = Work Done by conservative forces is convert this energy into electricity.
1 N/m2 , 1 Bar = 0.986923 atm, 1 atm = completely reversible.
1.013 bar. Mechanical energy is the energy that is
Non-Conservative force is a force with possessed by an object due to its motion
The air pressure always moves from high the property that the total work done in or due to its position. It is the sum of
pressure areas to low pressure areas. moving a particle between two points is potential energy and kinetic energy.
dependent on the path taken. Examples
Thrust - It is the force applied to a The Energy possessed by a body due to
of non conservative forces include
surface in a direction that is normal or its motion is called kinetic Energy (K.E).
frictional force, viscous force, etc.
perpendicular to the surface. It is a property of a moving object that
Thrust acting per unit area is known as Energy and Torque both of these depends not only on its motion but also
pressure i.e. physical quantities have the same on its mass. Example - Wind Turbine,
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 dimensions. falling Coconuts, speeding cars, rolling
Pressure = stones and flying aircraft.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Energy is the stored ability to do work .
According to the law of conservation of For an ideal gas at a temperature of 25
Momentum (p) is defined as the quantity
energy, energy can neither be created nor °C, the average kinetic energy per
of motion of the body.
be destroyed. We can only transfer molecule in SI units is 6.17 × 10−21 J.
Momentum of a body is the product of
its mass (m) and velocity (v), and is energy from one form to another . 1
K.E = m v2
denoted by p. Torque is defined as the vector product
2
p=mv of linear instantaneous force and the 2𝐾𝐸
The SI unit of momentum is a kilogram V=
distance of that force with the axis 𝑚
meter per second (kg m/s). around which it is rotating. Different
Momentum is a vector quantity. points on the same body may experience Potential Energy is stored energy that
The Jet engine works on the different torque. It is also called moment depends upon the relative position of
phenomenon of Conservation of Linear of force. various parts of a system.
Momentum. τ=r×F It is denoted by (U) = mgh.

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 Pinnacle Physics
Example - Spring has more potential Hydel Energy (Hydroelectric energy) - It The law of conservation of energy states
energy when stretched or compressed, is a form of renewable energy that uses that the total energy of an isolated
Hydropower plant. the power of moving water to generate system remains constant with time.
electricity.
Biological Energy is a form of renewable Wind speed above the surface of the
Example - water flowing over a waterfall.
energy that is derived from recently living liquid is called Wind gradient. It is the
organic materials known as biomass, Conversion of energy - Scientific rate of increase of wind strength with
which can be used to produce Principle behind the generation of unit increase in height above ground
transportation fuels, heat, electricity, and Hydroelectric power. level.
products. In a hydropower plant, the water stored in Power is the amount of energy
the dam has gravitational potential transferred or converted per unit time or
Light Energy is a kind of kinetic energy energy. The rate of doing work is called Power.
with the ability to make types of light 𝑊
When the water flows from higher P=
visible to human eyes. 𝑡
altitude, the Potential energy is converted
into Kinetic energy. W= Work Done, T = Time taken.
Chemical Energy is the energy which is
stored in the bonds of chemical
compounds (molecules and atoms). It is
When the flowing water rotates the
Sound
turbine, the Kinetic energy is converted
released in the chemical reaction and into Mechanical energy. Sound is defined as vibrations that travel
mostly produces heat as a by-product . The generator converts Mechanical through the air or another medium as an
Example - Diesel Generator. energy into Electrical energy. audible mechanical wave. Sound waves
Magnetic Energy is the movement of the When a stone is thrown upwards, kinetic are longitudinal waves and are
electrons in the different particles. It is energy would be converted into progressive in nature. SI unit of sound is
the movement that generates the current gravitational potential energy. decibel (dB).
that produces the behaviour of the Example of Electrical Energy to Kinetic Characteristics of Sound Wave :
electron like that of a small magnet. Energy conversion - electric motors (Fan,
The earth also possesses a magnetic Mixer, elevators). Sound is produced by vibrating objects.
field generating magnetic energy on the The matter or substance through which
earth. In the process of photosynthesis, Solar
sound is transmitted is called a medium.
Energy from the sun is converted into
It can be solid, liquid or gas. It does not
Electrical Energy is the energy generated Chemical Energy.
travel in vacuum.
by the movement of electrons from one
point to another point. Electrochemical cell or Battery is a
Loudness is a measure of the response
device which converts a Chemical energy
of the ear to the sound.
The following types of energies can be into Electrical energy through a redox
harnessed from the sea - reaction. The loudness of sound is directly
proportional to the square of the
Ocean wave energy- Kinetic energy in In Photovoltaic cells, the Light Energy is
amplitude of vibration. Unit of loudness
the waves is used to generate electricity. directly converted to Electrical Energy.
is a bell. A practical unit of loudness is
Applications in which photovoltaic cells
Ocean thermal energy - The temperature 1
are used : radio, space probes and the decibel (dB) which is th of bel.
difference at different depths of the 10
artificial satellites.
ocean is converted into mechanical and Another unit of loudness is the phon.
then into electrical energy. Photovoltaic cells generate clean and
In human beings, the vibration of vocal
green energy as no harmful gasses such
cords produce sound.
Tidal energy is power produced by the as CO2 and NO2 are released.
surge of Ocean waters during the rise Unpleasant sounds are called Noise. A
Relation between Energy (E),
and fall of tides. Tidal energy is a sound of a single frequency is called a
Capacitance (C) and Potential difference
renewable source of energy. tone. The sound which is produced due
(V) -
The capacity of a capacitor to store the to a mixture of several frequencies is
Sound Energy is the movement of energy
electric charge is called Capacitance. called a note.
through a substance and is caused by
vibrations. Solids, liquids and gasses The capacitance of a conductor is the
The amount of sound energy passing
transmit sound as waves. ratio of charge (Q) to it by a rise in its
each second through the unit area is
Potential (V)
called the intensity of sound.
Thermal Energy arises due to the motion 𝑄
C=
of atoms or molecules in the body, and it 𝑉 Solids are packed together tighter than
is measured as average kinetic energy of The unit of capacitance is Farad. liquids and gases, hence sound travels
molecules. Energy stored in the capacitor is given by fastest in solids. Liquids are more dense
1 than gases, but less than solids, so
E= CV2
Wind Energy is the most mature and 2 sound travels second fastest in liquids.
developed renewable energy. It generates If we simplify then 2E = CV2.
electricity through wind, by using the In gases, sound travels the slowest
kinetic energy produced by the effect of The English physicist James Prescott because they are the least dense, the
air currents. Joule outlined the basis of the principle molecules in gases are very far apart,
of conservation. compared to solids and liquids.
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 Pinnacle Physics
Speed of sound in a particular medium m > 1 supersonic 𝑚1𝑚2
depends on the temperature and m > 5 hypersonic Gravitational force (F) = G 2
𝑟
pressure of that medium. In any medium,
The study of the production and where, m1 is the mass of the first body,
if the temperature increases, the speed
propagation of sound waves called m2 is the mass of the second body, r is
of sound also increases.
Acoustics. the distance between the centers of two
The properties of sound are amplitude bodies.
Speed (in m/s) of sound in different
and frequency because amplitude
media at 25°C : Solids - Aluminium Universal gravitational constant,
determines the loudness of sound and
(6420), Nickel (6040), Steel (5960), Iron G = 6.674 x 10-11 m3 kg-1s-2 or N m2/ Kg2.
frequency determines its pitch. The
(5950), Brass (4700), Glass (3980); It is given by the English scientist Henry
loudness and pitch affect the quality of
Liquids - Sea water (1531), Distilled water Cavendish.
sound.
(1498), Ethanol (1207), Methanol (1103);
Gases - Hydrogen (1284), Helium (965), The acceleration due to gravity on Earth
The number of oscillations made by the
Air (346), Oxygen (316), Sulfur dioxide or the value of g on Earth is 9.8 m/s2.
wave in one second is called the
frequency of the wave. It is measured in (213).
Nature of Gravitational force :-
hertz (Hz).
Echo : When sound is reflected it causes
Gravitation is a non-contact force. It acts
The maximum displacement of a wave an echo. To hear a distinct echo the time
because of mass. It is a long-range force.
on either side of its mean position is interval between the original sound and
It is the weakest fundamental force in
called Amplitude. the reflected one must be at least 0.1s.
nature. It is always directed towards the
Echoes may be heard more than once
center of mass.
The speed of sound in a medium can be due to successive or multiple reflections.
Gravitational force doesn’t depend upon
determined by the equation:
To hear echo, the minimum distance the medium between the objects. It is
1/2
v = (K/p) between source of sound and reflecting always attractive in nature. Therefore the
Where body is 17 m. gravitational potential energy, which is
v = speed of sound, the negative of work done, is always
K = compressibility and p = density. Reverberation - A sound created in a big negative.
Speed of sound in air at 0° C = 331 m/s, hall will persist by repeated reflection
at 20° = 343 m/s. from the walls until it is reduced to a Importance of gravitational force -
Speed of sound in water (at normal value where it is no longer audible. The Earth pulls everything towards itself due
temperature and pressure) = 1498 m/s repeated reflection that results in this to gravity. It binds us to the Earth.
and at 0°C = 1402 m/s. persistence of sound is called The tides in the ocean are caused by the
Speed of sound in solid = 5000 m/s. reverberation. gravitational pull of the moon and the
sun.
The speed of sound in air at 0°C is about To reduce reverberation, the roof and
Gravitational force of earth keeps earth's
331 meters per second, or a kilometer in walls of the auditorium are generally
atmosphere in place.
2.9 s or a mile in 4.7 s. covered with sound-absorbent materials
The Moon revolves around the Earth
like compressed fibreboard, rough
because of gravity.
1 kilohertz = 1000 oscillation per second plaster or draperies.
Planets move around the sun because of
10
10 oscillation per second = The term SONAR stands for Sound gravity.
1000
Navigation And Ranging. It is a device Once a satellite is launched into orbit,
= 0.01 Kilohertz
used for measuring distance using the motion of a satellite is because of
The audible range of sound for an ultrasonic waves. Sound waves travel gravity.
average adult human being is 20 Hz - farther in the water than do radar and It is the Gravitational force that is holding
20000 Hz. More than 20000 Hz sound is light waves. all the gasses in the Sun.
considered damaging.
As light travels faster than sound, hence Gravity is a force that attracts a body
Sound with a frequency below 20 Hz is light is seen before sound is heard during towards the center of the earth or any
known as an infrasonic sound. Sound lightning. Light travels at a speed of 3 x other physical body having mass.
with a frequency above 20,000 Hz is 105 km/s (186,000 mi/s) from a Gravitational force exerted by the earth
known as an Ultrasonic sound. stationary source. Light from Moon to on the moon provides the necessary
Earth: 1.3 seconds, Sun to Earth (1 AU) : centripetal force required for the moon to
The bats emit ultrasonic waves of orbit the earth.
8.3 minutes.
frequency 20 to 100 Kilohertz and the
returning echo of the sound waves give Centrifugal force is the apparent
information about prey. Gravitation outward force on a mass when it is
rotated.
Supersonic speed is a rate of travel of an Gravitational force - Newton’s Law of
object that exceeds the speed of sound. Universal Gravitation states that the Since Earth rotates around a fixed axis,
force of attraction between any two the direction of centrifugal force is
𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 always outward away from the axis,
Mach number (m) = bodies is directly proportional to the
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
product of their masses and is inversely opposite to the direction of gravity at the
If m < 1 it is subsonic equator. At Earth's poles it is zero.
proportional to the square of the
m =1 transonic
distance between them.
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 Pinnacle Physics
Numerical Example - Let, the mass of the orbit. directly proportional to the current
two bodies be m1 and m2 respectively The orbital velocity is expressed as flowing through it, provided its
and the distance between their centers V∘ = √GM / R . temperature remains the same.
be r.
Then, the gravitational force between Relation Between Escape Velocity And This law was discovered by Georg Simon
them is given by: Orbital Velocity : Vescape = 2 Vorbital . Ohm in 1827. V ∝ I, V/I = constant, V/I =
𝑚1𝑚2 R or V = IR, Where, V- voltage, I - Electric
𝐹=G 2 The escape velocity is approximately current, R- Electrical Resistance and its SI
𝑟
1.414 times the orbital velocity. This unit = ohm(Ω)
Now, when the distance between them is relationship holds true for a circular orbit
made three times, the gravitational force around a celestial body. So, if the resistance becomes doubled
will be: then-current becomes half because the
𝑚1𝑚2 𝑚1𝑚2 𝐹 Weightlessness: It is a situation, in which current is inversely proportional to
* * *
𝐹 =G 2 ⇒𝐹 =G 2 ⇒ 𝐹 = the effective weight of the body becomes resistance.
(3𝑟) 9𝑟 9
(Force becomes one - nine of original zero. Weightlessness is achieved -
(i) during freely falling under gravity Resistance of wire depends on the
force).
(ii) inside a spacecraft or satellite length of the wire, temperature, cross-
Galileo Galilei was the first to conclude (iii) at the centre of the earth sectional area of the wire and resistivity
that in a vacuum all objects fall with the of the material.
same acceleration g and reach the Weight of a Body at the Moon: The mass 𝑙
It is given by the relation (R = ρ ).
ground at the same time. It means that and radius of the moon are less than that 𝐴

