Theories of Human

UNIT 2 THEORIES OF HUMAN Development

DEVELOPMENT*
Structure
2.1 Learning Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Psychoanalytic Theory by Freud
2.4 Psychosocial Theory by Erikson
2.5 Cognitive and Social-Cognitive Theories of Human Development
2.5.1 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
2.5.2 Vygotsky’s Social Cultural Theory
2.5.3 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

2.6 Ecological Theory by Bronfenbrenner

2.7 Panchakosha Approach to Human Development
2.8 Theories of Human Development: Implications for Disability
2.9 Let Us Sum Up
2.10 Key Words
2.11 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
2.12 Unit End Questions
2.13 References
2.14 Suggested Readings

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you would be able to:

 Explain the various theories of human development;

 Explain the contribution of Freud and Erikson to stages of human

development;

 Describe Piaget’s stages of cognitive development;

 Discuss human development from social and cultural perspectives as

given by Vygotsky and Bandura;

 Explain the importance of ecological context in human development as

given by Bronenbrenner;
________________
*Prof. Swati Patra, Faculty of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, IGNOU, New Delhi

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Disability and  Describe the Indian approach to human development; and
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 Discuss the implications of theories of human development for disability.

2.2 INTRODUCTION
Sarada’s four-year old daughter Minu frequently falls sick. Her husband had
left her in the village two years ago and went to the city with another woman
to stay there. Sarada has been trying her best to manage her child by doing
odd jobs here and there. Her own health also has suffered a lot. Her parents
who are now staying with her blame Sarada for Minu’s poor health
condition. They point that it is Sarada’s bad ‘karma’ that is affecting her
child’s development and health.

As Saima is going through her adolescence, she wants to explore things by

herself. She wants to go out with her friends in the evening and enjoy. But her
parents have strict restrictions for her to go out in the evening. She feels she
is growing but she still cannot function independently.

As we can see from the above examples, development is influenced by the

prevailing norms, beliefs, and practices of the culture. Facets of human
development and child-rearing practices are influenced by the socio-cultural
context. For example, Sarangapani (2003) indicates that the mainstream
Hindu tradition is dominated by authoritarian-deferential attitudes in adult-
child relations. Similarly, other social and cultural contexts also influence
development in different ways. Thus human development does not happen in
a vacuum. It is always influenced by varied factors and contexts.

Theories of human development try to explain how development occurs and

how does it progress throughout the lifespan. Based on systematic research
and evidence, they provide different perspectives on aspects of development
and highlight the factors affecting human development in particular ways.
Theories help in gaining an understanding of human development and
behaviour, controlling and predicting behaviour. In this Unit, you will learn
about various theoretical perspectives explaining human development, the
focus of which ranges from unconscious memories and conflicts affecting
human behaviour and personality to social-cultural forces and ecological
perspectives.

2.3 PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY BY FREUD

Sigmund Freud is considered the pioneer of psychoanalysis. The central
focus in his psychoanalytic theory (Freud, 1920) is the unconscious mind
which influences human behaviour and development. It is a part of one’s
personality and influences most of our behaviour. According to Freud, the
early years of life shape our personality and are critical in determining our
developmental pathways, our behaviour and interactional pattern with others.
Freud had also explained how personality is developed through his

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psychosexual stages of development that explains how human beings develop Theories of Human
Development
from birth till adulthood.

Structure of Persoanlity

According to Freud, personality consists of three parts such as the Id, the
Ego, and the Superego. Id refers to the primitive part of one’s personality
marked by the basic desires of food, sex, sleep, pleasures, agression and
conflicts. It mostly is the unconscious part of our mind. Many of our
unfulfilled and suppressed desires, urges and memories form a part of our Id.
Id operates on the pleasure principle, trying to satisfy the desires and derive
peasure. It’s goal is instant gratification.

The ego, on the contrary, operates on the reality principle. Thus the
individual takes into account the practical situation and contexts, and
accordingly takes decisions and functions. Thus ego helps the individual in
behaving in a rational manner. It acts as a bridge between the instinctual
desires of the id and the social norms and reality. The ego also balances
between the pleasure-oriented and impulsive actions of id and the strict moral
policing of superego.

The superego is the storehouse of the moral injunctions. It forms the moral
part of the personality which helps the individual to differentiate between
right and wrong, and function accordingly. Like ego, superego also protects
the individual from the impulsive action of the id and behave in a culturally
appropriate way.

The three parts of personality – the id, ego and superego – operate in the
unconscious, conscious, and preconscious levels of mind (refer to Fig. 2.1).

