CHAPTER

Vectors and
Two-Dimensional Motion 3
O U T L I N E
In our discussion of one-dimensional motion in Chapter 2, we used the concept of vectors 3.1 Vectors and Their
only to a limited extent. In our further study of motion, manipulating vector quantities will Properties
become increasingly important, so much of this chapter is devoted to vector techniques. We’ll 3.2 Components of a Vector
then apply these mathematical tools to two-dimensional motion, especially that of projectiles, 3.3 Displacement, Velocity,
and to the understanding of relative motion. and Acceleration in Two
Dimensions
3.4 Motion in Two Dimensions
3.1 VECTORS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
3.5 Relative Velocity
Each of the physical quantities we will encounter in this book can be categorized
as either a vector quantity or a scalar quantity. As noted in Chapter 2, a vector has
both direction and magnitude (size). A scalar can be completely specified by its
magnitude with appropriate units; it has no direction.
As described in Chapter 2, displacement, velocity, and acceleration are vector
quantities. Temperature is an example of a scalar quantity. If the temperature of
an object is 5C, that information completely specifies the temperature of the
object; no direction is required. Masses, time intervals, and volumes are scalars as
well. Scalar quantities can be manipulated with the rules of ordinary arithmetic.
Vectors can also be added and subtracted from each other, and multiplied, but
there are a number of important differences, as will be seen in the following
sections.
When a vector quantity is handwritten, it is often represented with an arrow
:
over the letter ( A). As mentioned in Section 2.1, a vector quantity in this book
:
will be represented by boldface type with an arrow on top (for example, A ). The
:
magnitude of the vector A will be represented by italic type, as A. Italic type will y
also be used to represent scalars.
: :
Equality of Two Vectors. Two vectors A and B are equal if they have the same
magnitude and the same direction. This property allows us to translate a vector
parallel to itself in a diagram without affecting the vector. In fact, for most
purposes, any vector can be moved parallel to itself without being affected. (See
Figure 3.1.)
O
x
Adding Vectors. When two or more vectors are added, they must all have the
same units. For example, it doesn’t make sense to add a velocity vector, carrying
units of meters per second, to a displacement vector, carrying units of meters. Figure 3.1 These four vectors
are equal because they have equal
Scalars obey the same rule: It would be similarly meaningless to add temperatures lengths and point in the same
to volumes or masses to time intervals. direction.
Vectors can be added geometrically or algebraically. (The latter is discussed
: :
at the end of the next section.) To add vector B to vector A geometrically, first
:
draw A on a piece of graph paper to some scale, such as 1 cm  1 m, and so
:
that its direction is specified relative a coordinate system. Then draw vector B to TIP 3.1 Vector Addition
: :
the same scale with the tail of B starting at the tip of A , as in Active Figure 3.2a Versus Scalar Addition
: : : :
(page 42). Vector B must be drawn along the direction that makes the proper A  B  C is very different from
: : : : A  B  C. The first is a vector sum,
angle relative vector A . The resultant vector R  A  B is the vector drawn from
: : which must be handled graphically or
the tail of A to the tip of B . This procedure is known as the triangle method of with components, while the second is
addition. a simple arithmetic sum of numbers.

41
42 Chapter 3 Vectors and Two-Dimensional Motion

When two vectors are added, their sum is independent of the order of the
: : : :
addition: A  B  B  A . This relationship can be seen from the geometric
A +B construction in Active Figure 3.2b, and is called the commutative law of
R= B
addition.
This same general approach can also be used to add more than two vectors, as
: : : :
is done in Figure 3.3 for four vectors. The resultant vector sum R  A  B  C 
:
D is the vector drawn from the tail of the first vector to the tip of the last. Again,
A
the order in which the vectors are added is unimportant.
(a)
:
Negative of a Vector. The negative of the vector A is defined as the vector that
A : : :
gives zero when added to A. This means that A and  A have the same magnitude
but opposite directions.

B Subtracting Vectors. Vector subtraction makes use of the definition of the nega-
B : : :
=A
+ tive of a vector. We define the operation A  B as the vector  B added to the vec-
R :
tor A :
: : : :
A  B  A  ( B) [3.1]
(b)
ACTIVE FIGURE:3.2 Vector subtraction is really a special case of vector addition. The geometric con-
(a)
:
When vector B:is added to vector struction for subtracting two vectors is shown in Figure 3.4.
A, the vector sum R is:the vector that :
runs from the tail of A to the tip of B.
(b) Here the resultant runs from the Multiplying or Dividing a Vector by a Scalar. Multiplying or dividing a vector by a
: : :
tail of B to the tip of A
:
. These
:
con-
: :
scalar gives a vector. For example, if vector A is multiplied by the scalar number 3,
structions prove that A  B  B  A. : :
the result, written 3 A, is a vector with a magnitude three times that of A and point-
:
ing in the same direction. If we multiply vector A by the scalar  3, the result
: :
is  3 A , a vector with a magnitude three times that of A and pointing in the op-
Log into PhysicsNow at http://
[Link]/ecp and posite direction (because of the negative sign).
:
go to:Active Figure 3.2 to vary A
and B and see the effect on the
resultant.
D
+ D

B
+ C

C A
+ B
= A

–B
R

B A–B

A
Figure 3.3 A geometric construc- Figure 3.4 This construction :
tion for summing four:
vectors. shows how
:
to subtract vector
:
B from
The resultant vector R is the vector vector A . The vector  B has the
:
that completes the polygon. same magnitude as the vector B, but
points in the opposite direction.

Quick Quiz 3.1

: :
The magnitudes of two vectors A and B are 12 units and 8 units, respectively. What
are the largest and smallest possible values for the magnitude of the resultant
: : :
vector R  A  B ? (a) 14.4 and 4; (b) 12 and 8; (c) 20 and 4; (d) none of these.

Quick Quiz 3.2

: : : :
If vector B is added to vector A , the resultant vector A  B has magnitude A  B
: :
when A and B are (a) perpendicular to each other; (b) oriented in the same direc-
tion; (c) oriented in opposite directions; (d) none of these answers.
 3.2 Components of a Vector 43

EXAMPLE 3.1 Taking a Trip

Goal Find the sum of two vectors by using a graph.
N
Problem A car travels 20.0 km due north and then 35.0 km in a direction 60 west
W E
of north, as in Figure 3.5. Using a graph, find the magnitude and direction of a sin-
gle vector that gives the net effect of the car’s trip. This vector is called the car’s re- S y(km)
sultant displacement.
40
Strategy Draw a graph, and represent the displacement vectors as arrows. Graphi- B
60.0°
cally locate the vector resulting from the sum of the two displacement vectors. Mea-
20
sure its length and angle with respect to the vertical. R
β
A
Solution
: : x(km)
Let A represent the first displacement vector, 20.0 km north, B the second displace- –20 0
ment vector, extending west of north. Carefully graph the two vectors, drawing a
: : :
resultant vector R with its base touching the base of A and extending to the tip of B.
Measure the length of this vector, which turns out to be about 48 km. The angle , Figure 3.5 (Example 3.1) A graph-
measured with a protractor, is about 39 west of north. ical method for finding
:
the
:
resultant
:
displacement vector R  A  B.

Remarks Notice that ordinary arithmetic doesn’t work here: the correct answer of
48 km is not equal to 20.0 km  35.0 km  55.0 km!

Exercise 3.1
Graphically determine the magnitude and direction of the displacement if a man walks 30.0 km 45 north of east and
then walks due east 20.0 km.