objects move with a constant speed of the earth, so the force of the gravity at
The Electrical resistivity (ρ) of a material
when no force acts on them. the moon is also less than that of the
is defined as the resistance offered to
[Link] weight of an object on the
current flow by a conductor of unit length
Three laws of planetary motion moon will be about one - sixth of what it
having unit area of cross section. ρ
is on earth.
depends on the material of the
Kepler’s First law (The Law of Orbits) -
The Coriolis force is an inertial or conductor.
According to Kepler’s first law, “All the
planets revolve around the Sun in fictional force that acts on objects that
Among conductors, Silver has least
elliptical orbits, and the Sun is at one of are in motion within a frame of reference
electrical resistivity and Nichrome has
the focus of that ellipse”. that rotates with respect to an inertial
high electrical resistivity.
frame.
Kepler’s Second Law (The Law of Equal Manganese has the highest electrical
Areas) - “A line segment joining a planet Coriolis force is responsible for the
resistivity at 20°C, as compared to the
and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in rotation of the earth around its axis.
Iron, Mercury and Chromium.
equal intervals of time”. Foucault's pendulum is an easy
It can also be stated as “The areal experiment demonstrating the Earth's The heat generated in a resistive wire is
velocity of a planet revolving around the rotation. determined by three factors: The square
sun in elliptical orbit remains constant, of the current (I2) flowing through the
The twin paradox is a thought wire. The resistance (R) of the wire
which implies the angular momentum of
experiment in special relativity involving material. The time duration (t) of current
a planet remains constant”.
identical twins, one of whom makes a flow.
Kepler’s Third Law (The Law of Periods) journey into space in a high-speed rocket
and returns home to find that the twin These are related by the equation:
- According to Kepler’s law of periods,
who remained on Earth has aged more. H = I2Rt, where H is the heat produced.
”The square of the time period of
This equation is called the Joule's
revolution of a planet around the sun in
LIGO stands for "Laser Interferometer equation of electrical heating.
an elliptical orbit is directly proportional
Gravitational - wave Observatory". It was
to the cube of its semi-major axis”. The coil of wire in an electric heater and
used to detect gravitational waves for the
T2 ∝ a3 Electric iron is called a heating element.
very first time and to develop
gravitational - wave observations as an Nichrome wire is used as a heating
Escape velocity is the minimum velocity
astronomical tool. element because it is very stable, even at
required by a body to be projected to
high temperatures.
overcome the gravitational pull of the
earth. Electric Current A current - carrying wire composed of a
composite material that melts at a
Escape velocity at the earth's surface is A switch is a simple device used to either moderate temperature is called a fuse
11.2 km/s. break an electrical circuit or complete it. wire.
2𝐺𝑀
Escape velocity (V) = The purpose of a switch in a series Fuse wire has a low melting point and
𝑅
where, ‘G’ is the gravitational constant, circuit is to make it easy to open or close high conductivity. A lead and tin alloy
‘M’ is the mass of the planet, ‘R’ is the the electrical circuit, turning the flow of with a low melting point and high
radius from the center of gravity. electricity on or off. conductivity is used to make fuse wire.
The orbital velocity of a satellite is Ohm's law states that The potential A fuse protects an electric circuit from
defined as the minimum velocity required difference, V, across the ends of a given overloading. An electrical fuse is a safety
to place or maintain a satellite in a given metallic wire in an electric circuit is device that operates to provide

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 Pinnacle Physics
protection against the overflow of current direct current (DC). induction states that The magnitude of
in an electrical circuit. the induced emf in a circuit is equal to
PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) is an electric the time rate of change of magnetic flux
A fuse rating is the current need to blow insulator. Electric wires are generally through the circuit.
(break) the fuse. The fuse rating is coated with Polyvinyl chloride.
usually defined in Ampere. The current EMF (Electromotive Force (ε)) is the
rating of the fuse mainly depends on its The electric power is given by P = VI,
voltage or electrical potential difference
operating temperature. where V is the potential difference, I is
produced by a cell or battery when it is
the electric current and P is the electric
not connected to an external circuit. EMF
Electrons move for the flow of current in power.
is measured in volts (V).
a conducting metallic wire only if there is
SI Unit of electric power is watt and its
a difference of electric potential. An Michael Faraday introduced the concept
larger unit is kilowatt. kilowatt hour is the
electron is a negatively charged of electric field for the first time.
commercial unit of energy.
subatomic particle. An electric field is created by a charged
Watt is the unit of electrical power equal
body in the space that surrounds it and
1 Ampere of current carries 6.25 × 1018 to one ampere under the pressure of one
results in a force exerted on any other
electrons. volt.
charges placed within the field.
Electric charge is a scalar quantity. The relation between power (P), current
(I) and resistance (R) is P = I2R. An electric dipole is a pair of equal and
Electric charge is the physical property of opposite point charges q and –q,
matter that causes charged particles to separated by a distance 2a. By
Potential difference is defined as the
experience a force when placed in an convention, the direction from –q to q is
amount of work (W) done by an external
electromagnetic field. said to be the direction of the dipole. The
agent in moving a unit charge (Q) from
The SI unit of electric charge is the mid-point of locations of –q and q is
one point to another point in the circuit.
coulomb (C). called the centre of the dipole. The total
𝑊
It is given by: V = .
𝑄 charge in an electric dipole will be zero.
If a charge Q flows through the
cross-section of a conductor in time t, Kirchhoff's first law (Junction Rule) is An ammeter is an instrument used to
𝑄 based on the conservation of charge
then the current I = . measure the electric current in a circuit.
𝑡
because the sum of current entering the
In a circuit, electrons flow from negative junction is equal to sum of current Voltmeter is a device used to measure
to positive. leaving the junction. the electric potential difference between
∑I = 0 (Junction Rule) two points or nodes in a circuit.
One ampere is constituted by the flow of
one coulomb of charge per second. Kirchhoff's second law (mesh rule) A Galvanometer is a sensitive device
Ampere (A) is the SI unit of electrical (Loop Rule) states that the algebraic used to detect very low current. Its
current. sum of potential drops in a closed working is based on the principle that a
electrical circuit is zero. It follows the coil placed in a uniform magnetic field
An electrical circuit is a network
Principle of Conservation of Energy. experiences a torque when an electric
consisting of a closed loop, giving a
∑V = 0 (Loop Rule) current is set up in it.
return path for the current.
The current in the bulb will stop flowing if Coulomb’s Law - According to this law, Rheostat is a variable resistor with two
the circuit is broken. the force between two charged bodies is terminals, used to control or limit the
directly proportional to the product of the flow of current in an electrical circuit by
In Series connection, The total resistance
magnitude of the two charges and manually adjusting its resistance value.
is equal to the sum of the individual
inversely proportional to the square of
resistances. Equivalent resistance Rn = R1 Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of
the distance between them. It acts along
+ R2 + R3 + R4 ……. + Rn. four resistors used for accurate
the line joining the two charges
considered to be point charges. This Law measurement of resistance. The
In a parallel circuit, the voltage is the
is valid for only point charges. Wheatstone Bridge Circuit comprises
same across all resistors, but the current
𝑞1.𝑞2 two known resistors, one unknown
is divided among them.
F=k 2 resistor and one variable resistor
𝑟
The total resistance (Rtotal) in a parallel connected in the form of a bridge. This
Force between the two electric charges
combination is the sum of the individual bridge is very reliable as it gives accurate
reduces to a quarter of its former value
1 1 1 1 measurement. The Wheatstone bridge
resistances ( , , , ...... ): when the distance between them is
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛 works on the principle of null deflection,
doubled.
i.e. the ratio of their resistances is equal,
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ...... + . and no current flows through the circuit.
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛 Gauss law states that the total flux linked
with a closed surface is 1/ε0 times the
Capacitance - It is the ability of a circuit
Electric circuits use two forms of electric charge enclosed by the closed surface.
to collect and store energy in the form of
current, Alternating Current (AC) and Electric flux through a closed surface S
an electrical charge. The Wien bridge is
direct current (DC) . 𝑞
= used to measure the value of
A rectifier is a device that converts an ε0
Capacitance.
oscillating two-directional alternating
Faraday's first law of electromagnetic
current (AC) into a single - directional
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A capacitor is a device that stores The resistivity of a semiconductor Nobel Prize for Physics in 1923 for the
electrical energy in an electric field. decreases with the increase of measurement of the elementary electric
Capacitors are used in digital circuits so temperature. charge and for his work on the
the information stored in large computer photoelectric effect.
memories is not lost during a When a small amount of a suitable
momentary electric power failure. impurity is added to the pure The photoelectric effect is a
The electric field in the region between semiconductor. The conductivity of the phenomenon where electrons are
the conductors is proportional to the semiconductor is increased manifold . emitted from the metal surface when
charge Q. The deliberate addition of a desirable light of sufficient frequency is incident
𝑄 impurity is called doping and the impurity upon it.
C= atoms are called dopants. Such a
𝑉
An Inverter is an electronic device that
The constant C is called the capacitance material is also called a doped
converts low voltage direct current into
of the capacitor. C is independent of Q or semiconductor.
high voltage alternating current; it is also
V. The capacitance C depends only on
There are two types of dopants used in a battery that converts chemical energy
the geometrical configuration (shape,
doping the tetravalent silicon (Si) or into electrical energy.
size, separation) of the system of two
conductors. The SI unit is 1 farad . Germanium(Ge):
Electrical conductivity, a measure of a
Pentavalent (valency 5); like Arsenic (As),
material's ability to conduct electric
Resistor is a passive electrical Antimony (Sb) and Trivalent (valency 3);
current. ‘mho’ is the unit of electrical
component with two terminals that are like Indium (In), Boron (B).
conductivity of a substance.
used for either limiting or regulating the
flow of electric current in electrical The dopant behaves as an electron Transformer is a device used to change
circuits. donor or electron acceptor. the A.C. voltage without changing the
frequency between the circuits.
A diode is a two-terminal semiconductor Metals are good conductors due to the
device. It allows the unidirectional flow of presence of free electrons and when we A transformer consists of two sets of
current and offers high resistance in the increase the temperature the metal ions coils, insulated from each other. One of
opposite direction. start vibrating which leads to the the coils called the primary coil has Np
increase in resistance so the conductivity turns. The other coil is called the
Inductance - It is the tendency of an is decreased. secondary coil, it has NS turns. Often the
electrical conductor to oppose a change Silver, Copper and Gold are good primary coil is the input coil and the
in the electric current flowing through it. conductors of electricity. secondary coil is the output coil of the
transformer. There are two types of
A transistor is a semiconductor device Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white metal.
transformer:
used to amplify or switch electrical Compared to other metals, it is a poor
Step up transformer, converts low
signals and power. It is also called conductor of heat, but a fair conductor of
voltage AC into high voltage AC.
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). There electricity. It is the only metal which is in
Step down transformer, converts high
are mainly two types of transistors: n-p-n liquid state at room temperature.
voltage AC into low voltage AC.
transistor and p-n-p transistor. Three
segments of a transistor are emitter, Non - metals are bad conductors of A transformer is an inductive electrical
base, collector. electricity because they do not have free device for changing the voltage of
electrons except Graphite. At room alternating current
A thermistor is a resistance temperature, bromine is the only Transformer works on Faraday's law of
thermometer, or a resistor whose non-metal that exists as a liquid. mutual induction.
resistance is dependent on temperature.
A set of equations involving electric and The full form of LED is Light Emitting
Conductors are the materials, through magnetic fields, and their sources, the
which an electric charge is readily Diode.
charge and current densities are known
transferred. They conduct electricity as Maxwell's equations. A cell is a device that generates
because they have free electrons which Maxwell first used the equations to electricity by using chemical energy.
move easily inside them. Example: propose that light is an electromagnetic In the symbol for the electric cell, the
Aluminum, copper or any metal. phenomenon. thicker, shorter line represents the
Materials that don't have free charge negative terminal. The longer, thinner
In 1785, Charles Augustin Coulomb vertical line represents the positive
electrons and provide high resistance to
used the calibrated torsion balance to terminal.
electricity are called poor conductors of
measure the force between electric
electricity or Insulators, such as Hard Types of cells are Primary Cell,
charges.
Rubber, wood and Plastic, Glass, Secondary cell, Reserve cell, and Fuel
Diamond etc. Albert Einstein was awarded a Nobel cell.
Prize in 1921 for his services to
Semiconductors are the materials which
Theoretical Physics, and especially for Primary cells are non-rechargeable and
have a conductivity between conductors
his discovery of the Law of the must be discarded after use, while
and non-conductors or insulators, such
Photoelectric Effect. secondary cells (like lead-acid batteries)
as Germanium and silicon.
can be recharged and reused multiple
Robert Andrews Millikan was an times by reversing the current flow.
Semiconductors can be pure elements,
American physicist honored with the
such as silicon, germanium, gallium etc.
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 Pinnacle Physics
Common AA batteries have a nominal produced around it. The magnetic field conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
voltage of 1.5V and are widely used in produced by a current carrying straight experiences a force. This force is directly
household gadgets like remotes, toys, wire depends inversely on the distance proportional to the current and is also
and wireless appliances. These are from it. perpendicular to its length and magnetic
typically alkaline or zinc-carbon primary field.
cells. Right-Hand Thumb rule- If the thumb of
the right hand points along the direction Fleming’s left-hand rule - If the thumb,
Silver oxide cells, Mercury cells, and Zinc of current, then the remaining curled forefinger and middle finger of the left
air cells are used in watches. fingers of the same hand gives the hand stretched such that they are
direction of the magnetic field due to the mutually perpendicular to each other,
Domestic electric circuits - Normally in current. It is also known as Maxwell’s then the thumb points towards the
houses, we receive AC electric power of Corkscrew rule. direction of the magnetic force, the
220 V with a frequency of 50 Hz. The forefinger points towards the direction of
neutral wire has black insulation. Magnetic field at the center of a circular the magnetic field and the middle finger
Livewire has a voltage of 220 V and is current carrying coil - Magnetic field points towards the direction of current.
covered with red insulation. Earth wire produced will be more concentrated in
has a voltage of 0 V (same as Earth) and the center of the loop than outside the Electric motor- It converts electrical
is covered with green insulation. loop. energy into mechanical energy.