Fig. 2.1: The Iceberg Metaphor: Levels of Mind

(Source: [Link])
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Disability and The id is mostly governed by the unconscious state of mind which is the
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largest part of mind as deicted in the iceberg metaphor in the above figure
2.1. Unconscious level is mostly unknown to the individual and all hidden
desires, anxiety and conflicts lie buried here deep inside the iceberg. The
periphery or just below the iceberg indicates the preconscious level
representing the superego. Preconscious is part of the unconscious and is
unknown, but can be brought into the level of awareness with intention, effort
and strategies. Conscious level of mind indicates state of awareness. Ego
operates between the conscious and the preconscious level of mind.

Psychosexual Stages of Development

Freud has described human development in terms of psychosexual stages

which is sequential and progressive. Successful completion of one stage leads
to effective functioning and proper development in the next stage. The six
stages are Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital stage. Each stage is
characterized by pleasure or gratification derived from a particular source,
that is, a body part or biological function. If there is too little or too much of
gratification related to the particular source in a stage, then it results in
fixation in that stage. The individual remains fixated in that earlier stage of
development even if biologically moves to further stages. For instance in case
of too strict or negligent parenting, the child’s needs are not satisfied
properly, and s/he may resort to unhealthy coping mechanisms to deal with
anxiety.

The oral stage is from birth to 18 months of age and the source of pleasure is
mouth.

Infants derive pleasure out of sucking as it is associated with sucking

mother’s breast for milk. However, if they do not outgrow it as they grow,
like weaning is not done properly, then it creates issues in one’s behaviour
and personality. Too little or too much gratification during this stage leads to
oral fixation which results in preoccupation with oral activities like smoking,
drinking alcohol, nail-biting or over-eating etc. Such children may be over-
dependent, lack confidence, show aggressive behaviour.

Anal stage is from 18 months to three years. It is characterized by a focus on

anal region and the process of holding and letting go. The child learns to
control the anal stimulation properly through parental regulation, societal
pressure and expectations. However, if there is too lenient or too strict
punitive regulation related to this, fixation occurs at this stage. This may
result in rebellious nature, disobedience, disorganized (anal expulsive), or
obsession with cleanliness, tendency to control and perfection (anal retentive
personality).

The nest stage is Phallic stage from 3 – 6 years of age. Here the focus of
pleasure is on the genitals. In this stage, according to Freud, boys develop
unconscious sexual desires for their mother. However, out of their fear for the
competition with their father, they start identifying with the father to reduce
24 the anxiety and conflict. Freud calls this Oedipus complex afte the Greek
mythology figure. Similarly, there is Electra complex in case of girls who Theories of Human
Development
develop unconscious sexual attraction towards their fathers. To overcome this
conflict, they start identifying with their mothers. In this process of
identification, both boys and girls learn moral values and gender-related
norms and practices. Fixation during this satge hampers the development of
gender identity and healthy sexuality.

The child then moves to the Latency stage from six years of age till puberty.
Here the sexual urges take a backseat and the child focuses on school
activities, play and interacting with same sex peer group.

The final Genital stage is from puberty till adulthood. The erogonous or
pleasure zone is the genital as the adolescents explore sex and sexuality as
they go through the puberty stage. Here they direct their sexual pleasures at
the opposite sex. They also explore their sexual identity which may cause
conflict and anxiety in the process.

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory has been criticized for its overemphasis on

sexual urges and desires. As the child moves through the psychosexual stages
of development, many frustations, conflicts and anxieties might happen
which if not resolved properly lie buried in the unconscious level of mind.
Ego acts as a mediator to bring in a balance between the impulsive desires of
id and the moral highgrounds of superego. To address this conflict between id
and superego, various defense mechanisms are used by the ego. These ego
defense mechanisms help to resolve the anxieties or conflict arising from the
irrational incestuous desires of id and the strict moral standards of superego.
In the face of this psychological conflict, the ego makes use of various
defense mechanisms to prevent psychological disintegration (Burgo, 2012).
Although these are helpful, excessive usage of ego defense mechanisms may
lead to mental health issues and disorders in the individual and affect their
mental well-being.

Box – Defense mechanisms

Regression: Going back to an earlier stage of functioning to cope with

anxiety and stress, e.g., instances of bed wetting after the child has outgrown
it

Repression: Conflicting thoughts, traumatic memories, incestuous desires,

socially unacceptable and unethical behaviour and wishes etc. are repressed
into the unconscious level of mind to prevent oneself from experiencing
anxiety and frustration, e.g., pushing the insecurities and anxieties arising out
of abuse during childhood into the unconscious.

Denial: The ego tries to safeguard oneself by denying the existence of

painful and overwhelming memories and experiences. For example, parents
refusing to believe that their only son who is so obedient and studious had
been taking drugs with his friends.

Displacement: Here the unacceptable feelings towards someone are

transferred to another target over which one has control. For example, 25
Disability and resentmen or anger towards the teacher is expressed on the younger sibling at
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home.

Sublimation: In sublimation the unacceptable feelings and anxieties are

channelized into more acceptable and constructive forms of behaviour, e.g.,
taking the same example above, instead of taking out the anger against the
teacher on the younger sibling, the child can engage himself in playing his
favourite sports or drawing or cycling etc.