Answer 46 km, 27 north of east

y
3.2 COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR
Ay
One method of adding vectors makes use of the projections of a vector along the tan θ =
Ax
axes of a rectangular coordinate system. These projections are called components.
Any vector can be completely described by its components.
:
Consider a vector A in a rectangular coordinate system, as shown in Figure 3.6. Ay A
: : :
A can be expressed as the sum of two vectors: A x , parallel to the x-axis; and A y ,
parallel to the y -axis. Mathematically, θ
x
O Ax
: : :
A  Ax  Ay :
Figure 3.6 Any vector A lying in
: : : : the xy-plane can be represented by its
where A x and A y are the component vectors of A . The projection of A along the rectangular components Ax and A y .
: :
x-axis, A x , is called the x-component of A , and the projection of A along the
:
y-axis, A y , is called the y-component of A . These components can be either posi-
tive or negative numbers with units. From the definitions of sine and cosine, we TIP 3.2 x- and y-Components
:
see that cos   A x /A and sin   A y /A, so the components of A are Equation 3.2 for the x- and y-compo-
nents of a vector associates cosine
with the x -component and sine with
A x  A cos  the y-component, as in Figure 3.7a.
[3.2] (See page 44.) This association is
due solely to the fact that we chose to
A y  A sin  measure the angle  with respect to
the positive x-axis. If the angle were
These components form two sides of a right triangle having a hypotenuse with measured with respect to the y-axis,
: as in Figure 3.7b, the components
magnitude A. It follows that A ’s magnitude and direction are related to its compo- would be given by A x  A sin  and
nents through the Pythagorean theorem and the definition of the tangent: A y  A cos .
44 Chapter 3 Vectors and Two-Dimensional Motion

TIP 3.3 Inverse Tangents on A  √Ax 2  Ay 2 [3.3]

Calculators: Right Half the Time
Ay
The inverse tangent function on tan   [3.4]
calculators returns an angle between Ax
 90 and  90. If the vector lies in
the second or third quadrant, the
angle, as measured from the positive To solve for the angle , which is measured from the positive x-axis by convention,
x -axis, will be the angle returned by we can write Equation 3.4 in the form
your calculator plus 180.

A 
Ay
  tan1
x

This formula gives the right answer only half the time! The inverse tangent func-
tion returns values only from  90 to  90, so the answer in your calculator win-
y
dow will only be correct if the vector happens to lie in the first or fourth quadrant.
If it lies in the second or third quadrant, adding 180 to the number in the calcu-
lator window will always give the right answer. The angle in Equations 3.2 and 3.4
must be measured from the positive x-axis. Other choices of reference line are
Ay = A sin θ possible, but certain adjustments must then be made. (See Tip 3.2 [page 43] and
A
Figure 3.7.)
θ If a coordinate system other than the one shown in Figure 3.6 is chosen, the
x components of the vector must be modified accordingly. In many applications it’s
0 A = A cos θ
x
more convenient to express the components of a vector in a coordinate system
(a) having axes that are not horizontal and vertical, but are still perpendicular to each
:
other. Suppose a vector B makes an angle   with the x -axis defined in Figure 3.8.
:
y The rectangular components of B along the axes of the figure are given by
B x  B cos   and B y  B sin  , as in Equations 3.2. The magnitude and direc-
:
Ax = A sin θ tion of B are then obtained from expressions equivalent to Equations 3.3 and 3.4.

y′
Ay = A cos θ
θ A
x x′
0 B

By′
(b) θ′
Bx ′
Figure 3.7 The angle  need not :
always be defined from the positive Figure 3.8 The components of vector B in a tilted coordi-
O′
x-axis. nate system.

y
Quick Quiz 3.3
Figure 3.9 shows two vectors lying in the xy-plane. Determine the signs of the
A : : : :
x- and y-components of A, B, and A  B, and place your answers in the following
table:
x
Vector x-component y-component
:
A
B :
B
: :
AB

Figure 3.9 (Quick Quiz 3.3)

EXAMPLE 3.2 Help Is on the Way!

Goal Find vector components, given a magnitude and direction, and vice versa.

Problem (a) Find the horizontal and vertical components of the 1.00  10 2 m displacement of a superhero who
flies from the top of a tall building along the path shown in Figure 3.10a. (b) Suppose instead the superhero leaps in
 3.2 Components of a Vector 45

x
30.0° y

100 m Ax
x
30.0°
Ay A

(a) (b)
Figure 3.10 (Example 3.2)

:
the other direction along a displacement vector B , to the top of a flagpole where the displacement components are
given by B x   25.0 m and B y  10.0 m. Find the magnitude and direction of the displacement vector.

Strategy (a) The triangle formed by the displacement and its components is shown in Figure 3.10b. Simple
trigonometry gives the components relative the standard x-y coordinate system: A x  A cos  and A y  A sin  (Equa-
tions 3.2). Note that    30.0, negative because it’s measured clockwise from the positive x-axis. (b) Apply Equa-
tions 3.3 and 3.4 to find the magnitude and direction of the vector.

Solution
:
(a) Find the vector components of A from its magnitude
and direction.

Use Equations 3.2 to find the components of the A x  A cos   (1.00  102 m) cos( 30.0)   86.6 m
:
displacement vector A :
A y  A sin   (1.00  102 m) sin( 30.0)   50.0 m

(b) Find the magnitude and direction of the displace-

:
ment vector B from its components.
:
Compute the magnitude of B from the Pythagorean B  √Bx 2  By 2  √( 25.0 m)2  (10.0 m)2  26.9 m
theorem:

:
Calculate the direction of B using the inverse tangent,
remembering to add 180 to the answer in your calculator
  tan 1  BB   tan  10.0
y

x
1
25.0 
  21.8

window, because the vector lies in the second quadrant:   158

Remarks In part (a), note that cos( )  cos  ; however, sin( )   sin . The negative sign of A y reflects the
fact that displacement in the y-direction is downward.

Exercise 3.2
(a) Suppose the superhero had flown 150 m at a 120 angle with respect to the positive x-axis. Find the compo-
nents of the displacement vector. (b) Suppose instead, the superhero had leaped with a displacement having an
x-component of 32.5 m and a y-component of 24.3 m. Find the magnitude and direction of the displacement vector.

Answers (a) Ax   75 m, Ay  130 m (b) 40.6 m, 36.8

Adding Vectors Algebraically

The graphical method of adding vectors is valuable in understanding how vectors
can be manipulated, but most of the time vectors are added algebraically in terms
: : :
of their components. Suppose R  A  B. Then the components of the resultant
46 Chapter 3 Vectors and Two-Dimensional Motion

:
vector R are given by
Rx  Ax  Bx [3.5a]
Ry  Ay  By [3.5b]
So x-components are added only to x-components, and y-components only to y-
:
components. The magnitude and direction of R can subsequently be found with
Equations 3.3 and 3.4.
Subtracting two vectors works the same way, because it’s a matter of adding the
negative of one vector to another vector. You should make a rough sketch when
adding or subtracting vectors, in order to get an approximate geometric solution
as a check.

INTERACTIVE EXAMPLE 3.3 Take a Hike

Goal Add vectors algebraically and find the resultant vector.

Problem A hiker begins a trip by first walking 25.0 km southeast from her base camp. On the second day she walks
40.0 km in a direction 60.0 north of east, at which point she discovers a forest ranger’s tower. (a) Determine the
components of the hiker’s displacements in the first and second days. (b) Determine the components of the hiker’s
total displacement for the trip. (c) Find the magnitude and direction of the displacement from base camp.

Strategy This is just an applica- y(km) N

tion of vector addition using compo- y(km)
nents, Equations 3.5. We denote the W E
20 30
displacement vectors on the first and Tower
: : S
second days by A and B, respectively. 10 R 20
Using the camp as the origin of the
x(km) R
coordinates, we get the vectors Camp 45.0° 20 30 40 50 10 R y = 16.9 km
shown in Figure 3.11a. After finding B
–10 A x(km)
x- and y-components for each vector, 60.0° O 10 20 30 40
we add them “componentwise.” Fi- Rx = 37.7 km
–20
nally, we determine the magnitude
and direction of the resultant vector (a) (b)
:
R , using the Pythagorean theorem Figure 3.11 (Example 3.3) (a) Hiker’s path and the resultant vector. (b) Components of the
and the inverse tangent function. hiker’s total displacement from camp.

Solution
:
(a) Find the components of A.
:
Use Equations 3.2 to find the components of A: Ax  A cos( 45.0)  (25.0 km)(0.707)  17.7 km

Ay  A sin( 45.0)   (25.0 km)(0.707)   17.7 km

:
Find the components of B: Bx  B cos 60.0  (40.0 km)(0.500)  20.0 km

By  B sin 60.0  (40.0 km)(0.866)  34.6 km

(b) Find the components of the resultant vector,
: : :
R  A  B.
: :
To find R x , add the x-components of A and B: R x  A x  B x  17.7 km  20.0 km  37.7 km
: :
To find R y , add the y-components of A and B: R y  A y  B y   17.7 km  34.6 km  16.9 km
:
(c) Find the magnitude and direction of R.