Magnetic field due to current in a Maxwell Effect - It is a phenomenon of

Magnetic Field Solenoid - The direction of the flow of electromagnetic induction in which an
the magnetic field in a solenoid is from electric charge, near a solenoid in which
Magnetic Field is the region around a the north pole to the south pole and current changes slowly, feels an
magnetic material or a moving electric Current flowing through the coil produces electromotive force (e.m.f.) even if the
charge within which the force of a magnetic field that has north and south magnetic field is practically static inside
magnetism acts. Magnetic field is a poles like a bar magnet. and null outside.
vector quantity that has both direction
and magnitude. Magnetic flux is defined as the number Lenz's law - "The direction of the induced
of magnetic field lines passing through a current is always such that it opposes
The radius of curvature of a charged given closed surface. the cause by which it is produced." Lenz's
particle’s passage in a homogenous It provides the measurement of the total law is based on the law of conservation
magnetic field is proportional to magnetic field that passes through a of energy. This law was derived by the
momentum of particles. given surface area. The net magnetic flux German physicist Heinrich Friedrich Lenz
through any closed surface is zero. It is a in 1834.
Magnetic Field Lines - Magnetic field
Scalar Quantity. The SI unit of magnetic
lines are imaginary lines, which depict Induce e.m.f = Rate of change of flux
flux is Weber (Wb).
the strength and direction of the 𝑑ϕ
magnetic field. e.m.f = -N
Magnetic flux (ϕB) = B.A cosΘ. 𝑑𝑡
ϕB = Magnetic flux, B = Magnetic field e.m.f is the induced voltage (also known
Properties of magnetic fields lines -
force, A = Area of the surface through as electromotive force).
They emerge from the north pole and which flux passes. 𝑑ϕ = change in magnetic flux, 𝑑𝑡 =
merge at the south pole. They never change in time.
The Neutral point in the magnetic field of
cross each other. The density of the field
a horizontally positioned bar magnet is In other words Lenz law states that the
lines indicates the strength of the field,
the point where the magnetic field is current induced by a change in flow
meaning when field lines are crowded it
zero. opposes the effect producing the
shows a strong magnetic field. They
change.
always make closed loops. A tangent line Magnetic flux density is the amount of
drawn at any point to the magnetic field magnetic flux in an area taken The induced current is highest when the
line gives the direction of the resultant perpendicular to the magnetic flux’s direction of motion of the coil is at right
magnetic field at that point. direction. It is denoted by the symbol B angles to the magnetic field.
and its unit is tesla.
Magnetic lines of forces inside a bar Electromagnets - A type of magnet that
magnet emerge from the south pole to The magnetic field strength around a is created by passing an electric current
the north pole of the magnet. current-carrying wire increases with through a coil of wire. They work on the
higher current and decreases with principles of electromagnetism and they
Magnetic field due to a current-carrying create electromagnetic fields. They are
greater distance from the wire. When the
conductor - French scientist André Marie temporary magnets with a strong
distance between the wire and a point
Ampère suggested that a magnet also magnetic field.
decreases, the magnetic field strength at
exerts an equal and opposite force on a
that point increases.
current carrying conductor. Electromagnetic Induction - It is a
current produced because of voltage
Magnetic field due to a straight current Force on a Current Carrying
production (electromotive force) due to a
carrying conductor - When current is Conductor in a Magnetic Field changing magnetic field. Michael
passed through a straight current Faraday discovered electromagnetic
-carrying conductor, a magnetic field is Ampere’s experiment - When an electric
induction.
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Applications of Electromagnetic into a voltmeter. A voltmeter is always
Heat and Thermodynamics
Induction - AC generators,magnetic flow connected in a parallel connection with
meter, electrical transformers work on the circuit. Thermodynamics is the branch of
the principle of electromagnetic physics that deals with the concepts of
induction. Galvanometer as Ammeter - connecting
heat and temperature and the
a shunt resistance in parallel connection
inter-conversion of heat and other forms
A Solenoid is a type of electromagnet with a galvanometer, it can be converted
of energy. Thermodynamics is a
formed by a helical coil of wire whose into an ammeter. An ammeter is always
macroscopic science.
length is substantially greater than its connected in a series connection with
diameter, which generates a controlled the circuit. Heat is the form of energy transferred
magnetic field. between two or more systems and its
Cyclotron - It is a machine that boosts
surroundings by virtue of temperature
The magnetic field inside a solenoid is charged particles' energy levels. Created
difference. It is transferred from a
proportional to the current, number of in 1934 by E.O. Lawrence and M.S.
warmer substance to a colder one. The
turns and inversely proportional to Livingston, it explores nuclear structures.
SI unit of heat energy transferred is
length. The magnetic field inside the By using electric and magnetic fields
expressed in joule (J).
solenoid is uniform throughout. together, it accelerates these particles.
Magnetic Length (Lm) - The Magnetic The Zeroth law of thermodynamics
The Toroid - It is a doughnut-shaped length is the distance between the two states that ‘When two systems are in
hollow circular ring with several turns of poles of the magnet. Geometric length thermal equilibrium with a third system ,
insulated wire twisted so close together (Lg) - It is the actual length of the magnet. then those two systems will also be in
that there is no room between [Link] is
thermal equilibrium with each other’.
used as an inductor in electronic circuits, The relationship between geometric
especially at low frequencies where length (Lg) and magnetic length (Lm) is The term Zeroth law of thermodynamics
comparatively large inductance is 5 was coined by Ralph H Fowler in 1931.
𝐿𝑚 = 𝐿 .
necessary. 6 𝑔
William Thomson is known as the Lord
Electric generator - The device that The Law of Orsted, in electromagnetism, Kelvin in the honour of finding the correct
converts mechanical energy into is the physical law stating that a value of Absolute zero is − 273.15
electrical energy. It operates on the magnetic field is created by an electric degrees Celsius or − 459.67 degrees
principle of electromagnetic induction. current. Fahrenheit.