Sigmund Freud has been a pioneer in the field of psychology and

psychotherapy. However, his theory failed to garner sufficient research
evidence and neo-psychoanalysts emerged to provide a more rational
explanation of human behaviour and development. Further, Freud’s theory
has also been criticized for being based on a limited Austrian population and
it’s predominant focus on development of males only (Schachter, 2005). The
theory has been pointed out to lack a multicultural perspective. However,
various studies have explored the relevance of constructs in Freud’s
psychoanalytic theory in everyday life. Tori and Bilmes (2002) studied the
applicability of defense mechanisms in Asian population and indicate that
psychoanalytic theoretical framework can be used meaningfully in
muticultural settings.

Despite many criticisms, Freud’s contribution to the field of sychology has

been phenomenal related to the importance of early childhood experiences
and the unconscious processes.

Self Assessment Questions 1

1) According to Freud, structure of personality consists of ego, superego

and ............................

2) ____________ part of personality helps the individual to behave in a

culturally appropriate way as given in Freud’s theory of personality.

3) The source of pleasure is ................................. in the oral stage of

psychosexual development.

4) Defense mechanisms are used by ......................................

5) ................................ is the storehouse of hidden desires.

2.4 PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY BY ERIKSON

Erik Erikson is a neo-Freudian who proposed a psychosocial theory of human
development. Even though influenced by Freud, Erikson (1963) centred his
theory around psychological aspects and social-cultural contexts. Thus his
theory of human development takes a broader perspective of development.
Psychosocial theory of Erikson describes development in terms of eight
stages ranging from birth till old age. Each stage is characterized by a conflict
or a crisis, and the resolution of this leads to a positive outcome or
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achievement of a particular value. There is gain in psychological strengths Theories of Human
Development
and skills in the individual which leads to successful transition to the next
stage of development. The stages are sequential and involves acquiring
certain skills and competencies, thus developing one’s ego strength, that is, a
sense of mastery. However, non-resolution of the conflict in a particular stage
leads to negative outcome and feeling inadequate in the concerned aspect of
development. It creates developmental and mental health challenges.

Let us now see the eight stages of development, the conflicts experienced and
the virtues learned in each stage.

Stage 1: Infancy - birth to 12-18 months (Trust vs. Mistrust): In this stage
the infant is fully dependent on the parent and caregivers for the fulfillment
of his/her needs, care, development, protection and safety. Hence developing
trust on the caregiver and people around is very important. The infant needs
to feel that the world around is a safe and warm place to be in and that s/he
can depend on the significant people around her/him. The value or
psychological strength learned in this stage from the successful resolution of
the conflict is ‘hope’. Thus parents, caregivers and other significant people
around play a very important role in providing care and nurturance to the
infant. Development of trust helps the infant to feel safe and secure; whereas
feelings of mistrust leads to fear and anxiety about the people and environent
around.

Stage 2: Toddlerhood/Early childhood – 12-18 months to 3 years

(Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt): During this stage, the child learns to
develop a sense of control and independence. This is reflected in mainly in
matter of toilet training, but also in food and clothing preferences, playing
with toys etc. When the child is able to exercise personal control, it leads to a
sense of autonomy; lacking which the child feels a sense of shame and doubt.
The outcome of successful resolution of this conflict leads to the value of
‘will’ in the child, and highlights the importance of intention in child’s
behaviour and functioning.

Stage 3: Preschool – 3 years to 5-6 years (Initiative vs. Guilt): This stage
is marked by exploration. The child after gaining a sense of independence
and confidence from the previous stage, engages in various activities, takes
initiative to explore the environment around. Failure to do so might lead to
doubting oneself regarding one’s capability and a sense of guilt. The
psychological strength gained in this stage is ‘purpose’ where the child
develops the ability to take initiative towards achieving goals. As we can see,
the values or the ego strength gained in each stage facilitaes proper
development in the subsequent stage of development.

Stage 4: Middle school years/School age – 5-6 to 11-12 years (Industry vs.
Inferiority): As the child grows, the child engages in various activities
related to school. The child learns to do hard work and achieve rewards for it.
Failure to do so leads to feelings of inferiority in the child. The outcome

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Disability and resulting from this conflict is ‘confidence’ which helps the child in his/her
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further development.

Stage 5: Teen/Adolscence years – 12 to 18 years (Identity vs. Role

confusion): This stage is characterized by the conflict of establishing an
identity and role confusion. The teenage/adolescence years are marked by
transition from childhood to adulthood years which creates a sense of
confusion related to various aspects of development. The focus is on deriving
a sense of personal identity. The explorations of the child during the previous
two stages lead the adolescent towards developing a sense of self. This is
further helped by the adolescent exploring himself/herself through forming
different social relationships during this stage of development. The
adolescent tries to get a clear sense of his/her beliefs, values, interests and so
on that will facilitate in forming close relationships, getting into careers etc.
in the next stages. The value learned in this stage is ‘fidelity’ which refers to
being able to behave and function according to the norms, expectations of the
society.