Use the Pythagorean theorem to get the magnitude: R  √R x 2  R y 2  √(37.7 km)2  (16.9 km)2  41.3 km

:
Calculate the direction of R using the inverse tangent
function:
  tan 1  16.9
37.7 km 
km
 24.1
 3.3 Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration in Two Dimensions 47

:
Remarks Figure 3.11b shows a sketch of the components of R and their directions in space. The magnitude and
direction of the resultant can also be determined from such a sketch.

Exercise 3.3
A cruise ship leaving port travels 50.0 km 45.0 north of west and then 70.0 km at a heading 30.0 north of east. Find
(a) the ship’s displacement vector and (b) the displacement vector’s magnitude and direction.

Answer (a) R x  25.3 km, R y  70.4 km (b) 74.8 km, 70.2 north of east

Investigate this problem further by logging into PhysicsNow at [Link]

and going to Interactive Example 3.3.

3.3 DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, AND

ACCELERATION IN TWO DIMENSIONS
In one-dimensional motion, as discussed in Chapter 2, the direction of a vector y
quantity such as a velocity or acceleration can be taken into account by specifying
whether the quantity is positive or negative. The velocity of a rocket, for example,
is positive if the rocket is going up and negative if it’s going down. This simple so-  ti ∆r
tf
lution is no longer available in two or three dimensions. Instead, we must make
ri
full use of the vector concept. Path of
Consider an object moving through space as shown in Figure 3.12. When the rf an object
object is at some point  at time t i , its position is described by the position vector x
:
r i , drawn from the origin to . When the object has moved to some other point O
at time tf , its position vector is :rf . From the vector diagram in Figure 3.12, the Figure 3.12 An object moving
final position vector is the sum of the initial position vector and the displacement along some curved path between
points  and . The displacement
: r: :rf  :
ri  : r . From this relationship, we obtain the following one: vector :r is the difference in the
position vectors: : r :rf  :ri .
An object’s displacement is defined as the change in its position vector, or
r :
: rf  :
ri [3.6]  Displacement vector
SI unit: meter (m)

We now present several generalizations of the definitions of velocity and accel-

eration given in Chapter 2.

An object’s average velocity during a time interval t is its displacement

divided by t:
:
r
v av 
:
[3.7]  Average velocity
t
SI unit: meter per second (m/s)

Because the displacement is a vector quantity and the time interval is a scalar
quantity, we conclude that the average velocity is a vector quantity directed
along :r.

v is the limit of its average velocity as t

An object’s instantaneous velocity :
goes to zero:
:
r
v  lim
:
[3.8]  Instantaneous velocity
t : 0 t
SI unit: meter per second (m/s)

The direction of the instantaneous velocity vector is along a line that is tangent to
the object’s path and in the direction of its motion.
48 Chapter 3 Vectors and Two-Dimensional Motion

Average acceleration  An object’s average acceleration during a time interval t is the change in its
v divided by t, or
velocity :
:
v
a av 
:
[3.9]
t
SI unit: meter per second squared (m/s2)

Instantaneous acceleration  An object’s instantaneous acceleration vector :

a is the limit of its average
acceleration vector as t goes to zero:
:
v
a  lim
:
[3.10]
t : 0 t
SI unit: meter per second squared (m/s2)

It’s important to recognize that an object can accelerate in several ways. First,
□
 Checkpoint 3.1 the magnitude of the velocity vector (the speed) may change with time. Second,
True or False: An object moving the direction of the velocity vector may change with time, even though the speed is
at constant speed along a curved constant, as can happen along a curved path. Third, both the magnitude and the
path is always accelerating. direction of the velocity vector may change at the same time.

Quick Quiz 3.4

Consider the following controls in an automobile: gas pedal, brake, steering wheel.
The controls in this list that cause an acceleration of the car are (a) all three con-
trols, (b) the gas pedal and the brake, (c) only the brake, or (d) only the gas pedal.

3.4 MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS

In Chapter 2, we studied objects moving along straight-line paths, such as the
x -axis. In this chapter, we look at objects that move in both the x- and y-directions
simultaneously under constant acceleration. An important special case of this two-
Projectile motion  dimensional motion is called projectile motion.
Anyone who has tossed any kind of object into the air has observed projectile
motion. If the effects of air resistance and the rotation of Earth are neglected, the
path of a projectile in Earth’s gravity field is curved in the shape of a parabola, as
shown in Active Figure 3.13.

ACTIVE FIGURE 3.13

The parabolic trajectory of a particle y
that leaves the origin with a velocity
of :
v 0. Note that : v changes with time.
However, the x-component of the ve-
locity, v x , remains constant in time. v y = 0 v 0x g
Also, v y  0 at the peak of the trajec- v
tory, but the acceleration is always vy
v 0x
equal to the free-fall acceleration and θ
acts vertically downward. v0 θ
v 0x
vy v

Log into PhysicsNow at http:// v 0y

[Link]/ecp and go θ0 v 0x
to Active Figure 3.13, where you can x
change the particle’s launch angle v 0x θ0
and initial speed. You can also ob-
serve the changing components of
velocity along the trajectory of the
projectile. v 0y v
 3.4 Motion in Two Dimensions 49

y(m) ACTIVE FIGURE 3.14

A projectile launched from the origin
with an initial speed of 50 m/s at vari-
ous angles of projection. Note that
150 complementary values of the initial
vi = 50 m/s
angle  result in the same value of R
75° (the range of the projectile).
100
60°
Log into PhysicsNow at http://
45°
[Link]/ecp and
50
30° go to Active Figure 3.14, where you
can vary the projection angle to ob-
15° serve the effect on the trajectory and
x(m) measure the flight time.
50 100 150 200 250

The positive x-direction is horizontal and to the right, and the y-direction is ver-
tical and positive upward. The most important experimental fact about projectile
motion in two dimensions is that the horizontal and vertical motions are com-
pletely independent of each other. This means that motion in one direction has
no effect on motion in the other direction. If a baseball is tossed in a parabolic
path, as in Active Figure 3.13, the motion in the y-direction will look just like a ball
tossed straight up under the influence of gravity. Active Figure 3.14 shows the
effect of various initial angles; note that complementary angles give the same hori-
zontal range.
In general, the equations of constant acceleration developed in Chapter 2
follow separately for both the x-direction and the y-direction. An important differ- TIP 3.4 Acceleration at the
ence is that the initial velocity now has two components, not just one as in that Highest Point
chapter. We assume that at t  0, the projectile leaves the origin with an initial The acceleration in the y-direction is
v0 . If the velocity vector makes an angle  0 with the horizontal, where  0 is
velocity : not zero at the top of a projectile’s tra-
jectory. Only the y-component of the
called the projection angle, then from the definitions of the cosine and sine velocity is zero there. If the accelera-
functions and Active Figure 3.13, we have tion were zero, too, the projectile
would never come down!
v 0x  v0 cos  0 and v 0y  v 0 sin 0
where v 0x is the initial velocity (at t  0) in the x-direction and v 0y is the initial
velocity in the y-direction.
Now, Equations 2.6, 2.9, and 2.10 developed in Chapter 2 for motion with con-
stant acceleration in one dimension carry over to the two-dimensional case; there
is one set of three equations for each direction, with the initial velocities modified
as just discussed. In the x-direction, with ax constant, we have

v x  v 0x  a x t [3.11a]

x  v 0x t  12 a x t 2 [3.11b]

vx2  v 0x2  2ax x [3.11c]

where v0x  v0 cos 0. In the y-direction, we have

v y  v 0y  a y t [3.12a]

y  v 0y t  12 a y t 2 [3.12b]

v y2  v 0y 2  2a y y [3.12c] □
 Checkpoint 3.2
True or False: An object’s acceler-
where v 0y  v 0 sin  0 and a y is constant. The object’s speed v can be calculated
ation vector during free fall near
from the components of the velocity using the Pythagorean theorem:
the Earth’s surface is directed
v  √v x2  v y2 downward.
50 Chapter 3 Vectors and Two-Dimensional Motion