Electric generator and electric motors Retentivity - The capacity of a magnet to Around 1850 Rudolf Clausius and
work on the principle of Fleming's right hold its magnetism even after being William Thomson (Kelvin) stated both the
and left-hand rule respectively. exposed to demagnetizing forces. First Law and the Second Law of
Thermodynamics.
Biot-Savart's Law - The magnetic field is The ability of a magnetic field to
directly proportional to the length of the magnetize a material medium is called The First law of thermodynamics is also
element and the sine of the angle formed its magnetic intensity (H). known as the Law of Conservation of
by the line joining the element to that Energy. It states that energy can neither
point P. The magnetic field is inversely Magnetic properties of materials :
be created nor be destroyed, energy can
proportional to the square of the only be transferred or changed from one
Ferromagnetic Materials are those which
distance r from the point P. This relation form to another.
strongly magnetize in the direction of an
is called Biot-Savart's law.
applied magnetic field. Its examples are
The equation of the first law of
Magnetic Force - It is an attraction or Iron (Fe), Nickel (Ni), Cobalt (Co).
thermodynamics:
repulsion that arises between electrically ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW,
Permanent magnets are made from
charged particles because of their where,
special alloys (ferromagnetic materials)
motion. ΔU - change in internal energy of the
such as iron, nickel and cobalt, several
alloys of rare-earth metals and minerals system, ΔQ = Heat supplied to the
Lorentz force - It is defined as the force
such as lodestone. Steel is highly system by the surroundings , ΔW = Work
exerted on a charged particle moving
effective for making permanent done by the system on the surroundings.
through an electric field and a magnetic
field. Hendrik Lorentz derived the modern magnets.
The Law of Conservation of Energy
formula of the Lorentz force in 1895.
Diamagnetic Materials are those which states that energy can neither be created
Moving Coil Galvanometer - A are easily magnetized in the opposite nor be destroyed; it can only be
galvanometer is an electrical device used direction when placed in a magnetic transformed from one form to another
to measure the small value of currents. field. Examples: Copper (Cu), Lead (Pb), form.
It works on the principle that a Silicon (Si), Nitrogen (N) etc. The equation represents conservation of
current-carrying coil experiences torque Paramagnetic Materials are those which energy
when placed in a magnetic field. weakly magnetize in the direction of an E = mc2
applied magnetic field. Examples : where, E is energy, m is mass, c is speed
Galvanometer as Voltmeter- connecting Aluminium (Al), Sodium (Na), Calcium of light
a shunt resistance in series connection (Ca) etc.
with a galvanometer, it can be converted
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The Second Law of Thermodynamics where, used on a daily basis: Clinical
gives a fundamental limitation to the Q is the heat transferred per unit time, hc thermometer / medical thermometer,
efficiency of a heat engine and the is the coefficient of convective heat Laboratory thermometer, Mercury
coefficient of performance of a transfer, A is the area of heat transfer of thermometer, Pyrometer thermometer.
refrigerator. The Second Law was the body , Ts is the surface temperature,
originally formulated in terms of the fact Tf is the fluid temperature. Steam point is the temperature at which
that heat does not spontaneously flow the maximum vapor pressure of water is
from a colder body to a hotter. Radiation - It is a form of heat transfer equal to one atmosphere. It has the value
that is moved from one place to another of 100°C on the Celsius scale and 212°F
There are two statements on the second by electromagnetic radiation waves or on the Fahrenheit scale.
law of thermodynamics: rays no medium is required for heat
transfer in this method. Example: In a Triple point is defined as the condition of
Kelvin - Planck statement - it is microwave, the substances are heated the temperature under which the
impossible to devise a heat engine that directly without any heating medium. gaseous, liquid and solid phase of a
can absorb energy in the form of heat as substance can exist in equilibrium.
well as produce work of an equivalent The equation to calculate the rate of
amount i.e. no device bears 100% radiation is as follows: The Celsius Scale is also called the
thermal efficiency. 4 4
P = e.σ. A.(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 ) centigrade scale based on 0° for the
freezing point of water and 100°C for the
Clausius statement - It is impossible to Where, P is the net power of radiation, A
boiling point of water. Invented in 1742
construct a system which will operate in is the surface area of the body , T is the
by the Swedish astronomer Anders
a cycle, transfers heat from the radiator temperature, Ts is the
Celsius.
low-temperature reservoir (or object) to surrounding temperature, e is emissivity
the high-temperature reservoir (or object) and σ is Stefan’s constant (σ = 5.67×10-8 Thermal expansion is the tendency of
without any external effect or work Wm-2K-4 ) matter to change its shape, area, volume,
interaction with the surrounding. and density in response to a change in
Temperature is a physical quantity that
temperature.
Metals are good conductors of heat. expresses the degree of hotness or
Example: Steel rod, Silver, Iron, Copper coldness of a body. The Eiffel tower gets taller in summer
and Aluminium etc. because of the thermal expansion.
The dew point is the temperature to
Thermal expansion is a phenomenon due
Woolen thread, water, and wooden plank which air must be cooled to become
to which the metal expands when heated
all are insulators (poor conductors of saturated with water vapor, assuming
and contracts when cooled.
heat). constant air pressure and water content.