Stage 6: Young Adulthood – 18 to 40 years (Intimacy vs. Isolation): An

exploration of one’s own identity leads the young adults to explore intimate
relationships with another person. The value achieved in this stage is ‘love’
that helps in forming a strong, committed bond with a partner. Failure to do
so results in isolation, feelings of insecurity in social relationships, loneliness
and depression.

Stage 7: Middle Adulthood – 40 to 65 years (Generativity vs.

Stagnation): This stage mainly involves establishing oneself in one’s career,
investing yourself in children’s studies and career, and helping them to start a
family of their own. Thus it involves actively contributing towards one’s own
development, children’s future and to the society also by engaging in
different activities. This leads to a sense of productivity or generativity, lack
of which creates a feeling of uninvolvement and stagnation. The virtue
gained out of this conflict is ‘care’.

Stage 8: Older adulthood – 65 to death (Ego Integrity vs. Despair): The

older adulthood stage involves reflecting back on the achievements and
setbacks of life and trying to find a meaning of the life lived till now. By this
time, people have retired from employment, children settled in their life,
death of near and dear ones. So the individual needs to feel a sense of
integrity towards the kind of life s/he has lived and the experiences of her/his
life. Failure to make meaning out of his/her life leads to a feeling of despair
in the older adult. The virtue gained is ‘wisdom’ which helps to live the rest
of their life with a sense of peace.

Erikson’s theory provides a comprehensive overview of human development

across lifespan. Given the crisis and the virtues learned throughout, the theory
has implications for psychotherapeutic interventions. Exploration of the
various stages of development helps the therapist in identifying the current
functioning of the individual within a psychosocial developmental context,
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analyzing the issues and conflicts, and discussing the future developmental Theories of Human
Development
goals (Marcia & Josselson, 2012), thus highlighing the use of Erikson’s
theory in psychotherapy.

2.5 COGNITIVE AND SOCIAL-COGNITIVE

THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Freud had emphasized mostly on unconscious forces and early childhood
experiences whereas Erikson had highlighted the role of psychosocial
relationships and interactions in human development. Further theories have
emphasized on the cognitive dimensions and the social context in which
learning and cognitive development happen. In this section, we will discuss
the cognitive and Social-cognitive theories of human development in which
we will highlight Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, Vygotsky’s
social cultural theory, and bandura’s social learning theory.

2.5.1 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget has provided a theory of human development specifically focused
on the cognitive devlopment of children. He has proposed four sequential and
universal stages of cognitive development: sensori-motor, pre-operational,
concrete operational, and formal operational. According to Piaget (1962),
children develop their cognitive abilities from the environment through the
process of assimilation and accomodation. These processes help in the
development of schema, which refers to organized systems of knowledge in
the child. Assimilation refers to taking in new information and integrating it
with existing schema. Accomodation refers to making some changes in the
existing schema as a result of new information. Thus as children develop and
interact with their environment, they acuire different cognitive abilities in
each stage, progressing from simple to complex.

 Sensori-motor stage (0-2 years): In this stage the child engages in

various simple sensori and motor related activities to gain knowledge
about himself and the world around. Initially the infant displays reflexive
behaviour like sucking which then leads to voluntary behaviour directed
towards exercising control over one’s body and the objects in the
surrounding. The child engages in repetitive behaviour like putting a toy
or a key ring in the mouth, as these are pleasurable and also provide a
sense of control to the child. Towards the end of this stage, the cognitive
abilities learned by the child are deferred imitation, i.e., the child is able
to imitate someone in their absence, and object permanence, i.e., objects
continue to exist in the surrounding even when they are out of their sight.

 Pre-operational stage (2-6 years): This stage is characterized by the

development of language in the child. Thus a pre-operational child
develops the ability to use words as symbols to represent objects and
images. This symbolic function ability helps the child engage in pretend
play and explore the imaginary world. They attribute different 29
Disability and characteristics to inanimate objects called animism. Further, children are
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not able to distinguish between reality and fantasy. Another characteristic
of children in this stage is egocentricism, that is, their thinking centres
around themselves and they are not able to think from the perspective of
others.

 Concrete operational stage (6-12 years): The child in this stage is able
to perform operational thinking at a concrete level, that is, solving
problems when different elements are present in a concrete form. Piaget’s
experiment on conservation of quantity exemplifies this. Here two jars are
kept before the child, one taller and one shorter but wider. Now water
poured into the first jar, and then the same water poured from the first to
the second jar. When the child is asked which jar contained more water,
the child in the pre-operational stage would say it’s the taller jar.
However, a child in the concrete operational stage has acquired the abilty
of decentering and reversibility, and therefore would be able to answer
correctly that it is equal, thus displaying conservation. Children at this
stage are also able to arrange things mentally in a serial order. They also
develop the ability for classification as per any specific category, like
classifying flowers as per their colour.