The angle that the velocity vector makes with the x -axis is given by

 
vy
  tan1
vx
□
 Checkpoint 3.3 This formula for  , as previously stated, must be used with care, because the in-
At what initial angle with respect verse tangent function returns values only between  90 and  90. Adding 180 is
to the horizontal is the range of necessary for vectors lying in the second or third quadrant.
a thrown object a maximum? The kinematic equations are easily adapted and simplified for projectiles close
(a) 30° (b) 45° (c) 60° to the surface of the Earth. In that case, assuming air friction is negligible, the ac-
celeration in the x-direction is 0 (because air resistance is neglected). This means
that a x  0, and the projectile’s velocity component along the x -direction remains
constant. If the initial value of the velocity component in the x -direction is v 0x 
v 0 cos  0, then this is also the value of vx at any later time, so
v x  v 0x  v 0 cos  0  constant [3.13a]
while the horizontal displacement is simply
 x  v 0x t  (v 0 cos  0)t [3.13b]
For the motion in the y-direction, we make the substitution a y  g and v 0y 
v 0 sin  0 in Equations 3.12, giving
v y  v 0 sin  0  gt [3.14a]
y  (v 0 sin  0)t  12 gt 2 [3.14b]
v y 2  (v0 sin  0)2  2g y [3.14c]
The important facts of projectile motion can be summarized as follows:
1. Provided air resistance is negligible, the horizontal component of the velocity
vx remains constant because there is no horizontal component of acceleration.
2. The vertical component of the acceleration is equal to the free fall acceleration  g.
3. The vertical component of the velocity v y and the displacement in the
y-direction are identical to those of a freely falling body.
4. Projectile motion can be described as a superposition of two independent mo-
tions in the x - and y-directions.

Quick Quiz 3.5

As a projectile moves in its parabolic path, the velocity and acceleration vectors are
perpendicular to each other (a) everywhere along the projectile’s path, (b) at the
peak of its path, (c) nowhere along its path, or (d) not enough information is
given.

Problem-Solving Strategy Projectile Motion

1. Select a coordinate system and sketch the path of the projectile, including initial
and final positions, velocities, and accelerations.
2. Resolve the initial velocity vector into x- and y-components.
3. Treat the horizontal motion and the vertical motion independently.
4. Follow the techniques for solving problems with constant velocity to analyze the
horizontal motion of the projectile.
5. Follow the techniques for solving problems with constant acceleration to analyze
the vertical motion of the projectile.
 3.4 Motion in Two Dimensions 51

EXAMPLE 3.4 Stranded Explorers

Goal Solve a two-dimensional projectile motion problem in which an y
object has an initial horizontal velocity. 40.0 m/s

x
Problem An Alaskan rescue plane drops a package of emergency ra-
tions to a stranded hiker, as shown in Figure 3.17. The plane is traveling
horizontally at 40.0 m/s at a height of 1.00  10 2 m above the ground.
(a) Where does the package strike the ground relative to the point at
which it was released? (b) What are the horizontal and vertical compo- 100 m
nents of the velocity of the package just before it hits the ground?

Strategy Here, we’re just taking Equations 3.13 and 3.14, filling in
known quantities, and solving for the remaining unknown quantities.
Sketch the problem using a coordinate system as in Figure 3.15. In part (a),
set the y -component of the displacement equations equal to 1.00 
10 2 m—the ground level where the package lands — and solve for the
time it takes the package to reach the ground. Substitute this time into the
displacement equation for the x-component to find the range. In part (b), Figure 3.15 (Example 3.4) From the point of
substitute the time found in part (a) into the velocity components. No- view of an observer on the ground, a package
tice that the initial velocity has only an x-component, which simplifies released from the rescue plane travels along the
path shown.
the math.

Solution
(a) Find the range of the package.

Use Equation 3.14b to find the y-displacement: y  y  y 0  v 0y t  21 gt 2

Substitute y 0  0 and v 0y  0, set y  1.00  10 2 m — y   (4.90 m/s 2)t 2   1.00  10 2 m

the final vertical position of the package relative the
t  4.52 s
airplane — and solve for time:

Use Equation 3.13b to find the x-displacement: x  x  x 0  v 0x t

Substitute x 0  0, v 0x  40.0 m/s, and the time: x  (40.0 m/s)(4.52 s)  181 m

(b) Find the components of the package’s velocity at

impact:

Find the x-component of the velocity at the time of vx  v0 cos   (40.0 m/s) cos 0  40.0 m/s
impact:

Find the y-component of the velocity at the time of v y  v 0 sin   gt  0  (9.80 m/s2)(4.52 s)
impact:   44.3 m/s

Remarks Notice how motion in the x-direction and motion in the y-direction are handled separately.

Exercise 3.4
A bartender slides a beer mug at 1.50 m/s towards a customer at the end of a frictionless bar that is 1.20 m tall. The
customer makes a grab for the mug and misses, and the mug sails off the end of the bar. (a) How far away from the
end of the bar does the mug hit the floor? (b) What are the speed and direction of the mug at impact?

Answers (a) 0.742 m (b) 5.08 m/s,    72.8

52 Chapter 3 Vectors and Two-Dimensional Motion

INTERACTIVE EXAMPLE 3.5 That’s Quite an Arm

Goal Solve a two-dimensional kinematics problem with a nonhorizontal y v 0 = 20.0 m/s
initial velocity, starting and ending at different heights. (0, 0) 30.0°
x
Problem A stone is thrown upward from the top of a building at an angle
of 30.0 to the horizontal and with an initial speed of 20.0 m/s, as in Figure
3.16. The point of release is 45.0 m above the ground. (a) How long does it
take for the stone to hit the ground? (b) Find the stone’s speed at impact.
(c) Find the horizontal range of the stone.

Strategy Choose coordinates as in the figure, with the origin at the point 45.0 m
of release. (a) Fill in the constants of Equation 3.14b for the y-displacement,
and set the displacement equal to  45.0 m, the y-displacement when the
stone hits the ground. Using the quadratic formula, solve for the time. To
solve (b), substitute the time from part (a) into the components of the veloc-
ity, and substitute the same time into the equation for the x-displacement to (x, – 45.0)
solve (c). x
Figure 3.16 (Example 3.5)
Solution
(a) Find the time of flight.

Find the initial x- and y-components of the velocity: v 0x  v 0 cos  0  (20.0 m/s)(cos 30.0)   17.3 m/s
v 0y  v 0 sin  0  (20.0 m/s)(sin 30.0)   10.0 m/s

Find the y-displacement, taking y 0  0, y   45.0 m, y  y  y 0  v 0yt  21 gt 2

and v 0y  10.0 m/s:
 45.0 m  (10.0 m/s)t  (4.90 m/s 2)t 2

Reorganize the equation into standard form and use t  4.22 s

the quadratic formula (see Appendix A) to find the
positive root:

(b) Find the speed at impact.

Substitute the value of t found in part (a) into Equation vy  v 0y  gt  10.0 m/s  (9.80 m/s2)(4.22 s)
3.14a to find the y-component of the velocity at impact:   31.4 m/s

Use this value of v y , the Pythagorean theorem, and the v  √vx 2  v y 2  √(17.3 m/s)2  ( 31.4 m/s)2
fact that v x  v 0x  17.3 m/s to find the speed of the
 35.9 m/s
stone at impact:

(c) Find the horizontal range of the stone.

Substitute the time of flight into the range equation: x  x  x 0  (v 0 cos )t  (20.0 m/s) (cos 30.0) (4.22 s)
 73.1 m

Exercise 3.5
Suppose the stone is thrown at an angle of 30.0 degrees below the horizontal. If it strikes the ground 57.0 m away,
find (a) the time of flight, (b) the initial speed, and (c) the speed and the angle of the velocity vector with respect to
the horizontal at impact. (Hint: For part (a), use the equation for the x-displacement to eliminate v0t from the equa-
tion for the y-displacement.)