Air temperature is a measure of how hot There are three types of thermal
Modes of Heat transfer or cold the air is. It is the most commonly expansion:
measured weather parameter.
Conduction - The process of Temperature is usually expressed in Linear expansion - The expansion in
transmission of energy from one particle degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius. length due to heat is called linear
of the medium to another with the expansion.
particles being in direct contact with Relative humidity (RH) is a measure of ∆𝐿
𝐿
= α . ∆𝑇
each other. the percentage of moisture present in the
atmosphere as compared to its full Where, L = original length, α = coefficient
Example: When frying vegetables in a capacity at a given temperature is known linear expansion , Δt = temperature
pan heat transfer takes place from flame as the relative humidity. difference, ΔL = change in length
to the pan and then to the vegetables.
Surface Air temperature - The Area expansion -The expansion in an
The rate of conduction can be calculated
temperature of the air near the surface of area due to heat is called area
by the following equation:
[𝐾.𝐴.(𝑇ℎ𝑜𝑡 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑)] the earth. expansion.
Sea Surface temperature - The ∆𝐴
Q=
𝐿 𝐴
= αA .ΔT
temperature of water close to the ocean's
where, Q is the transfer of heat per unit surface. where,
time, K is the thermal conductivity of the A = original area, ΔA = change in the
body, A is the area of the cross section, A clinical thermometer (medical area, αA = coefficient of area expansion,
Thot is the temperature of the hot region, thermometer) reads the temperature ΔT = temperature difference
Tcold is the temperature of the cold from 35°C to 42°C.
region, L is the length of the body. Volume expansion - The expansion in
Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt was a British volume due to heat is called volume
Convection - The movement of fluid physician and he invented a small clinical expansion.
molecules from higher temperature thermometer. ∆𝑉
= αV .ΔT
regions to lower temperature regions. 𝑉
Example: Heating of milk in a pan. Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit invented a where,
The equation to calculate the rate of quicker mercury thermometer in 1714, V = original volume, ∆V = expanded
convection is as follows: and the Fahrenheit temperature scale. volume, αV = coefficient of volume
Q = hc.A.(Ts - Tf) expansion, ΔT = temperature difference.
There are some thermometers that are
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The sun heats the earth through Newton’s law of constant viscosity. Density (ρ) - It is defined as the ratio of
radiation. The Sun is the star at the Example - water and air. the mass to the volume. The SI unit of
center of the Solar System. The Sun density is measured in kilograms per
radiates this energy mainly as light, Non-Newtonian fluids are the fluids that cubic meter (kg/m3).
ultraviolet, and infrared radiation, and is have a variable viscosity and a variable
the most important source of energy for relationship with shear stress. These Adhesion: The attraction of two separate
life on Earth. The radiation is a form of fluids do not obey Newton’s law of molecules, such as the water molecules,
energy that does not require a medium to constant viscosity. consisting of hydrogen and oxygen, and
travel. Example - salt solutions, blood, paint, straws made of plastic.
toothpaste, and starch solutions.
Condensation - The process of Cohesion: The attraction of two identical
transformation of a substance in a Properties of fluid: molecules, such as in between
gaseous state into a liquid state due to Viscosity (μ) - It is the property of fluid molecules of water.
change in pressure or temperature of the (liquid or gas) which offers resistance to
Surface tension - It is the tendency of
substance is called condensation. It the movement of one layer of fluid over
liquid surfaces to shrink into the
depends upon the amount of cooling and another layer of fluid.
minimum surface area possible. These
the relative humidity of the air. Newton's viscosity formula is as follows: inward forces on the surface molecules
𝑢 of the liquid droplet tend to cause the
Passive solar heating is the concept of Force (F) = μA here,
𝑦 surface to volume ratio to be as small as
using sunshine to keep houses warm in μ=viscosity of the fluid, A = area of each possible.
freezing winters. It refers to the use of 𝑢
the sun's energy for the heating and plate, = rate of shear deformation. Examples of surface tension: water
𝑦
cooling of living spaces by exposure to droplets of rain always take a round
the sun. The SI unit is the poiseuille (Pl), with shape, insects walking on water and
other units being N s m⁻² or Pa s. Its Needles floating (or paper clip) on water.
The latent solar heating required to dimensions are [ML⁻¹T⁻¹].
convert a solid into a liquid or vapor, or a Capillary action occurs when the
liquid into a vapor, without change of Types of viscosity - adhesion between liquid and solid is
temperature. greater than the cohesion of the fluid. It
There are 2 types of Viscosity: is also known as capillary effect or
Relation between Kelvin, Celsius and motion. The liquid flows through narrow
Dynamic viscosity is the resistance to
Fahrenheit scale spaces without external forces, such as
movement of one layer of a fluid over
𝐹 − 32 𝐶 𝐾 − 273 gravity. The liquid's movement is aided
180
=
100
=
100 another. The SI unit is newton-second
by intermolecular forces present in
per square meter (N.s/m2) or pascal
between the liquid and solid surface(s).
Humidity is the concentration of water second.
vapour present in the air. Humidity is Examples of Capillary action: In pen, ink
inversely proportional to the rate of Kinematic viscosity is expressed as the rises due to capillarity. In plants, the
evaporation, decreasing humidity ratio of fluid dynamic viscosity to its water is transferred to the leaves from
increases the rate of evaporation. density. The SI unit is square meter per the roots by capillarity. Cotton clothes
second or m2/s. The Gaussian unit of absorb water by capillarity. The rise of
Kinematic viscosity is Stokes (St).
Fluid Mechanics any oil in the wick. Water moving up in
straw or glass tubes against gravity.
Fluidity - It is the ability of a substance
Fluid - It is a liquid or any substance to flow. It is reciprocal of viscosity. Fluid at rest - When the fluid is at rest the
that continuously flows or deforms under The SI unit of fluidity is (Pa s)-1 or 1/Pa s. velocity gradient is zero, therefore no
applied shear stress. Example - gasses shear stress/force will be acting and no
(oxygen, hydrogen), liquids (water, petrol, Turbidity - It is the measure of relative external force is acting on it, the only
sulphuric acid). clarity of a liquid. It is measured by a force present is due to gravity and
nephelometer or turbidimeter. pressure of the fluid.
Fluid statics is the part of fluid NTU is the Nephelometric Unit of
mechanics that deals with fluids when turbidity. Pascal's Law - According to this law any
there is no relative motion between the force applied to a confined fluid is
fluid particles. Specific Weight (γ) - It is defined as transmitted uniformly in all directions
Example - Drink using a straw. weight per unit volume. The SI unit for throughout the fluid regardless of the
specific weight is (N/m3). shape. Hydraulic lift and hydraulic brakes
Fluid dynamics is the study of the are based on Pascal's law.
movement of fluids, including their Specific Gravity (ρ) or Relative density is
interactions as two fluids come into the ratio of the density (mass of a unit When a glass bottle with water is kept in
contact with each other. volume) of a substance to the density of a freezer, the water inside the bottle
Example - Water flowing through a a given reference material. expands due to lowering of the
pipeline, or across a surface. temperature, which can lead to sudden
Relative density of some substances: bursting of the water bottle.
Newtonian fluids are fluids having a Silver - 10.8, Gold - 19.3, Mercury - 13.6,
Copper - 8.4, Iron - 7.8, Lead - 11.3, Water Water contracts on heating from 0°C to
constant viscosity and a zero shear rate
- 1, Honey - 1.42, Milk - 1.03. 4°C and expands from 4°C to 100°C, it
at zero shear stress. These fluids obey
has the minimum volume and maximum
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 Pinnacle Physics
density of 4°C i.e. anomalous behavior of
Waves crest, so the minimum or lowest point in
water. a cycle.
Wave is a form of disturbance which
Archimedes’ principle - The buoyant
carries energy that travels through a Based on necessity of medium
force acting on an object in a liquid
material medium due to the repeated
medium will be equal to the weight of the Mechanical Waves - These waves
motion of the particles of the medium
liquid displaced by that object. In other propagate through a material medium
about their mean positions without any
words, the buoyant force acting on an (solid, liquid or gas) at a wave speed that
actual transportation of matter.
object partially or fully immersed in a depends on the elastic and inertial
liquid medium is equal to the weight of Wave Speed = Frequency × Wavelength properties of that medium. Newton’s
the liquid displaced by the object. laws of motion govern these waves.
v=f× λ
These waves cannot pass through
Applications of Archimedes’ Principle: λ 1
Ships, Submarines, Floating (Ice Cube), v= {∴ f = } vacuum.
𝑇 𝑇
Examples - waves on a string, water
Hydrometer, Lactometers, Swimming,
Properties of waves : waves, sound waves, and seismic waves.
Hot Air Balloon.
Buoyant Force is an upward force Amplitude - The maximum displacement L waves are earthquake waves that are
exerted on an object that is partially or of an oscillating particle from mean surface waves.
completely immersed in water. It helps position is amplitude. The amplitude of a
swimmers float in water. wave is measured in meters. Non-mechanical Waves do not need any
It denotes the energy contained in the medium to propagate and can easily
Buoyant force is given by : Fb = ρ x g x V. travel through vacuum. Example -
wave. The wave that has more amplitude
Here, Fb = buoyant force. ρ = density of Electromagnetic waves, Gravitational
is more powerful and energetic.
the fluid. V = submerged volume, g = Waves.
acceleration due to gravity. Wavelength - The minimum distance
between two points in a wave having the Based on direction of particle motion
Bernoulli’s theorem - It states that as the waves are divided into 2 types
same phase at a particular instant of
speed of a moving fluid (liquid or gas)
time.
increases, the pressure within the fluid Transverse waves - The wave in which
Wavelength is calculated as the distance
decreases. particles do not oscillate along the line of
between two successive troughs or
wave propagation but oscillate up and
It is applicable to steady, incompressible, crests of the wave.
down (perpendicular) about their mean
irrotational flow along a streamline when
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑣) position as the wave travels. Example -
the effect of viscosity is neglected. Wavelength (λ) =
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑓) Light, radio waves, microwaves, ocean
Mathematically,
waves, wiggling strings and polarized
1 2
P+ ρv + ρgh = constant. Wave frequency - Number of waves waves.
2
passing by a specific point per second.
where, P is pressure, ρ is the density, v is
Frequency of a wave is the reciprocal of Longitudinal waves propagate in a
the velocity, g is the acceleration due to
the time period. Its SI unit is hertz (Hz). direction parallel to the direct
gravity and h is the height.
1 displacement or disturbances. Here, the
frequency (f) =
This equation is based on the 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 (𝑇) wave particles vibrate to and fro in the
conservation of energy . direction of the propagation of the wave.
Application - spray guns, venturi meters, Time Period of Wave - It is the total time
nozzles. that a wave takes to complete a single There is a zero - degree angle formed
cycle. It is measured in seconds. between the wave particles and the
The Swiss Physicist Daniel Bernoulli 1 energy particles. It can also be put as the
Time Period (T) =
developed this relationship in 1738. 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑓) displacement of the medium occurs in
the direction of the movement of the
Poiseuille's Equation - It is a physical law Wave velocity - It is the distance traveled wave. Examples - sound waves, pressure
that gives the pressure drop in an by waves per unit time. waves, seismic P waves.
incompressible and Newtonian fluid in Wavelength divided by the time period is
laminar flow flowing through a long equal to wave velocity. Doppler Effect - When there is relative
cylindrical pipe of constant cross Wave velocity (v) = frequency (f) × motion between a sound source and a
section. wavelength (λ). listener, the frequency of the sound heard
by the listener is lower or higher than the
Fick's law states that the rate of diffusion Wave height - It is the overall vertical original frequency. This is called the
is proportional to both the surface area change in height between the crest and Doppler effect. Christian Johann Doppler
and concentration difference and is the trough. gave the Doppler effect in 1842.
inversely proportional to the thickness of
the membrane'. Wave speed - It is the distance a wave One of the examples is the pitch of the
travels in a given amount of time. siren on an ambulance or fire engine. You
Fluid mixing can be described as the may have noticed that as the high-speed
incorporation of one immiscible liquid Wave crest and trough - A crest is a siren passes you, the pitch of the siren
into another immiscible liquid. point on a surface wave where the suddenly drops in pitch. First, the siren is
displacement of the medium is at a coming towards you when the pitch is
maximum. A trough is the opposite of a high.
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Uses of Doppler Effect - Sirens, Radar, about 0.1 meter to 1 mm corresponding Gamma Rays - The wavelengths of these
Astronomy, Medical Imaging. to frequencies between 300 MHz and waves range from about 10
−10
m to
300 GHz respectively. −14
Water waves are an example of a 10 m. Gamma rays are the shortest
combination of both longitudinal and Microwaves are generally used in RADAR wavelengths and the highest frequencies
transverse motions. systems due to the fact that they have of electromagnetic induction. It has no
longer wavelengths and low frequencies. charge, they are considered neutral. It
Electromagnetic waves - These are the So they can be focussed along a straight has a strong penetrating ability. It is the
waves that require no material medium line without much deviation. strongest form of radiation. An important
for their production and propagation. application of Gamma rays is their
Microwaves fall in the range of the EM
They can pass through a vacuum and extensive use in medicine to destroy
spectrum between radio and infrared
any other material medium. cancer cells.
(IR). It is used in modern technology
All electromagnetic waves have the such as wireless networks, spacecraft Matter waves - These waves are related
same speed in a vacuum (c) whose value communication, medical diathermy, and to the constituents of matter - protons,
is: c = 299,792,458 (3 × 108) m/s. cancer treatment. electrons, and neutrons. They are more
conceptual than mechanical or
Klystron - the thermionic tube used to
A changing magnetic field will induce a electromagnetic waves.
oscillate and amplify microwave
changing electric field and vice-versa, These waves are also referred to as De
frequency signals.
whereas the two are linked. These Broglie waves. They find application in
changing fields form electromagnetic Infrared Rays - ‘Heat Waves’ is another electron microscopes.
waves. name for Infrared rays. Water molecules
Examples - gamma rays, X-rays, present in most materials readily absorb Oscillations motion - When any object
ultraviolet light, Visible light, infrared these rays. After absorption, their moves over a point repetitively then this
waves, microwaves radio waves. thermal motion increases which type of motion of the object is the
increases their heat and that of their Oscillatory Motion. The oscillating
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves - surroundings. movement takes place around an
travel with the speed of light, can be equilibrium point or a mean value.
polarized, show a transverse nature, Infrared waves are electromagnetic The to and fro or ‘back and forth’ motion
carry momentum. radiation with wavelengths longer than of an object is termed as vibration.
those of visible light. Example - The motion of the pendulum,
Electromagnetic Spectrum : Alternating Current, Tuning Fork, Freely
Many physical therapy treatments use hanging bob.
The electromagnetic spectrum is Infrared lamps. These rays also play an
generally divided into seven regions, in important role in maintaining the earth’s Magnetic Resonance Imaging uses a
order of decreasing wavelength and average temperature through the combination of a large magnet and radio
increasing energy and frequency. greenhouse effect. waves to view the organs and organs
structures inside our bodies.
Ultraviolet Rays - It is a form of It is often used for disease detection,
electromagnetic radiation with diagnosis, and treatment monitoring.
wavelengths shorter than that of visible
Where, light, but longer than X-rays. Computed tomography (CT) is an
R - Radio waves, M - Microwave waves, I - It covers wavelengths ranging from imaging procedure that uses special
Infrared waves, V - Visible spectrum, U - about 4 × 10–7 m (400 nm) down to 6 × x-ray equipment to create detailed
Ultraviolet rays, X - X-Rays, Y - Gamma 10–10 m (0.6 nm). pictures, or scans, of areas inside the
rays UV waves are invisible to the human eye, body.
some insects, such as bumblebees, can
Types of Electromagnetic Wave see. Fluoroscopy is an imaging technique that
uses X-rays to obtain real - time moving
Radio Waves have the longest Ordinary Glass absorbs Ultraviolet (UV) images of the interior of an object.
wavelengths in the electromagnetic rays. Many water purifiers use UV lamps
spectrum. Its frequency range is to kill germs in water. They are used to A Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
approximately from 500 kHz to 1000 destroy the bacteria and for sterilizing scan is an imaging test that can help
MHz and wavelengths approximately surgical instruments. They help to find reveal the metabolic or biochemical
from 1 mm to 100 km. the structure of atoms. function of your tissues and organs.
Examples - Cellular Networks, RADAR, The technique is based on the detection
X - Rays are electromagnetic radiation of radioactivity emitted after a small
TV, Radio Astronomy, Satellite
similar to visible light. X - rays have amount of a radioactive tracer is injected
Communication etc.
higher energy and can pass through into a peripheral vein.
In the 1890s Guglielmo Marconi used most objects including our body.
radio waves to transmit signals over Fresnel's equations - It describes the
X - rays are used as a diagnostic tool in reflection and transmission of
distances of several kilometers.
medicine and as a treatment for certain electromagnetic waves at an interface
Microwave is a form of electromagnetic forms of cancer. It covers wavelengths between different optical media.
radiation with wavelengths ranging from from about 10-8 m to 10-13 m. X - rays can
damage or destroy living tissues. Huygens' principle states that every
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 Pinnacle Physics
point on a wavefront may be considered Solid ＜ Liquid ＜ Gas ＜Vaccum. Scattering of light - The process by
as a source of secondary waves. Example - Air > Water > Glass > Diamond. which small particles present in the
8
In air (3 × 10 m/s), in water (2.26 × 10
8 atmosphere cause scattering of light
Schrodinger wave equation - It is a 8 resulting in optical phenomena such as
mathematical expression describing the m/s), in glass (2 × 10 m/s), in diamond
8
the blue color of the sky.
energy and position of the electron in (1.25 ×10 m/s).
space and time, taking into account the Types of Scattering :
matter wave nature of the electron inside Sunlight takes about 8 minutes 20
seconds to reach the earth. Elastic Scattering - If the energy of the
an atom.
scattered light is conserved, then such

Light and Optics Optics Ray scattering is called elastic scattering.