 Formal operational stage (12 years and above): The child moves from
concrete to hypothetical thinking in this stage. The ability to engage in
ideas or mentally manipulate things develops in formal operational stage.
There is hypothetical deductive reasoning and abstract thinking.

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development did not talk about further progress
in cognitive development during adulthood. However, further research
studies (Sinnott, 1984; Sinnott & Johnson, 1997) have indicated post-formal
reasoning/thinking, which is a mature form of reasoning involvig practical
life considerations, pragmatism, contextual information, and possibility of
multiple causality and multiple solutions. Thus adult cognitive development
indicates a more complex and advanced form of thought involving multiple
perspectives.

Piaget’s conceptualization of universality in cognitive development has been

criticized as it does not take into account individual differences. His stage
theory of cognitive development indicates that the child learns different sets
of cognitive abilities in each stage and there is no continuation and
overlapping influence. However, our thinking ability does not develop in
bursts, rather it involves a smooth and continuous process of learning and
refinement. Further, the cultural and social interaction factors were not given
due consideration in Piaget’s conceptualizations (Pakpahan & Saragih, 2022).
Overall, however, Piaget’s theory has contributed significantly to the field of
cognitive development and child development. The theory has significant
educational implications (Lefa, 2014). Learning experiences of the child can
be designed and teaching strategies for each child can be individualized based
on the stage of cognitive development (Sanghvi, 2020).
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Self Assessment Questions 2 Theories of Human
Development
1) Stage of infancy in Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development is
characterized by ............................ conflict.

2) ........................... is the virtue gained out of generativity vs. stagnation

conflict experienced in middle adulthood stage.

3) ............................ refers to making some changes in the existing schema

as a result of new information.

4) Egocentricism is a characteristic of ............................ stage in Piaget’s

theory of cognitive development.

5) ........................................ and ................................... abilities are required

for conservation.

6) The child engages in repetitive behavior in ................................... stage of

cognitive development.

2.5.2 Vygotsky’s Social Cultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky (1979) has emphasized the role of socio cultural context of the
child in influencing cognitive development of children. He criticized Piaget’s
emphasis only on the physical environment of the child, and highlighted that
the child always functions in the socio cultural context, which has an impact
on his/her cognitive development. The child actively constructs his/her
knowledge system by engaging with individuals around, through language,
and other socio cultural domains. Vygotsky considers adults around the child
as main social agents guiding and influencing their cognitive development.
He emphasizes social situations, social interactions, language and culture as
instrumental in contributing to children’s knowledge and cognition.

Two important concepts in Vygotsky’s theory are zone of proximal

development (ZPD) and scaffolding. There are two levels in child’s
functioning: child’s current level of functioning and child’s potential level of
functioning. According to Vygotsky, zone of proximal development refers to
what the child can achieve with proper adult guidance. For this, adults and
significant others in child’s life need to act like scaffolding by providing
appropriate guidance and support. Thus Vygotsky has emphasized on the
interaction of the child with significant adults around who are instrumental in
recognizing the child’s level of functioning and then providing appropriate
challenges to prod the child to reach their potential level. Cultural context of
the child plays an important role in shaping the thinking patterns of the child.

Human beings are social and cultural beings. Vygotsky’s theory has placed a
premium on this aspects along with role of adults in child’s life. However,
child, as an idividual, also needs to be considered to develop a
comprehensive understanding of the process of cognitive development in
children. Vygotsky’s theory has been applied to enhance students’ learning
performance and their level of understanding (Helou & Newsome, 2018). His 31
Disability and concept of ZPD has significant implications for student instructions and also
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for teachers’ professional development (Shabani et. al., 2010).

2.5.3 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura emphasizes that children learn through observations in social
contexts which influences their behaviour later on. Thus observational
learning plays an important role in the child’s development. The child
observes others in the social situation, called as social models, who may be of
same or higher age, and learns the particular behaviour displayed by the
model. For instance, the child can observe another child singing in the school
function and learn things like being confident on stage, or the child can
observe parents fix a household gadget at home and learn from it. Thus the
child first observes the model, then retains the same in their memory,
executes the learned behaviour, and finally the child needs to be motivated to
learn from observations.

Bandura did the famous Bobo doll experiment to exemplify observational

learning. In this experiment, children observed social models behave either
aggressively or non-aggressively towards the Bobo doll. Later on children
who had observed social models engage in aggressive behaviour with Bobo
doll displayed aggression towards the doll themselves. On the other hand,
children in the non-aggressive group, did not display any aggression towards
the Bobo doll. Bandura also found that observation of consequences of
behaviour of the social models influenced child’s display of the same
behaviour. When they noticed the models getting punished in case of
showing aggression towards the Bobo doll, they were less likely to show
aggression towards the doll.