Answers (a) 1.57 s (b) 41.9 m/s (c) 51.3 m/s, 45.0

Investigate this problem further by logging into PhysicsNow at [Link]

and going to Interactive Example 3.5.
 3.5 Relative Velocity 53

So far we have studied only problems in which an object with an initial velocity
follows a trajectory determined by the acceleration of gravity alone. In the more
general case, other agents, such as air drag, surface friction, or engines, can cause
accelerations. These accelerations, taken together, form a vector quantity with
components ax and a y . When both components are constant, we can use Equa-
tions 3.11 and 3.12 to study the motion.

3.5 RELATIVE VELOCITY

Relative velocity is all about relating the measurements of two different observers,
one moving with respect to the other. The measured velocity of an object depends
on the velocity of the observer with respect to the object. On highways, for example,
cars moving in the same direction are often moving at high speed relative to Earth,
but relative each other they hardly move at all. To an observer at rest at the side of
the road, a car might be traveling at 60 mi/h, but to an observer in a truck traveling
in the same direction at 50 mi/h, the car would appear to be traveling only 10 mi/h.
So measurements of velocity depend on the reference frame of the observer. Ref-
erence frames are just coordinate systems. Most of the time, we use a stationary frame
y A
of reference relative to Earth, but occasionally we use a moving frame of reference
associated with a bus, car, or plane moving with constant velocity relative to Earth.
In two dimensions, relative velocity calculations can be confusing, so a system-

atic approach is important and useful. Let E be an observer, assumed stationary r AE
with respect to Earth. Let two cars be labeled A and B, and introduce the following rAB  rAE − rBE
notation (see Figure 3.17):
x
r AE  the position of Car A as measured by E (in a coordinate system fixed with
: E rB
E
respect to Earth). B

r BE  the position of Car B as measured by E.

:

r AB  the position of Car A as measured by an observer in Car B.

:

According to the preceding notation, the first letter tells us what the vector is Figure 3.17 The position of Car A
pointing at and the second letter tells us where the position vector starts. The posi- relative to Car B can be found by vec-
tor subtraction. The rate of change of
tion vectors of Car A and Car B relative to E, :
r AE and :
r BE , are given in the figure. the resultant vector with respect to
:
How do we find rAB, the position of Car A as measured by an observer in Car B? time is the relative velocity equation.
We simply draw an arrow pointing from Car B to Car A, which can be obtained by
subtracting :r BE from :
r AE:
:
r AB  :r AE  :
r BE [3.15]
Now, the rate of change of these quantities with time gives us the relationship
between the associated velocities: □

:
Checkpoint 3.4
v AE  :
v AB  : v BE [3.16] Suppose you are driving east at
The coordinate system of observer E need not be fixed to Earth, although it often 30 km/h relative to the road and
is. Take careful note of the pattern of subscripts; rather than memorize Equation a truck passes you going east at
3.15, it’s better to study the short derivation shown in Figure 3.17. Note also that 10 km/h relative to your car.
the equation doesn’t work for observers traveling a sizeable fraction of the speed What is the velocity of the truck
of light, when Einstein’s theory of special relativity comes into play. relative to the road?

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY Relative Velocity

1. Label each object involved (usually three) with a letter that reminds you of what it
is (for example, E for Earth).
2. Look through the problem for phrases such as “The velocity of A relative to B,”
and write the velocities as ‘:
v AB’. When a velocity is mentioned but it isn’t explicitly
stated as relative to something, it’s almost always relative to Earth.
3. Take the three velocities you’ve found and assemble them into an equation just
like Equation 3.16, with subscripts in an analogous order.
4. There will be two unknown components. Solve for them with the x- and
y -components of the equation developed in step 3.
54 Chapter 3 Vectors and Two-Dimensional Motion

EXAMPLE 3.6 Pitching Practice on the Train

Goal Solve a one-dimensional relative velocity problem.

Problem A train is traveling with a speed of 15.0 m/s relative to Earth. A passenger standing at the rear of the train
pitches a baseball with a speed of 15.0 m/s relative to the train off the back end, in the direction opposite the motion
of the train. What is the velocity of the baseball relative to Earth?

Strategy Solving these problems involves putting the proper subscripts on the velocities and arranging them
as in Equation 3.16. In the first sentence of the problem statement, we are informed that the train travels at
“15.0 m/s relative to Earth.” This quantity is :
v TE , with T for train and E for Earth. The passenger throws the base-
ball at “15 m/s relative to the train,” so this quantity is : v BT , where B stands for baseball. The second sentence
asks for the velocity of the baseball relative to Earth, : v BE. The rest of the problem can be solved by identifying
the correct components of the known quantities and solving for the unknowns, using an analog of Equation 3.16.

Solution
Write the x-components of the known quantities: v TE)x   15 m/s
(:
v BT)x   15 m/s
(:

Follow Equation 3.16: v BT)x  (:

(: v BE)x  (:
v TE)x

Insert the given values, and solve:  15 m/s  (:

v BE)x  15 m/s

v BE)x  0
(:

Exercise 3.6
A train is traveling at 27 m/s relative Earth, and a passenger standing in the train throws a ball at 15 m/s relative the
train in the same direction as the train’s motion. Find the speed of the ball relative to Earth.

Answer 42 m/s

INTERACTIVE EXAMPLE 3.7 Crossing a River N

Goal Solve a simple two-dimensional relative motion problem. W E

Problem The boat in Figure 3.18 is heading due north as it crosses a wide river S
with a velocity of 10.0 km/h relative to the water. The river has a uniform velocity of
5.00 km/h due east. Determine the velocity of the boat with respect to an observer
on the riverbank.

Strategy Again, we look for key phrases. “The boat (has) . . . a velocity of
vRE
10.0 km/h relative to the water” gives : v BR . “The river has a uniform velocity of
5.00 km/h due east” gives : v RE , because this implies velocity with respect to Earth.
vBE
The observer on the riverbank is in a reference frame at rest with respect to Earth.
Because we’re looking for the velocity of the boat with respect to that observer, vBR
this last velocity is designated : v BE. Take east to be the  x-direction, north the θ
 y -direction.

Solution
Arrange the three quantities into the proper relative :
v BR  :
v BE  :
v RE
velocity equation:
Figure 3.18 (Interactive
Example 3.7)
Write the velocity vectors in terms of their components. Vector x-component (km/h) y-component (km/h)
For convenience, these are organized in the following :
v BR 0 10.0
table: :
v BE vx vy
:
v RE 5.00 0
 Summary 55

Find the x -component of velocity: 0  vx  5.00 km/h : v x  5.00 km/h

Find the y -component of velocity: 10.0 km/h  v y  0 : v y  10.0 km/h

Find the magnitude of :

v BE: vBE  √vx2  vy 2
 √(5.00 km/h)2  (10.0 km/h)2  11.2 km/h

Find the direction of :

v BE:   tan1  vv   tan  5.00
x
y
1
10.0 m/s 
m/s
 26.6

The boat travels at a speed of 11.2 km/h in the direction 26.6 east of north with respect to Earth.

Exercise 3.7
Suppose the river is flowing east at 3.00 m/s and the boat is traveling south at 4.00 m/s with respect to the river. Find
the speed and direction of the boat relative to Earth.

Answer 5.00 m/s, 53.1 south of east

Investigate this problem further by logging into PhysicsNow at [Link]

and going to Interactive Example 3.7.