Example - Rayleigh Scattering and Mie
Reflection of light - The phenomenon of Scattering.
Light - It is a type of electromagnetic
radiation that allows the human eye to bouncing back of light in the same Inelastic Scattering - If the energy of the
see or makes objects visible. Light medium on striking the surface of any scattered light is not conserved, then
always moves in a straight line. Light object is called reflection. such scattering is called inelastic
travels at a faster rate than sound. scattering. Example - Raman Scattering
Types of Reflection -
and Brillouin Scattering.
Optics is the branch of physical science
that deals with the properties and Specular or regular reflection - It is Factors affecting scattering of light - Size
phenomena of both visible and invisible defined as light reflected from a smooth of particle, Wavelength of light.
light and with vision. surface at a definite angle like a
reflection on a bathroom mirror, the lake The relationship between scattering and
Photonics is the physical science of light and the glare on a pair of glass. wavelength is given by
waves. 1
Diffuse reflection - It is the reflection of scattering ∝ 4 , where, λ is the
Incident ray: The light ray which strikes λ
light from a surface such that a ray
the surface. wavelength of light.
incident on the surface is scattered at
And, wavelength of light is given by the
Reflected ray: The light ray which returns many angles rather than at just one
following equation
from the surface after reflection. angle.
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑣)
Wavelength (λ) =
Normal: An imaginary line perpendicular Multiple reflections - When we take two 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦(𝑓)
to the surface passing from the point of mirrors, a single source of light can be
reflected multiple times like in a barber's Application of Scattering of Light :
contact.
shop. The sky appears blue as the light gets
Angle of incidence: Angle between the scattered by the particles present in the
incident ray and the normal. The size of the irregularities on the atmosphere. During sunset and sunrise,
surface in relation to the wavelength of the sky appears red due to the scattering
Reflected Angle: Angle between the
the light incident on the surface of light. Light is scattered least at Noon
reflected ray and the normal.
determines whether rays are reflected in because the sun is overhead, and the
Basic Properties of Light : a regular or irregular pattern. distance between the Sun and the Earth
Light has the dual nature of a wave and a becomes least.
Laws of Reflection -
particle (known as photon). It can act as
The sequence of colours in light is
a particle at times, that explains why light First Law - According to the first law of arranged from shortest wavelength to
travels in straight lines. reflection, when a ray of light strikes a longest and is called the visible spectrum
The Photoelectric effect demonstrates mirror and gets reflected back then the of light. The sequence is: Violet, Indigo,
the particle nature of light. angle of incidence is equal to the angle Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red
of reflection. (VIBGYOR). The light wave which has
It can function like a wave at times, that I = R, Where, I = Angle of incidence, R = less wavelength or more frequency will
explains how light bends (or diffracts) Angle of reflection. scatter more.
around an object.
Second Law - According to the second
Raman Effect, discovered in 1928, deals
The speed of light is the same for all law of reflection the incident ray,
with the scattering of light by molecules
electromagnetic waves. reflected ray, and the normal lie on the
of a medium when they are excited to
same plane on the surface of reflection.
Light radiation travels at a speed of vibrational energy levels. Raman was
approximately 29,97,92,458 (m/s) or 3 × Application of Light Waves: It is mainly awarded the Nobel prize in Physics in
108 m/s in a vacuum. used in telescopic equipment used for 1930 for his discovery of Raman
research purposes. Obstacle Detection scattering (scattering of light).
The wavelengths and frequencies of
by Cleaning Robot, Atmospheric
electromagnetic waves distinguish them Rayleigh Effect is a phenomenon of
observations are made using laser
from one another {wavelength (λ) is scattering of light or other
beams, early detection of cancer and
inversely related to frequency (f)}. electromagnetic radiation by particles
dementia, multifunction sensors for
1 much smaller than the wavelength of the
λ∝ smartphones, exploring the interior of
𝑓 radiation.
objects without destruction, product
Relative Speed of light : manufacturing and eyesight correction.

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Refraction of light - When the light closest to that of crown glass. The 45° → 7
travels from one medium to another refractive index (n) of crown glass is 60° → 5
medium other than the vacuum, it about 1.52. 120° → 2 (symmetrically)
deflects from its path. This deflection of 120° → 3 (asymmetrically)
Refractive index of different mediums -
light is called refraction of light. 180° → 1
Ethyl Alcohol (1.36), Ice (1.31), Water
0° → infinite
Laws of Refraction : (1.333), Air (1.0003), Diamond (2.417),
Vacuum (1) and Glass (1.50). Lateral inversion is the phenomenon of
First law - The first law of refraction left side appearing right side and right
states that the incident ray, the refracted Total Internal Reflection (TIR) -
side appearing left side on reflection in a
ray and the normal to the interface of two Phenomenon in which waves arriving at
plane mirror.
transparent media at the point of the interface from one medium to
another are not refracted into the second A real image can be obtained on a
incidence, all lie in the same plane.
medium, but completely reflected back screen, whereas a virtual image cannot.
Second law - The second law states that into the first medium. Uses and applications of Plane Mirror -
the ratio of the sine of the angle of At home in daily life, especially in the
incidence to the sine of the angle of Optical fibers work on the principle of
bathroom and bedroom and as a wall
refraction is a constant. This law of total internal reflection. When a light ray
mirror.
refraction is also termed as Snell's law. strikes at the internal surface of an
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 optical fiber cable such that the In homemade periscope and
= constant. incidence angle is greater than critical kaleidoscope used by children. In SLR
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
This constant is the refractive index (n). angle, then the incident light ray reflects camera and overhead projector. As
in the same medium and this optical levers in scientific instruments.
When a ray of light passes through a phenomenon repeats. In this way a light
rarer medium to a denser medium, the Spherical Mirror :
signal travels from one end of the cable
refracted ray comes closer to the normal The spherical mirror forms the virtual or
to another end.
while the ray of light passes through a real image because spherical mirrors
Mirage is also an application of TIR.
denser medium to a rarer medium, the have a consistent curve and constant
refracted ray moves away from the radius of the curvature. On the basis of
Plane Mirror
normal. the surface painting, spherical mirrors
Example - When a pencil is placed in a The most common mirrors that are flat in are of two types, concave and convex
glass filled with water, the pencil appears shape are called ‘plane mirrors’. mirrors.
crooked. A coin is placed in a tub full of
water, then the coin appears slightly Plane mirrors are built by putting a thin Terms used in Spherical Mirror -
above the bottom of the tub. layer of silver nitrate or aluminium behind
Pole - It is the midpoint of a mirror.
a flat piece of glass. In a plane mirror,
Centre of Curvature - It is the centre of
Application of Refraction of Light : when a light ray strikes, the incidence
the sphere of which the mirror forms a
In nature, the formation of rainbows and angle equals the reflection angle.
part.
mirages are because of the refraction of
light. Concave and convex glasses are Properties and Characteristics of a Radius of Curvature - It is the distance
used to correct the refractive errors of Plane Mirror : between the pole and the centre of the
human eyes. Image is formed behind the mirror. curvature. It is twice the focal length of
The image is virtual and erect. the mirror.
Peepholes in the doors, magnifying
The image is of the same size as that of
glasses, binoculars, cameras, lenses in Principal Axis - It is an imaginary line
the object, i.e., magnification = 1.
the projectors use the principle of passing through the pole and the centre
The distance of the object from the
refraction of light. of curvature of the spherical mirror.
mirror (object distance, o) is the same as
The Sun is visible to us two minutes that of the image from the mirror (image Focus - It is the point on the principal
before the sunrise and two minutes after distance, i). axis on which all the light rays after
the sunset because of the bending of the Hence, the plane mirror equation is: i = o reflection meet actually or appear to
light due to atmospheric refraction. Plane mirrors show a lateral inversion of meet.
light.
Light coming from the star undergoes Concave Mirror - When the inner surface
continuous refraction due to change in Multiple Reflections of Light of a spherical mirror is reflected and the
density of air. This results in the twinkling outer surface is painted, it is called a
of stars. If the object is placed symmetrically to concave mirror. Concave mirrors reflect
the system, then the number of images and focus incoming light rays (parallel) at
Refractive index is a property of a 360° a point, called the focus point.
material that describes how the speed of formed by this system, (n) = -1
θ
light is affected when it travels through Concave mirrors are also called
If the object is placed asymmetrically to
that material. It is denoted by the symbol converging mirrors since light rays
the system, then the number of images
μ. 360°
converge after reflection at concave
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 (𝑐) formed by this system, (n) = mirrors. Uses - Vehicle headlights,
θ
μ=
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝑣)
. searchlights, torches, solar furnaces,
Angle Number of images microscopes, telescopes, shaving
Canada balsam has its refractive index 30° → 11 mirrors, dental mirror and makeup
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 Pinnacle Physics
mirrors. Introduction lens : A lens is an optical after the refraction is called first principal
element made of transparent material focus. And a point on the principle
Image formation by a concave mirror for like glass and bounded by the two curved focuses about which a parallel ray of
different positions of the object : surfaces which can refract the light rays beam appears to diverge after the
such that either they converge or diverge. refraction is called second principal
Position Position of Size of the Nature of
focus.
of the the image image the image
Two types of lenses -
object Lens formula for convex and concave
At infinity At the focus Highly Real and Convex lenses - The lens which has two lenses -
F diminished inverted
convex surfaces and converges the light The lens formula is the relation between
point-sized
rays is known as convex lens. Convex the focal length of lens, position of object
Beyond C Between F Diminished Real and
and C inverted lens also known as a converging lens or and position of [Link] lens Formula
At C At C Same size Real and Magnifying lens. 1 1 1
is - =
inverted The convex lens is thin at the corner of 𝑣 𝑢 𝑓
Between Beyond C Enlarged Real and the lens and thick at the middle of the SI unit of power of lens = Diopter.
C and F inverted lens. This lens can produce real and where, f = focal length, v = distance of
At F At infinity Highly Real and virtual both types of images. image from the lens, u = distance of
enlarged inverted object from the lens.
Between Behind the Enlarged Virtual and Concave lenses - A lens which has
P and F mirror erect concave surfaces and diverge rays of Magnification formula = Height of
light is known as concave lens, concave Image/ Height of Object. m = h'/h
Convex Mirror - When the outer surface lens also known as a diverging lens. A another formula for magnification in
of a spherical mirror is reflected and the concave lens is the lens which is thin at lenses Magnification = v/u
inner surface is painted, it is called a the center and thick at the corner. where v is image distance, u is object
convex mirror. Concave lenses always form virtual distance.
Convex mirrors are also known as images.
Nature, position and relative size of the
diverging mirrors since they reflect light image formed by a convex lens for
Related Terms -
outwards. They do not converge light to various positions of the object :
one prime focus point. Center of curvature - The center of the
Position of Position of Relative size Nature of
Uses - Rear-view mirrors in vehicles, sphere of which the surface of a lens is a
the object the image of the image the image
Security purposes in buildings, side part, is called center of curvature. As the
lens has two surfaces it has two centers At focus F2 Highly Real and
mirrors of cars and ATMs.
of curvatures. At infinity diminished, inverted
Nature, position and relative size of the Radius of curvature - Distance between point-size
image formed by a convex mirror : center of curvature and surface of lens is
Between F2 Diminished Real and
Position of Position of Size of the Nature of called radius of curvature. Beyond 2 F1 and 2F2 inverted
the object the image image the image
Optical Center - The point in the lens At 2F2 Same size Real and
At infinity At the focus Highly Virtual
from which a ray passes through without At 2F1 inverted
F, behind the diminished, and erect
mirror point-sized deviation. Optical center situated at the
Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and
Between Between P Diminished Virtual center of the lens.
Between F1 inverted
infinity and and F, behind and erect Aperture - refers to the opening of the and 2F1
the pole P the mirror
diaphragm of a lens that spatially limits At infinity Infinitely Real and
of the large or inverted
the propagation of light.
mirror At focus F1 highly
Principal Axis - An imaginary axis which enlarged
Sign Conventions :
passes through the centers of curvature
Distances measured along the direction
of the lens. Between On the same Enlarged Virtual
of the incident ray are taken as positive.
focus F1 side of the and erect
Distances measured opposite the Principle Focus - It is different for both
and optical lens as the
direction of the incident ray are taken as the lenses. A lens has two focuses. centre O object
negative. Distances measured above the
Focal length is the distance of the
principal axis are positive. Distances Nature, position and relative size of the
principal focus from the pole.
measured below the principal axis are image formed by a concave lens for
negative. For convex lenses - A point on the various positions of the object :
principle axis, the rays coming from
Mirror formula - The mirror formula is Position of Position of Relative size Nature of
become parallel to the principal axis after
the relationship between the focal length the object the image of the image the image
the reflection is called first principle axis. At infinity At focus F1 Highly Virtual and
of the mirror, the object's distance u from
And a point on the principle axis on diminished, erect
the pole of the mirror, and the image's
which a parallel ray of light will converge point-sized
distance v from the pole.
after the reflection is called second Between Between Diminished Virtual and
1 1 1
= + principal focus. infinity and focus F1 erect
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣 optical and optical
where, u = Object distance, v = Image For concave lens - A point on the centre O of centre O
distance and f = Focal length. principle axis at which the incident ray the lens
appears to meet will become parallel
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The Human Eye Correction - Hypermetropia or long - Optical instruments
sightedness can be corrected by wearing
It is a natural optical instrument which is spectacles containing Convex lenses. Periscope is used for the navigation of
used to see objects by human beings. the ships while remaining under water or
Presbyopia - It is caused by a hardening submerged. It works on the principle of
It is like a camera which has a lens and of the lens of the eye and weakening of reflection of light. Periscope makes use
screen system. In humans, specialized ciliary muscle, which occurs with ageing. of two plane mirrors at each end
sense organs are capable of receiving
Correction - It can be corrected by positioned parallel to each other at a 45°
visual images, which are then carried to
wearing spectacles having bifocal lens angle.
the brain.
and progressive lens.
Microscope - It is an instrument that
Eyes lens form a real and inverted image
Astigmatism - It is a kind of defect in the makes an enlarged image of a small
on the retina.
human eye due to which a person cannot object, thus revealing details too small to
Optic nerves - The retina is connected to see (focus) simultaneously horizontal be seen by the unaided eye.
the brain through the optic nerve. The and vertical lines both. The most familiar kind of microscope is
sensation of image formation on the the optical microscope, which uses
Astigmatism can be corrected by using
retina is transferred to the brain by the visible light focused through lenses.
cylindrical lens which have different
optic nerve. curvature in horizontal as well as in Uses - Analyzing Tissues, Studying
vertical direction. Forensic Data, Examining the Structure
Retina - The lens system of an eye of an Atom.
forms an image on a light-sensitive
screen known as the retina. It contains Shadow The gnomon is the part of a sundial that
two photoreceptor cells namely cone and casts the shadow, and it is probably also
A shadow is a dark area where light from
rod cells. the world's oldest astronomical
a light source is blocked by an opaque
instrument. It is used in solar clocks.
Cones - Cones are the nerve cells that object.
are more sensitive to bright light. They
Opacity is defined as the quality of not Dispersion
help in detailed central and colour vision.
letting light pass through.
When white light passes through a glass
Rods - Rods are the optic nerve cells that Substances can be categorised into prism, it separates into its spectrum of
are more sensitive to dim lights. They transparent, translucent, and opaque, seven colors and this process is known
help in peripheral vision. based on the transmission of light as Dispersion.
through them.
The minimum distance of distinct vision
Rainbow - It is an optical phenomenon
for a young adult person with no defect
Opaque - These substances do not that can occur under certain
in eyes is 25 cm.
allow the transmission of light through meteorological conditions. It is caused
We cannot see objects in dim light when them. The causes behind opacity are by reflection, refraction and dispersion of
coming from a bright place because the absorption, scattering and reflection. light in water droplets resulting in an
iris contracts the pupil to allow less light Example - Wood, metal, A wooden bat effect similar to a spectrum of light
to enter the eye. and frying pan. appearing in the sky. It takes the form of
a multicoloured circular arc.
Defects of vision and their Transparent - The property of
transmitting light without appreciable Rainbows caused by sunlight always
corrections scattering so that bodies lying beyond appear in the section of sky directly
are seen clearly. opposite the Sun.
Myopia (Short sightedness)- It is a kind
Example - Water, Sunroof, Air, Sun rays are white in color and a mixture
of defect in the human eye due to which
Sunglasses, Window Glass, Lense, Prism. of seven colors. It is usually called
a person can see near objects clearly but
he cannot see distant objects clearly. VIBGYOR.
Luminous Objects are which emit light
It happens due to Excessive curvature of on their own. Example - Sun emits its Violet light has the shortest wavelength,
cornea and Elongation of the eyeball. own light, stars, torch, candle. which means it has the highest
frequency and energy.
Correction- Myopia or short-sightedness Non-luminous objects are which can not Red has the longest wavelength, the
can be corrected by wearing spectacles emit light on their own. Example - The shortest frequency, and the lowest
containing concave lenses. moon, earth and other planets, paper, energy.
tree. Violet is the most dispersed when white
Hypermetropia (Long sightedness) - It is
The Moon is visible only due to reflected light passes through a prism.
a kind of defect in the human eye due to
light.
which a person can see distant objects Gold and copper happen to absorb blue
properly but cannot see the nearby Translucent - Objects through which we and violet light, leaving yellow light. So
objects clearly. can only see partially and the objects on gold and copper are yellowish in color.
It happens due to Decrease in power of the other side are not clearly visible, are The white colour of light is formed when
eye lens i.e., increase in focal length of known as translucent. Example: Oiled red, blue, and green colours of light meet
eye lens and Shortening of eyeball. paper, tissue paper, colored sunglasses.