Bandura also talked about self-efficacy and self-regulation later on. His
theory has wide reaching impact not only in the field of education but also in
areas related to health, business, morality, child rearing and parenting
(Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2023). Bandura has highlighted the triadic
influences of personal, behavioural, and environmental factors on the
behaviour of individuals (Bandura, 1986).

2.6 ECOLOGICAL THEORY BY

BRONFENBRENNER
Urie Bronfenbrenner has proposed a theory of human development
encompassing a broader perspective that includes the child’s social and
cultural context, their interrelationships and influence on the child’s
development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Later on the theory has been called as
the Bioecological theory which recognizes the interaction between the
biological aspects of the individual child and their environmental or
ecological context (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006; Rosa & Tudge,
2013). The theory highlights the complex interaction between various levels
of the child’s ecological environment, ranging from family, neighbourhood to
32 larger social cultural institutions. Bronfenbrenner has proposed five systems
in the child’s ecological environment that interact with each other and Theories of Human
Development
determine child’s development. These are:

 Microsystem: refers to the child’s immediate environment including

family, parents and significant others around, teachers, peers, and the
neighbours. The child actively interacts and is also influenced by all these
systems in the society.

 Mesosystem: Refers to inter-connections between all the stakeholders

described above and how this influences child’s development. For
instance, interaction between parents and the school – a positive
interaction will have good impact on the child whereas a negative
interaction will influence child’s development in a negative way.

 Exosystem: Exosystem includes the influence of indirect environment on

the child’s development. The systems described above, that is,
microsystem and mesosystem involves the direct influence of different
levels therein on the child. However, exosystem indicates how different
social institutions like various organizations, work place systems,
religious institutions, media, community, government systems etc. impact
the development of the individual. For instance, changes in the workplace
policy might impact the timings of the employee and will indirectly affect
her child.

 Macrosystem: It refers to the larger social, economic and cultural

influences on the human beings, society and the country. For instance,
major economic changes at the policy level like demonitization by the
Government of India in ……, social trends or events like inauguration of
SriRam temple in Ayodhya in March 2024 etc. impact the individual and
the community in various aspects.

 Chronosystem: It refers to the historical timeline or era which underlies

all the other systems described above. The Russia-Ukraine war or the
COVID-19 pandemic recently are instances having pervasive influence
on different aspects of human development. All the dimensions of
development are impacted by these significant historical events.

Bronfenbrenner’s theory of human development takes a very comprehensive

approach to human development by considering the interaction between the
biological individual and the various levels of systems we have around us. It
highlights the influence of the context of the individual and the dynamic
inter-connectedness among the various subsystems and levels.

Self Assessment Questions 3

1) Vygotsky primarily focuses on .......................... context as influencing the

thinking patterns of the child.

2) Observational learning has been given by ................................

33
Disability and 3) .............................. theory highlights the complex interaction between
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various levels of the child’s ecological environment.

4) The influence of indirect environment on the child’s development is

indicated by ......................... in Bronfenbrenner’s theory.

5) ....................................... in the ecological theory refers to the larger

social, economic and cultural influences on the human beings, society and
the country.

2.7 PANCHAKOSHA APPROACH TO HUMAN

DEVELOPMENT
Indian thought system considers human development in terms of five levels
or dimensions which follow a linear approach. Taittiriya Upanishad has
mentioned about five ‘koshas’ or layers in one’s self – the ‘panchakosha’ –
which reflects different aspects in one’s self. These focus on addressing the
basic physical and physiological needs to understanding oneself in different
aspects to attaining a blissful state.

 Annamaya kosha: It focuses on the physical body and highlights the

importance of having proper food and adequate rest and sleep for a
healthy body.

 Pranamaya kosha: It refers to the life force of breathing. The focus is on

regulating one’s breath and thereby gaining control over oneself, and
achieving balance in one’s body and mind.

 Manomaya kosha: It indicates the mind and the mental functions and
abilities. It involves exploring and developing one’s various cognitive and
affective faculties.

 Vijnanamaya kosha: This involves developing higher intellectual

capacities, discernment, conscience, insights and intuitions. The
individual moves towards attaining wisdom.

 Anandamaya kosha: All the above levels lead to the ultimate aim of the
individual to experience a blissful state of life, be happy and live
peacefully.

The Indian approach to human development takes a holistic view of the

individual and focuses on their progress from mundane, physical aspects to
the spiritual and blessed state of life.