SUMMARY
: : :
Take a practice test by logging into If R  A  B , then the components of the resultant vector
:
PhysicsNow at [Link] and R are
clicking on the Pre-Test link for this chapter. Rx  Ax  Bx [3.5a]
R y  A y  By [3.5b]

3.1 Vectors and their Properties 3.3 Displacement, Velocity, and

: :
Two vectors A and B can be added geometrically with the Acceleration in Two Dimensions
triangle method. The two vectors are drawn to scale on
The displacement of an object in two dimensions is defined
graph paper, with the tail of the second vector located at
as the change in the object’s position vector:
the tip of the first. The resultant vector is the vector drawn
from the tail of the first vector to the tip of the second. :
r :
rf  :
ri [3.6]
:
The negative of a vector A is a vector with the same The average velocity of an object during the time interval
:
magnitude as A , but pointing in the opposite direction. A t is
vector can be multiplied by a scalar, changing its magni-
tude, and its direction if the scalar is negative. :
r
v av 
:
[3.7]
t
Taking the limit of this expression as t gets arbitrarily
3.2 Components of a Vector small gives the instantaneous velocity :
v:
:
A vector A can be split into two components, one pointing :
r
in the x -direction and the other in the y-direction. These v  lim
:
[3.8]
t : 0 t
components form two sides of a right triangle having a hy-
potenuse with magnitude A and are given by The direction of the instantaneous velocity vector is along a
line that is tangent to the path of the object and in the di-
A x  A cos  rection of its motion.
[3.2]
A y  A sin  The average acceleration of an object with a velocity
:
changing by  : v in the time interval t is
The magnitude and direction of A are related to its com-
:
v
ponents through the Pythagorean theorem and the defini- a av 
:
[3.9]
tion of the tangent: t
Taking the limit of this expression as t gets arbitrarily
A  √A x 2  A y 2 [3.3] small gives the instantaneous acceleration vector :
a:
Ay v
:
tan   [3.4] :
a  lim [3.10]
Ax t : 0 t
56 Chapter 3 Vectors and Two-Dimensional Motion

3.4 Motion in Two Dimensions equations for the motion in the horizontal or x-direction are
The general kinematic equations in two dimensions for ob- vx  v 0x  v 0 cos  0  constant [3.13a]
jects with constant acceleration are, for the x-direction,
 x  v 0x t  (v 0 cos  0 )t [3.13b]
vx  v 0x  ax t [3.11a]
while the equations for the motion in the vertical or
x  v 0x t  12 a x t 2 [3.11b] y-direction are
vx2  v0x2  2ax x [3.11c] vy  v0 sin 0  gt [3.14a]
where v 0x  v 0 cos  0, and, for the y-direction, y  (v0 sin 0)t  1 2
[3.14b]
2 gt
v y  v 0y  a y t [3.12a] vy2  (v 0 sin  0)2  2g y [3.14c]
1
y  v0yt  a y 2 t2 [3.12b] Problems are solved by algebraically manipulating one
v y  v 0y  2a y y
2 2 [3.12c] or more of these equations, which often reduces the system
to two equations and two unknowns.
where v 0y  v 0 sin  0. The speed v of the object at any in-
stant can be calculated from the components of velocity at 3.5 Relative Velocity
that instant using the Pythagorean theorem: Let E be an observer, and B a second observer traveling
with velocity :
v BE as measured by E. If E measures the
v √ v x2  v y2
velocity of an object A as :
v AE, then B will measure A’s
The angle that the velocity vector makes with the x-axis is velocity as
given by :
v AB  :
v AE  :
v BE [3.16]

v 
vy
  tan 1 Solving relative velocity problems involves identifying the
x velocities properly and labeling them correctly, substitut-
The kinematic equations are easily adapted and simpli- ing into Equation 3.16, and then solving for unknown
fied for projectiles close to the surface of the Earth. The quantities.

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
:
1. Vector A lies in the xy-plane. For what orientations of vec- 11. Explain whether the following particles do or do not have
:
tor A will both of its components be negative? When will an acceleration: (a) a particle moving in a straight line
the components have opposite signs? with constant speed and (b) a particle moving around a
: : curve with constant speed.
2. If B is added to A, under what conditions does the result-
ant vector have a magnitude equal to A  B? Under what 12. Correct the following statement: “The racing car rounds
conditions is the resultant vector equal to zero? the turn at a constant velocity of 90 miles per hour.”
3. A wrench is dropped from the top of a 10-m mast on a sail- 13. A spacecraft drifts through space at a constant velocity.
ing ship while the ship is traveling at 20 knots. Where will Suddenly, a gas leak in the side of the spacecraft causes it
the wrench hit the deck? (Galileo posed this problem.) to constantly accelerate in a direction perpendicular to
4. Two vectors have unequal magnitudes. Can their sum be the initial velocity. The orientation of the spacecraft does
zero? Explain. not change, so the acceleration remains perpendicular to
the original direction of the velocity. What is the shape of
5. A projectile is fired on Earth with some initial velocity. An-
the path followed by the spacecraft?
other projectile is fired on the Moon with the same initial
velocity. If air resistance is neglected, which projectile has 14. A ball is projected horizontally from the top of a building.
the greater range? Which reaches the greater altitude? One second later, another ball is projected horizontally
(Note that the free-fall acceleration on the Moon is about from the same point with the same velocity. At what point
1.6 m/s2.) in the motion will the balls be closest to each other? Will
: the first ball always be traveling faster than the second?
6. Can a vector A have a component greater than its magni-
What will be the time difference between them when the
tude A?
balls hit the ground? Can the horizontal projection veloc-
7. Is it possible to add a vector quantity to a scalar quantity? ity of the second ball be changed so that the balls arrive at
8. Under what circumstances would a vector have compo- the ground at the same time?
nents that are equal in magnitude? 15. Two projectiles are thrown with the same initial speed,
9. As a projectile moves in its path, is there any point along one at an angle  with respect to the level ground and the
the path where the velocity and acceleration vectors are other at angle 90  . Both projectiles strike the ground
(a) perpendicular to each other? (b) parallel to each other? at the same distance from the projection point. Are both
10. A rock is dropped at the same instant that a ball is thrown projectiles in the air for the same length of time?
horizontally from the same initial elevation. Which will
have the greater speed when it reaches ground level?
 Problems 57

PROBLEMS
1, 2, 3 = straightforward, intermediate, challenging  = full solution available in Student Solutions Manual/Study Guide
= coached problem with hints available at [Link] = biomedical application

Section 3.1 Vectors and Their Properties 12. A small map shows Atlanta to be 730 miles in a direction
1. A roller coaster moves 200 ft horizontally and then rises 5 north of east from Dallas. The same map shows that
135 ft at an angle of 30.0 above the horizontal. Next, it Chicago is 560 miles in a direction 21 west of north from
travels 135 ft at an angle of 40.0 below the horizontal. Use Atlanta. Assume a flat Earth, and use the given informa-
graphical techniques to find the roller coaster’s displace- tion to find the displacement from Dallas to Chicago.
ment from its starting point to the end of this movement. 13. A commuter airplane starts from an airport and takes the
2. An airplane flies 200 km due west from city A to city B and route shown in Figure P3.13. The plane first flies to city A,
then 300 km in the direction of 30.0 north of west from city located 175 km away in a direction 30.0 north of east.
B to city C. (a) In straight-line distance, how far is city C Next, it flies for 150 km 20.0 west of north, to city B. Fi-
from city A? (b) Relative to city A, in what direction is city C? nally, the plane flies 190 km due west, to city C. Find the lo-
3. A man lost in a maze makes three consecutive displace- cation of city C relative to the location of the starting point.
ments so that at the end of his travel he is right back
y(km) N
where he started. The first displacement is 8.00 m west-
C 250 B
ward, and the second is 13.0 m northward. Use the graph- c W E
ical method to find the magnitude and direction of the 200 20.0°
third displacement. b S
150
R
4. A jogger runs 100 m due west, then changes direction for 110°
100
the second leg of the run. At the end of the run, she is A
a
175 m away from the starting point at an angle of 15.0 50
north of west. What were the direction and length of her 30.0°
x(km)
second displacement? Use graphical techniques. O 50 100 150 200
5. A plane flies from base camp to lake A, a distance of
Figure P3.13
280 km at a direction of 20.0 north of east. After drop-
ping off supplies, the plane flies to lake B, which is 190 km 14. The helicopter view in Figure P3.14 shows two people
and 30.0 west of north from lake A. Graphically determine pulling on a stubborn mule. Find (a) the single force that
the distance and direction from lake B to the base camp. is equivalent to the two forces shown and (b) the force
:
6. Vector A has a magnitude of 8.00 units and makes an an- that a third person would have to exert on the mule to
:
gle of 45.0 with the positive x-axis. Vector B also has a make the net force equal to zero. The forces are meas-
magnitude of 8.00 units and is directed along the negative ured in units of newtons (N).
x-axis. Using graphical methods, find (a) the vector sum
: : : :
A  B and (b) the vector difference A  B.
: y
7. Vector A is 3.00 units in length and points along the positive
:
x-axis. Vector B is 4.00 units in length and points along the
negative y-axis. Use graphical methods to find the magni-
: : : :
tude and direction of the vectors (a) A  B and (b) A  B.
F 2 = F 1 =
80.0 N 120 N