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in equal proportion. The primary colors off of clouds after sunset or before
Nuclear Physics
of light are red, blue and green. sunrise, or to direct sunlight that occurs
near sunset or sunrise. Nuclear physics is the study of the
A secondary colour is a color made by Stimulated Brillouin scattering - It is a nucleus of atoms and the forces that
mixing two primary colours in a given nonlinear scattering effect involving govern its behavior. It deals with nuclear
colour space. acoustic phonons. interactions and reactions like: Nuclear
Example - Red + Green = Yellow, Green +
fusion, Nuclear fission, Radioactive
Blue = Cyan, Blue + Red = Magenta. Circle of confusion - In optics, a circle of
decay etc.
confusion (CoC) is an optical spot
Different colours of light bend through
caused by a cone of light rays from a Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two
different angles with respect to the
lens not coming to a perfect focus when or more atomic nuclei are combined to
incident ray, as they pass through a
imaging a point source. It is also known form one or more different atomic nuclei
prism. White light is composed of seven
as disk of confusion, circle of and subatomic particles.
different colours. All these colours,
indistinctness, blur circle, or blur spot.
deviate by a different angle. Thus, we see
these colours when light passes through Barrel Distortion - When straight lines
Nuclear fusion characteristics
a prism. are curved inwards in the shape of a
barrel, this type of aberration is called Nuclear fusion produces much more
Tyndall effect - The Tyndall effect is the energy than nuclear fission.
“barrel distortion”.
scattering of light as a light beam passes Electricity production through this
through a colloid. The individual Zeeman Effect is a phenomena in process is commercially less viable than
suspension particles scatter and reflect physics and astronomy which involves nuclear fission.
light, making the beam visible. The the splitting of a spectral line into two or Nuclear Fusion reactions power the Sun
Tyndall effect was first described by more components of slightly different and other stars.
19th-century physicist John Tyndall. frequency when the light source is
placed in a magnetic field. The device named ‘Tokamak’ is
Examples - Visible rays of sunlight,
associated with Atomic fuel. Tokamak is
Scattering of car light in fog, light shined
The lumen (lm) is the unit of luminous a device used in nuclear-fusion research
through milk, blue coloured Iris, smoke
flux, a measure of the total quantity of for magnetic confinement of plasma.
from motorcycles, opalescent glass, blue
visible light emitted by a source per unit The fusion reaction in the Tokamak will
colour of sky.
of time, in the International System of be powered with deuterium and tritium,
Units (SI). two isotopes of hydrogen.
Light-emitting diode
Fiber optics - It is the science of The hydrogen bomb (or) H-bomb is also
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a transmitting data, voice, and images by known as the thermonuclear bomb.
semiconductor device that emits light the passage of light through thin, These bombs have greater destructive
when an electric current flows through it. transparent fibers. power compared to atomic bombs.
These hydrogen bombs are the result of
Determines the colour - The two primary Polarisation of light - The process of nuclear fusion reactions.
materials used in LEDs are aluminium, transforming unpolarized light waves to
gallium, indium, phosphide alloys and polarized light waves is called the ‘Magnetic confinement plasma’
indium gallium nitride alloys. Aluminium polarisation of light. Polarisation of light approach is the scientific principle of
alloys are used to obtain red, orange and is a property shown by transverse waves. Fusion reactor.
yellow light, and indium alloys are used It is an approach to generate
to get green, blue and white light. Slight Polarised light has electric fields thermonuclear fusion reactor power that
changes in the composition of these oscillating in one direction, whereas uses magnetic fields to confine fusion
alloys change the colour of the emitted unpolarised light has electric fields fuel in the form of a plasma.
light. oscillating in all directions.
Nuclear Fission
Polarised light is coherent in nature
Applications - TV Backlighting,
whereas unpolarised light is incoherent
Smartphone Backlighting, LED displays, When a heavy nucleus splits into two
in nature.
Automotive Lighting, Dimming of lights lighter nuclei, such a reaction is called
Apart from the red and green Interference of light is the phenomenon nuclear fission.
wavelengths of sunlight, the wavelength in which two monochromatic waves Uncontrolled nuclear fission is used in
of yellow in sunlight is absorbed by water superpose to form the resultant wave. nuclear bombs.
molecules in the ocean. When sunlight Controlled nuclear fission used to
Monochromatic light contains light with generate heat in nuclear reactors.
hits the ocean, some of the light is
a single wavelength. Example - Sodium Nuclear fission was discovered in
reflected back directly but most of it
lamp is a source of monochromatic light. December 1938 by chemists Otto Hahn
penetrates the ocean surface and
White light is not monochromatic but and Fritz Strassmann and physicists Lise
interacts with the water molecules.
polychromatic instead. Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch.
Alpenglow - It is the phenomenon by A Non-Monochromatic light is used in an
which mountain tops acquire a rosy or Deuterium oxide (Heavy water, 2H2O or
experiment on the photoelectric effect.
orange hue around sunrise and sunset. It D2O) is a form of water that contains only
is either the indirect sunlight reflection deuterium (2H or D, also known as heavy