2.8 THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT:

IMPLICATIONS FOR DISABILITY
As we analyze all the above theories of human development, we can reflect
on the implications of these on the development of ‘self’, one’s personality,
34 perception, attitude, social interaction, values and so on. These theories help
explain how a child develops amid the interacting influences of various Theories of Human
Development
factors in the environment. Dynamic interaction between the individual and
the social and cultural norms determine how any deviation is perceived by
the person concerned as well as people in the society. For instance, cultural
traditions in the form of parenting practices used may influence children’s
attitude towards disability (Porter et. al., 2005). Differences between
individualistic and collectivistic societies affect the way disability is
perceived, accomodated and integrated in various spheres of life. Cultural
norms and practices influence the provision of inclusive education and
school-based interventions, which further shape individual’s perception and
attitude towards disability (Babik & Gardner, 2021).

As a child develops, biological, psychological, social and cultural factors

affect development in various domains. Theories of human development
provide a perspective in understanding the influence of these factors and their
inter-relationship. For instance, Bronfenbrenner has emphasized the
interacting influence of various systems in a child’s environment. Hence
disability is viewed from a biopsychosocial model rather than
conceptualizing it in isolated manner. Highlighting the biopsychosocial
approach, the WHO considers disability as resulting from a complex
relationship between an individual’s health condition and personal factors,
and of the external factors that represent the circumstances in which the
individual lives (Peterson, 2005, p.106). Disability is defined as an outcome
of impairment of the body or mind where it limits the ability of a person to
engage in typical activities and social interactions in their environment
(Scheer & Groce, 1988). This limitation or restrictions in participation is
more often a result of social and attitudinal barriers, stigma and
misconceptions. Hence along with the type and severity of impairment, the
extent of disability is also impacted by the ability of the individual to
participate in social life (Peterson, 2005). Disability is considered as a
socially constructed concept (Mandell & Novak, 2005; Narayan, 2002).
Researchers and practitioners in the field of human development can work on
different strategies and programmes to influence the social perception of
disability, social inclusion practices, parenting practices, teaching-learning
practices, teachers’ perception and attitudes etc. so that these can have a
positive impact on child’s development.

Babik and Gardner (2021) in their comprehensive review have developed an

integrative model regarding the development of disability perception by the
growing child. They have highlighted the complex relations among
individual, parental and cultural factors affecting perception of disability by
the individual and also by the society. According to Babik and Gardner
(2021), these factors include societal factors such as exposure to more
instances of disability and differences in human abilities, and cultural
differences in practices, values, aspirations, and behaviour; parental factors
like parenting styles, attachment styles, parent-child interaction etc.; and
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Disability and person-related factors such as self esteem, empathy, personality traits etc. The
Developmental Issues
model has implications for undertaking appropriate interventions at various
levels during the developmental stage of a child to build a positive perception
and an attitude of acceptance towards disability. This will help the society
progress in achieving the goals of inclusive education and integrating
disability into the mainstream.

2.9 LET US SUM UP

Let us now summarize the major points you have learned in this Unit:

 Theories of human development try to explain how development occurs

and how does it progress throughout the lifespan.

 Psychoanalytic theory by Sigmund Freud focuses on the unconscious

forces of mind and early years of life as influencing human behaviour and
development.

 Ego acts as a mediator to bring in a balance between the impulsive desires

of id and the moral highgrounds of superego by using various defense
mechanisms.

 Erik Erikson describes eight stages of human development, each of which

is characterized by a conflict or a crisis, and the resolution of this leads to
a positive outcome or achievement of a particular value.

 Piaget has proposed a stage theory of cognitive development describing

achievement of different abilities in each stage.

 Vygotsky considers adults around the child as main social agents guiding
and influencing their cognitive development. He emphasizes social
situations, social interactions, language and culture as instrumental in
contributing to children’s knowledge and cognition.

 Bioecological theory by Bronfenbrenner recognizes the interaction

between the biological aspects of the individual child and their
environmental or ecological context.

 Taittiriya Upanishad has mentioned about five ‘koshas’ or layers in one’s

self – the ‘panchakosha’ – which reflects different aspects in one’s self.

2.10 KEY WORDS

Ego defense : refer to various strategies used by ego to resolve
mechanisms the anxieties or conflict arising from the irrational
incestuous desires of id and the strict moral
standards of superego.

Assimilation : refers to taking in new information and integrating

it with existing schema.
36
Accomodation : refers to making some changes in the existing Theories of Human
Development
schema as a result of new information.

Zone of proximal : refers to what the child can achieve with proper
development adult guidance.

Microsystem : refers to the child’s immediate environment

including family, parents and significant others
around, teachers, peers, and the neighbours

Manomaya kosha : indicates the mind and the mental functions and
abilities.

Vijnanamaya kosha : involves developing higher intellectual capacities,

discernment, conscience, insights and intuitions.