Section 3.2 Components of a Vector 75.0˚ 60.0˚

8. A person walks 25.0 north of east for 3.10 km. How far x
would the person walk due north and due east to arrive at
the same location?
9. A girl delivering newspapers covers her
route by traveling 3.00 blocks west, 4.00 blocks north, and
then 6.00 blocks east. (a) What is her resultant displace-
ment? (b) What is the total distance she travels? Figure P3.14
10. While exploring a cave, a spelunker starts at the entrance
and moves the following distances: 75.0 m north, 250 m 15. A man pushing a mop across a floor causes the mop
east, 125 m at an angle 30.0 north of east, and 150 m south. to undergo two displacements. The first has a magnitude
Find the resultant displacement from the cave entrance. of 150 cm and makes an angle of 120 with the positive
11. The eye of a hurricane passes over Grand Bahama Is- x -axis. The resultant displacement has a magnitude of
land in a direction 60.0 north of west with a speed of 140 cm and is directed at an angle of 35.0 to the positive
41.0 km/h. Three hours later, the course of the hurri- x-axis. Find the magnitude and direction of the second
cane suddenly shifts due north, and its speed slows to displacement.
25.0 km/h. How far from Grand Bahama is the hurricane 16. An airplane starting from airport A flies 300 km east, then
4.50 h after it passes over the island? 350 km at 30.0 west of north, and then 150 km north to
58 Chapter 3 Vectors and Two-Dimensional Motion

arrive finally at airport B. (a) The next day, another plane Section 3.5 Relative Velocity
flies directly from A to B in a straight line. In what direc- 26. A boat moves through the water of a river at 10 m/s rela-
tion should the pilot travel in this direct flight? (b) How tive to the water, regardless of the boat’s direction. If the
far will the pilot travel in the flight? Assume there is no water in the river is flowing at 1.5 m/s, how long does it
wind during either flight. take the boat to make a round trip consisting of a 300-m
displacement downstream followed by a 300-m displace-
ment upstream?
Section 3.3 Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration 27. A Chinook (King) salmon (Genus Oncorynchus) can jump
in Two Dimensions out of water with a speed of 6.26 m/s. (See Problem 4.7,
Section 3.4 Motion in Two Dimensions page 83 for an investigation of how the fish can leave the
17. The best leaper in the animal kingdom is the puma, which water at a higher speed than it can swim underwater.) If the
can jump to a height of 12 ft when leaving the ground at salmon is in a stream with water speed equal to 1.50 m/s,
an angle of 45°. With what speed, in SI units, must the ani- how high in the air can the fish jump if it leaves the water
mal leave the ground to reach that height? traveling vertically upwards relative to the Earth?
18. Tom the cat is chasing Jerry the mouse across the surface 28. A river flows due east at 1.50 m/s. A boat crosses the river
of a table 1.5 m above the floor. Jerry steps out of the way from the south shore to the north shore by maintaining a
at the last second, and Tom slides off the edge of the table constant velocity of 10.0 m/s due north relative to the wa-
at a speed of 5.0 m/s. Where will Tom strike the floor, and ter. (a) What is the velocity of the boat relative to the
what velocity components will he have just before he hits? shore? (b) If the river is 300 m wide, how far downstream
has the boat moved by the time it reaches the north
19. A tennis player standing 12.6 m from
shore?
the net hits the ball at 3.00 above the horizontal. To clear
the net, the ball must rise at least 0.330 m. If the ball just 29. A rowboat crosses a river with a velocity
clears the net at the apex of its trajectory, how fast was the of 3.30 mi/h at an angle 62.5 north of west relative to the
ball moving when it left the racquet? water. The river is 0.505 mi wide and carries an eastward
current of 1.25 mi/h. How far upstream is the boat when
20. An artillery shell is fired with an initial velocity of 300 m/s
it reaches the opposite shore?
at 55.0 above the horizontal. To clear an avalanche, it ex-
plodes on a mountainside 42.0 s after firing. What are the 30. Suppose a Chinook salmon needs to jump a waterfall that
x- and y-coordinates of the shell where it explodes, rela- is 1.50 m high. If the fish starts from a distance 1.00 m
tive to its firing point? from the base of the ledge over which the waterfall flows,
find the x- and y-components of the initial velocity the
21. A brick is thrown upward from the top of a building at an
salmon would need to just reach the ledge at the top of its
angle of 25 to the horizontal and with an initial speed of
trajectory. Can the fish make this jump? (Remember that
15 m/s. If the brick is in flight for 3.0 s, how tall is the
a Chinook salmon can jump out of the water with a speed
building?
of 6.26 m/s.)
22. A placekicker must kick a football from a point 36.0 m
31. How long does it take an automobile traveling in the left
(about 39 yd) from the goal, and the ball must clear the
lane of a highway at 60.0 km/h to overtake (become even
crossbar, which is 3.05 m high. When kicked, the ball
with) another car that is traveling in the right lane at
leaves the ground with a velocity of 20.0 m/s at an angle
40.0 km/h when the cars’ front bumpers are initially
of 53 to the horizontal. (a) By how much does the ball
100 m apart?
clear or fall short of clearing the crossbar? (b) Does the
ball approach the crossbar while still rising or while 32. A science student is riding on a flatcar of a train traveling
falling? along a straight horizontal track at a constant speed of
10.0 m/s. The student throws a ball along a path that she
23. A car is parked on a cliff overlooking the ocean on an in-
judges to make an initial angle of 60.0 with the horizon-
cline that makes an angle of 24.0 below the horizontal.
tal and to be in line with the track. The student’s profes-
The negligent driver leaves the car in neutral, and the
sor, who is standing on the ground nearby, observes the
emergency brakes are defective. The car rolls from
ball to rise vertically. How high does the ball rise?
rest down the incline with a constant acceleration of
4.00 m/s 2 for a distance of 50.0 m to the edge of the cliff,
which is 30.0 m above the ocean. Find (a) the car’s posi-
tion relative to the base of the cliff when the car lands in ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
the ocean and (b) the length of time the car is in the air. 33. A particle undergoes two displacements. The first has a
24. A fireman 50.0 m away from a burning building directs a magnitude of 150 cm and makes an angle of 120.0 with
stream of water from a ground-level fire hose at an angle the positive x-axis. The resultant of the two displacements
of 30.0 above the horizontal. If the speed of the stream as is 140 cm, directed at an angle of 35.0 to the positive
it leaves the hose is 40.0 m/s, at what height will the x-axis. Find the magnitude and direction of the second
stream of water strike the building? displacement.
25. A projectile is launched with an initial speed of 60.0 m/s 34. Find the sum of these four vector forces: 12.0 N to the
at an angle of 30.0 above the horizontal. The projec- right at 35.0 above the horizontal, 31.0 N to the left at
tile lands on a hillside 4.00 s later. Neglect air friction. 55.0 above the horizontal, 8.40 N to the left at 35.0 below
(a) What is the projectile’s velocity at the highest point of the horizontal, and 24.0 N to the right at 55.0 below the
its trajectory? (b) What is the straight-line distance from horizontal. (Hint: N stands for newton, the SI unit of force.
where the projectile was launched to where it hits its The component method allows the addition of any vec-
target? tors — forces as well as displacements and velocities. Make a
 Problems 59