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 Pinnacle Physics
hydrogen) rather than the common Boron, Cadmium, and Gadolinium are the There are two units used for
hydrogen-1 isotope (1H or H, also called best neutron-absorbing substances by measurement of radioactivity:
protium) that makes up most of the the capture process. becquerels (Bq, international unit) and
hydrogen in normal water. Pure heavy curies (Ci, U.S. unit).
water is not a radioactive substance. A control rod is a device that is used to
absorb neutrons so that the nuclear Transducer is a device that converts
Heavy Water is an excellent moderator chain reaction taking place within the energy from one form to another. Usually
due to its high moderating ratio and low reactor core can be slowed down or a transducer converts a signal in one
absorption cross section for neutrons. stopped completely by inserting the rods form of energy to a signal in another.
further, or accelerated by removing them
Heavy Water is used as a primary coolant slightly. Piezoelectric transducers are used in
to transport heat generated by the fission seismographs to measure vibrations in
reaction to secondary coolant, light A nuclear reactor shield is fitted around rockets. Also used by automotive
water. the reactor to absorb any radiation from industries to measure detonations in
leaking into its immediate environment. engines and ultrasonic imaging in
Graphite is used as a moderator because Nuclear reactor shield is made of Lead medical applications.
they reflect the fast moving neutrons. or special types of plastics, shielding is
Nuclear power reactors do not produce necessary for both the transportation Temperature transducer is used to
direct carbon dioxide emissions. and storage of radioactive neutron measure the temperature of the air such
sources. that to control the temperature of several
Tritiated water is a radioactive form of control systems like air-conditioning,
water in which the usual protium atoms Alpha particles consist of two Protons heating, ventilation, and so on.
are replaced with tritium. In its pure form and two Neutrons bound together into a
it may be called tritium oxide (T2O or Ultrasonic transducers are key
particle exactly like a helium nucleus.
3
H2O) or super-heavy water. Pure T2O is components in sensors for distance, flow
They are generally produced in the
corrosive due to self-radiolysis. and level measurement as well as in
process of alpha decay. Alpha particle
power, biomedical and other applications
has a charge +2 and can be represented
Nuclear fusion and fission release energy 4 of ultrasound.
through Einstein's equation, E=mc², E = as He2+. or 𝐻𝑒 .
2 The main advantage of an ultrasonic
Energy, m = mass , c = Speed of light. It’s temperature transducer is that it can
called the theory of relativity and this William Thomson invented the current measure rapid temperature fluctuation.
phenomenon illustrates the principle of balance, also known as the Kelvin
mass-energy equivalence, where mass balance or Ampere balance (SiC), for the Pressure sensors for monitoring
can be converted into energy and vice precise specification of the ampere. pressure & levels in plant/factory
versa, as described by Einstein's automation.
Marie Curie won the 1911 Nobel Prize in
equation.
Chemistry for her discovery of the
Discoveries
A particle accelerator is a machine that elements polonium and radium, using
uses electromagnetic fields to propel techniques she invented for isolating Zacharias Jansen made the first
charged particles to very high speeds radioactive isotopes. compound microscope.
and energies, and to contain them in well
Solar power is the conversion of energy X - Ray was discovered by Wilhelm
- defined beams.
from sunlight into electricity, either Roentgen in 1895. He received the first
A betatron is a cyclic particle accelerator. directly using photovoltaics (PV) or Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901.
that uses the electric field induced by a indirectly using concentrated solar
varying magnetic field to accelerate power. Hideki Yukawa, received the nobel prize
electrons (beta particles) to high speeds in 1949, for the discovery of the theory
in a circular orbit. The process by which Earth makes heat of nuclear forces.
is called radioactive decay. It involves
The Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope the disintegration of natural radioactive Electromagnetic Telegraph was invented
(GMRT), located near Narayangaon, Pune elements inside Earth - like Uranium. by Carl Fredrich Gauss and Wilhelm
in India, is a low-frequency radio Uranium is a special kind of element Eduard Weber in 1833.
telescope that helps investigate various because when it decays, heat is
radio astrophysical problems ranging produced. It is the heat that keeps Earth Guglielmo Marconi was awarded the
from nearby solar systems to the edge of from cooling off completely. Nobel prize in Physics in 1909, along
the observable universe. Radioactive energy powers the Earth’s with Karl Ferdinand Braun for the
internal heat engine. development of Practical wireless
Liquid sodium is used as a coolant in telegraphy.
nuclear reactors to absorb the energy Radioactivity is the phenomenon in
released from the reaction and transfer it which nuclei of a given species Joseph Henry conducted early
to the water in steam generators to transform by giving out α or β or γ rays; experiments on electromagnetic
produce steam which is then used to turn α-rays are helium nuclei; β-rays are induction and inductance. Faraday and
the turbines to generate electricity. Other electrons. γ-rays are electromagnetic Henry collaborated in 1831 to further
coolants in nuclear reactors - Heavy radiation of wavelengths shorter than explore and understand this
Water, Carbon dioxide. X-rays. phenomenon.

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 Pinnacle Physics
Isaac Newton was the first to use a glass Percy Spencer discovered the space, that differ in symmetry and
prism to split sunlight into its spectrum. Microwave. geometry.
His book "Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica" explains Henri Becquerel was awarded half of the Geiger and Nuttall found an empirical
Newton's laws of motion and universal Nobel Prize for the discovery of relationship between the half life of alpha
gravitation. He also discovered that radioactivity Physics in 1903, the other decay and the energy of the emitted
prisms split light and invented the half being given to Pierre and Marie Curie alpha particles in 1911.
Reflecting Telescope, using mirrors for their study of the Becquerel radiation.
Lord Rayleigh is famous for the
instead of lenses.
Carl Anderson received the Nobel Prize discovery and isolation of Argon.
In 1820, Hans Christian Oersted linked in Physics in 1936 for the discovery of a
positively charged particle called the John Tyndall showed that gases
electricity and magnetism by showing an
‘positron’ in 1932. including carbon dioxide and water
electric current could deflect a compass
vapour can absorb heat.
needle.
J J Thomson discovered the electron in
1897. He won the Nobel prize in Physics Lewis Waterman invented the capillary
Andre - Marie Ampere named the
in 1906 for his work on the conduction of feed fountain pen.
science of electrodynamics, now known
as electromagnetism. Ampere was electricity in gasses.
Ian Donald was an obstetrician who
named after Andre - Marie Ampere. developed ultrasound diagnostics.
James Chadwick discovered the neutron
Devid Gross said that “Physics is always in 1932. In 1935, he won the Nobel Prize David Hughes invented the Carbon
a gamble.” He was awarded the 2004 in Physics for his discovery of the Microphone.
Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery neutron.
of asymptotic freedom. Rudolf Diesel invented an efficient,
The photoelectric effect was discovered compression ignition, internal
Stephen Hawking is best known for his by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz in 1887. In this combustion engine in the 1890s.
discovery that black holes emit radiation effect it is observed that shining
which can be detected by special ultraviolet light on the electrodes caused Max Planck won the Nobel prize in
instrumentation. a change in voltage between them. Physics in 1918 for the discovery of
‘Energy Quanta’.
The father of black hole theory is John James Watt established the unit of
horsepower that is equal to one horse Werner Karl Heisenberg received the
Michell.
doing 33,000 foot pounds of work in one Nobel Prize in Physics 1932 for the
Alfred Nobel was the inventor of minute. creation of quantum mechanics.
dynamite in 1866. Dynamite is an Superconductivity was discovered by
explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents Doppler weather radar is an instrument
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911. He
and stabilizers. that sends pulses of electromagnetic
was also awarded the Nobel Prize for
energy into the atmosphere to detect
Physics in 1913.
Louis-Victor de Broglie discovered the rainfall, determine its speed and intensity,
wave nature of electrons. He was and identify precipitation types such as John Ambrose Fleming invented the first
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for snow, rain or hail. thermionic valve or vacuum tube.
this discovery in 1929.
Benjamin Franklin Inventions - The
Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in
John Bardeen discovered the theory of Franklin stove, The lightning rod, and
1794.
superconductivity. bifocals.
Stephanie Louise Kwolek was an
William Bradford Shockley, John Luigi Galvani is known for Bioelectricity
American chemist who is known for
Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain (animal electricity).
inventing Kevlar. She invented the
jointly received the nobel prize in 1956 stronger - than - steel fiber(Kevlar) in
for the discovery of the Transistor effect. Otto von Guericke invented the world's
first air pump in 1650. 1965.
Victor Francis Hess, discovered cosmic George Eastman invented flexible roll
radiation. John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton
film and in 1888 introduced the Kodak
developed a device, an accelerator, to
camera shown to use this film.
In 1928, Paul Dirac established the most generate more penetrating radiation.
general theory of quantum mechanics Steve Wozniak designed Apple's first
Enrico Fermi won the 1938 Nobel Prize in products, the Apple I and II computers
and discovered the relativistic equation
Physics for his work on induced and he helped design the Macintosh.
for the electron.
radioactivity by neutron bombardment
Meghnad Shah made important and for the discovery of transuranium Henry Moseley invented the atomic
contributions to the theory of thermal elements. He started the world's first battery in 1913.
ionization and its application to stellar man - made nuclear reactor in 1942.
spectra. Alessandro Volta invented the electric
Auguste Bravais demonstrated that there battery or power battery in 1800. He also
Christiaan Huygens built the first are fourteen space lattices, or regularly invented the voltaic pile and Hydrogen
pendulum clock in 1656. repeating arrangements of points in lamp.

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 Pinnacle Physics
Louis Pasteur discovered the principles The first commercial electric bulb was organic compounds such as anthracene,
of vaccination, microbial fermentation first invented by Thomas Alva Edison in phenanthrene, stilbene, benzil, phthalic
and pasteurization. the year 1879. His other inventions acid, phthalic anhydride, and pyrene.
included the phonograph, the
Niels Bohr won the 1922 Nobel Prize in carbon-button transmitter for the Mr. Dicas of Liverpool invented the
Physics for investigating the structure of telephone speaker and microphone, the lactometer.
atoms and the radiation emanating from first commercial electric light and power
them. Ultraviolet light was discovered by
system, an experimental electric railroad,
Johann Wilhelm Ritter in 1801.
and key elements of motion-picture
Homi Jehangir Bhabha is known as the
equipment. William Crookes discovered the element
‘Father of Indian Nuclear Programme’
thallium.
The first induction motor was invented by
Vikram Sarabhai is considered as the
Nikola Tesla in 1887. Albany magnet, world most powerful
Father of the Indian space program.
electromagnet, that can lift 750 pounds
Frank Shuman was known for his work
In 1851, Leon Foucault discovered the of metal at a time created by Joseph
on solar engines.
phenomenon of eddy currents, which Henry in 1830.
flow in closed loops within conductors in John Logie Baird invented the first live
planes perpendicular to the magnetic Luis Alvarez invented a radio distance
working television system on 26 January
field. and direction indicator. He was awarded
1926.
the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1968 for his
APJ Abdul Kalam is known as ‘Missile In 1851, George Gabriel Stokes, founded discovery of resonance states in particle
Man of India' for his work in the the science of hydrodynamics using his physics using the hydrogen bubble
development of ballistic missile law of viscosity. chamber.
technology.
Thomas Savery invented the steam
The Wright brothers (Wilbur and Orville engine.
Wright) completed the world’s first
successful controlled powered flight in Edwin Howard Armstrong developed FM
1903. (frequency modulation) radio and the
superheterodyne receiver system.
The Mercury Barometer was discovered
by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643. Hendrik Antoon Lorentz who shared the
1902 Nobel Prize in Physics with Pieter
Richard Salter discovered Spring Zeeman for the discovery and theoretical
Balance. explanation of the Zeeman effect.

Hooke's law, the law of elasticity Max Von Laue received the Nobel Prize
discovered by Robert Hooke (1660). for Physics in 1914, for his discovery of
Example - A ball and spring model of the diffraction of X-rays on crystals.
chemical bonds obey Hooke’s law.
In 1859 Robert Wilhelm Bunsen and
The first reliable measurement of ‘G’ was Gustav Robert Kirchhoff invented the
made by Henry Cavendish in 1798. He flame spectroscope.
discovered hydrogen in 1766.
Satyendra nath Bose in 1924 to derive
Michael Faraday discovered the blackbody radiation law with respect
electromagnetic induction, to agas of light quanta (photon).
diamagnetism and electrolysis. He S.N. Bose collaborated with Albert
discovered benzene in illuminating gas in Einstein in developing a theory regarding
1825. the gaslike qualities of electromagnetic
radiation.
Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier is known
for discovering that any wave can be In 1924, Albert Einstein predicted a new
represented as an infinite number of state of matter, the Bose - Einstein
weighted sinusoids, i.e., the sum of sine Condensate (BEC), based on a quantum
and cosine waves. formulation by the Indian physicist
Satyendra nath bose.
Blaise Pascal founded Pascal’s law
(Pascal’s principle or Principle of In 1912, Casimir Funk proposed the
transmission of Fluid Pressure) in 1653. ‘vitamine hypothesis’.

Eugene Bourdon invented the Pierre and Marie Curie discovered

pressure-measuring device (the Bourdon Radium in 1898.
tube) in 1849.
Auguste Laurent discovered and
synthesized a large number of aromatic
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