2.11 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Self Assessment Questions 1
1) Id
2) Superego
3) Mouth
4) Ego
5) Unconscious

Self Assessment Questions 2

1) trust vs. mistrust
2) care
3) accommodation
4) pre-operational
5) decentering and reversibility
6) sensori-motor

Self Assessment Questions 3

1) cultural
2) Bandura
3) Ecological
4) Exosystem
5) Macrosystem
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Disability and
Developmental Issues
2.12 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) Explain the structure of personality according to Freud.

2) Discuss Erikson’s eight stages of development.

3) Describe the various stages of cognitive development by Piaget.

4) Explain Bandura’s observational learning and it’s implications for

disability perception.

5) Describe the panchakosha approach to human development.

6) Discuss the implications of various theories of human development for

disability.

2.13 REFERENCES
Babik, I., & Gardner, E.S. (2021). Factors affecting the perception of
disability: A developmental perspective. Frontiers in Psychology, 12:
702166. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.702166

Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social

Cognitive Theory. Prentice Hall.

Burgo, J. (2012). Why do I do that? Psychological Defense Mechanisms and

the Hidden Ways They Shape our Lives. New Rise Press.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development:

Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.

Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The bioecological model of

human development. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Series Eds.) & R. M.
Lerner (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical Models
of Human Development (6th ed., pp. 793–828). New York, NY: Wiley.

Erikson, E. 1963. Childhood and society. New york: Norton.

Freud, S. 1920. A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis. New york: Boni &

Liveright.

Helou, M.M., & Newsome, L.K. (2018). Application of Lev Vygotsky’s

sociocultural approach to foster students’ understanding and learning
performance. Journal of Education and Culture Studies, 2(4): 347.

Lefa, B. (2014). The Piaget theory of cognitive development: An educational

implications. Educational Psychology, 1 (1):9

Mandell, D., and Novak, M. (2005). The role of culture in families’ treatment
decisions for children with autism spectrum disorders. Ment. Retard. Dev.
Disabil. Res. Rev. 11, 110–115. doi: 10.1002/mrdd.20061
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Narayan, M. C. (2002). Six steps towards cultural competence: a clinician’s Theories of Human
Development
guide. Home Health Care Manag. Pract. 14, 378–386. doi: 10.1177/
1084822302014005010

Pakpahan, F.H., &Saragih, M. (2022). Theory of cognitive development by

Jean Piaget. Journal of Applied Linguistics, 2(2): 55-60.

Peterson, D. B. (2005). International classification of functioning, disability

and health: an introduction for rehabilitation psychologists. Rehab. Psychol.
50:105. doi: 10.1037/0090-5550.50.2.105

Piaget, J. (1962). Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood. New York:

Norton.

Porter, C. L., Hart, C. H., Yang, C., Robinson, C. C., Olsen, S. F., Zeng, Q.,
et al. (2005). A comparative study of child temperament and parenting in
Beijing, China and the western United States. Int. J. Behav. Dev. 29, 541–
551. doi: 10.1080/01650250500147402

Rosa, E. M., & Tudge, J. R. H. (2013). Urie Bronfenbrenner's theory of

human development: Its evolution from ecology to bioecology. Journal of
Family Theory &Review, 5(4), 243–258.

Sanghvi, P. (2020). Piaget’s theory of cognitive development: A review.

Indian Journal of Mental Health, 7(2), 90-96.

Sarangapani, P. (2003). Conskuching School knowledge - An ethrography of

learning in an Indian village. New Delihi; Sage publications.

Schachter, E.P. (2005). Erikson meets the postmodern: can classic identity
theory rise to the challenge? Identity, 5, 137-160.

Scheer, J., & Groce, N. (1988). Impairment as a human constant: Cross-

cultural and historical perspectives on variation. J. Soc. Issues. 44, 23–37.
doi: 10.1111/j. 1540- 4560.1988.tb02046.x

Schunk, D.H., & DiBenedetto, M.K. (2023). Albert Bandura’s legacy in

education. Theory into Practice, 62(3), 205-206.

Shabani, K., Khatib, M., & Ebadi, S. (2010). Vygotsky’s zone of proximal
development: Instructional implications and teachers’ professional
development. English Language Teaching, 3(4): 237-248

Sinnott, J. D. (1984). Postformal reasoning: The relativistic stage. In M.

Commons, F. Richards, & C. Armon (Eds.), Beyond formal operations (pp.
298–325). New York: Praeger.

Sinnott, J. D., & Johnson, L. (1997). Brief report: Complex postformal

thought in skilled research administrators. Journal of Adult Development,
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Disability and Tori, C., &Bilmes, M. (2002). Multiculturalism and psychoanalytic
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psychology: the validation of a defense mechanisms measure in an Asian
population. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 19 (4), 701-721.

Vygotsky, L. (1979). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Mental

Processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

2.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

Feldman, R.S., & Babu, N. (2018). Development Across the Life Span, 8thEd..
Chennai: Pearson.

Berk, L.E. (2013). Child Development, 9th Ed. Boston, MA: Pearson.

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