drawing of this situation, and select the best axes for x and 40. A daredevil decides to jump a canyon.
y so that you have the least number of components.) Its walls are equally high and 10 m apart. He takes off by
35. A car travels due east with a speed of 50.0 km/h. Rain is driving a motorcycle up a short ramp sloped at an angle
falling vertically with respect to Earth. The traces of the of 15. What minimum speed must he have in order to
rain on the side windows of the car make an angle of 60.0 clear the canyon?
with the vertical. Find the velocity of the rain with respect 41. A home run is hit in such a way that the baseball
to (a) the car and (b) Earth. just clears a wall 21 m high, located 130 m from home
36. You can use any coordinate system you like in order to plate. The ball is hit at an angle of 35 to the horizontal,
solve a projectile motion problem. To demonstrate the and air resistance is negligible. Find (a) the initial speed
truth of this statement, consider a ball thrown off the top of the ball, (b) the time it takes the ball to reach the wall,
v at an angle  with respect to
of a building with a velocity : and (c) the velocity components and the speed of the ball
the horizontal. Let the building be 50.0 m tall, the initial when it reaches the wall. (Assume that the ball is hit at a
horizontal velocity be 9.00 m/s, and the initial vertical height of 1.0 m above the ground.)
velocity be 12.0 m/s. Choose your coordinates such that 42. A ball is thrown straight upward and returns to the
the positive y-axis is upward, the x-axis is to the right, and thrower’s hand after 3.00 s in the air. A second ball is
the origin is at the point where the ball is released. thrown at an angle of 30.0 with the horizontal. At what
(a) With these choices, find the ball’s maximum height speed must the second ball be thrown so that it reaches
above the ground, and the time it takes to reach the maxi- the same height as the one thrown vertically?
mum height. (b) Repeat your calculations choosing the 43. A quarterback throws a football toward a receiver with an
origin at the base of the building. initial speed of 20 m/s at an angle of 30 above the
37. Towns A and B in Figure P3.37 are 80.0 km apart. A cou- horizontal. At that instant, the receiver is 20 m from the
ple arranges to drive from town A and meet a couple driv- quarterback. In what direction and with what constant
ing from town B at the lake, L. The two couples leave si- speed should the receiver run in order to catch the foot-
multaneously and drive for 2.50 h in the directions ball at the level at which it was thrown?
shown. Car 1 has a speed of 90.0 km/h. If the cars arrive 44. A 2.00-m-tall basketball player is standing on the floor
simultaneously at the lake, what is the speed of car 2? 10.0 m from the basket, as in Figure P3.44. If he shoots
the ball at a 40.0 angle with the horizontal, at what ini-
tial speed must he throw the basketball so that it goes
L through the hoop without striking the backboard? The
height of the basket is 3.05 m.

1
2

40.0°

3.05 m
40.0° 80.0 km 2.00 m
A B

10.0 m
Figure P3.37
Figure P3.44
38. A Chinook salmon has a maximum underwater speed of
3.58 m/s, but it can jump out of water with a speed of 45. In a very popular lecture demonstration, a projectile is
6.26 m/s. To move upstream past a waterfall, the salmon fired at a falling target as in Figure P3.45. The projec-
does not need to jump to the top of the fall, but only to a
point in the fall where the water speed is less than 3.58 Target
m/s; it can then swim up the fall for the remaining dis-
tance. Because the salmon must make forward progress in
the water, let’s assume that it can swim to the top if the wa-
ter speed is 3.00 m/s. If water has a speed of 1.50 m/s as it
passes over a ledge, how far below the ledge will the water
v0
be moving with a speed of 3.00 m/s? (Note that water un-
dergoes projectile motion once it leaves the ledge.) If the
θ0 Point of
salmon is able to jump vertically upward from the base of
collision
the fall, what is the maximum height of waterfall that the
salmon can clear?
39. If a person can jump a maximum horizontal distance (by
using a 45 projection angle) of 3.0 m on Earth, what
would be his maximum range on the Moon, where the
free-fall acceleration is g/6 and g  9.80 m/s2? Repeat for
Mars, where the acceleration due to gravity is 0.38g. Figure P3.45
60 Chapter 3 Vectors and Two-Dimensional Motion

tile leaves the gun at the same instant that the target is 50. A water insect maintains an average position on the sur-
dropped from rest. Assuming that the gun is initially face of a stream by darting upstream (against the current)
aimed at the target, show that the projectile will hit the then drifting downstream (with the current) to its original
target. (One restriction of this experiment is that the pro- position. The current in the stream is 0.500 m/s relative
jectile must reach the target before the target strikes the to the shore, and the insect darts upstream 0.560 m (rela-
floor.) tive to a spot on shore) in 0.800 s during the first part
46. Figure P3.46 illustrates the difference in proportions be- of its motion. Take upstream as the positive direction.
tween the male (m) and female (f) anatomies. The dis- (a) Determine the velocity of the insect relative to the wa-
: : ter (i) during its dash upstream and (ii) during its drift
placements d 1m and d 1f from the bottom of the feet to
the navel have magnitudes of 104 cm and 84.0 cm, respec- downstream. (b) How far upstream relative to the water
: : does the insect move during one cycle of its motion?
tively. The displacements d 2m and d 2f have magnitudes of
50.0 cm and 43.0 cm, respectively. (a) Find the vector sum (c) What is the average velocity of the insect relative to
: : the water?
of the displacements d 1 and d 2 in each case. (b) The
male figure is 180 cm tall, the female 168 cm. Normalize 51. A daredevil is shot out of a cannon at 45.0 to the horizon-
the displacements of each figure to a common height of tal with an initial speed of 25.0 m/s. A net is positioned
200 cm, and re-form the vector sums as in part (a). Then a horizontal distance of 50.0 m from the cannon. At what
find the vector difference between the two sums. height above the cannon should the net be placed in or-
der to catch the daredevil?
52. Chinook salmon are able to move upstream faster by
jumping out of the water periodically; this behavior is
called porpoising. Suppose a salmon swimming in still wa-
d 2m ter jumps out of the water with a speed of 6.26 m/s at an
23.0°
d 2f angle of 45, sails through the air a distance L before re-
28.0°
turning to the water, and then swims a distance L under-
water at a speed of 3.58 m/s before beginning another
porpoising maneuver. Determine the average speed of the
d1m d1f
fish.
53. A student decides to measure the muzzle velocity of a pel-
let shot from his gun. He points the gun horizontally. He
places a target on a vertical wall a distance x away from
Figure P3.46 the gun. The pellet hits the target a vertical distance y be-
low the gun. (a) Show that the position of the pellet when
47. By throwing a ball at an angle of 45, a girl can throw the traveling through the air is given by y  Ax 2, where A is
ball a maximum horizontal distance R on a level field. a constant. (b) Express the constant A in terms of the ini-
How far can she throw the same ball vertically upward? As- tial (muzzle) velocity and the free-fall acceleration. (c) If
sume that her muscles give the ball the same speed in x  3.00 m and y  0.210 m, what is the initial speed of
each case. (Is this assumption valid?) the pellet?
48. A projectile is fired with an initial speed v0 at an angle 0 54. A sailboat is heading directly north at a speed of 20 knots
to the horizontal, as in Figure 3.13. When it reaches (1 knot  0.514 m/s). The wind is blowing towards the
its peak, the projectile has (x, y) coordinates given by east with a speed of 17 knots. Determine the magnitude
(R/2, h), and when it strikes the ground, its coordinates and direction of the wind velocity as measured on the
are (R, 0), where R is called the horizontal range. (a) Show boat. What is the component of the wind velocity in the
that the projectile reaches a maximum height given by direction parallel to the motion of the boat?
55. One strategy in a snowball fight is to throw a snowball at a
v 02 sin2  0
h high angle over level ground. Then, while your opponent
2g
is watching that snowball, you throw a second one at a low
(b) Show that the horizontal range of the projectile is angle timed to arrive before or at the same time as the
given by first one. Assume that both snowballs are thrown with a
speed of 25.0 m/s. The first is thrown at an angle of 70.0
v 02 sin 2  0
R with respect to the horizontal. (a) At what angle should
g the second snowball be thrown to arrive at the same point
49. A hunter wishes to cross a river that is 1.5 km wide and as the first? (b) How many seconds later should the sec-
flows with a speed of 5.0 km/h parallel to its banks. The ond snowball be thrown after the first in order for both to
hunter uses a small powerboat that moves at a maximum arrive at the same time?
speed of 12 km/h with respect to the water. What is the
minimum time necessary for crossing?