Module 1

PLANT AND ANIMAL ORGAN SYSTEMS AND

THEIR FUNCTIONS

Learning Objectives:

 Identify the similarities and differences of plant and animal reproduction, development, and
nutrition;
 Create a Venn Diagram showing the similarities and differences in plant and animal reproduction,
development, and nutrition; and
 Reflect the understanding of the similarities and differences of plant and animal reproduction,
development, and nutrition.
Learning Competency:

Compare and contrast the following processes in plants and animals: reproduction, development, nutrition,
gas exchange, transport/circulation, regulation of body fluids, chemical and nervous control, immune
systems, and sensory and motor mechanisms. (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)

INTRODUCTION
Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms - “offsprings” - are reproduced
from their parents. Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists
as a result of reproduction.

Feature Plants Animals

Behavior Displayed Use of bright colors to Males fighting for females.
attract insects Courtship pheromones is
Ophyrys kotschiyi mimics used by males in attracting
the shape of a bee to attract female
insects
Method of Sex cells are transmitted byTwo sex cells, spermatozoa
Fertilization a vector (insect or bird and oocyte meet during
sexual intercourse
Method of Asexual reproduction does Asexual reproduction
Reproduction not involve gametes Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction, use of
male and female gamete
Ophyrys kotschiyi flower
forming a zygote Source: Google
PLANT REPRODUCTION
The reproductive structures of a plant is called flowers and reproduce through asexual pollination. The
floral organs – sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels (pistils)– are attached to a part of the stem called the
receptacle. Stamens and carpels are reproductive organs, whereas sepals and petals are sterile. Sepals,
which enclose and protect the floral bud before it opens, are usually green and more leaflike in appearance
than the other floral organs. In most cases, petals are more brightly colored than sepals and attracts the
flower to insects and other pollinators.

Source: [Link]

A stamen consists of a stalk called the filament and a terminal structure called the anther; within the anther
are chambers called pollen sacs, in which pollen is produced. A carpel has an ovary at its base and a long,
slender neck called the style. At the top of the style is the sticky structure called the stigma that serves as a
landing platform for pollen. Within the ovary are one or more ovules, with the number depending on the
species. The term pistil is sometimes used to refer to a single carpel or to group of fused carpels.

Pollination is a transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma. There are two kinds of pollination; self-
pollination (autogamy) – pollen from another is deposited on the stigma of the same flower, or anther
flower on the same plant and cross pollination (allogamy) - transfer of pollen from the anther of one
flower to the stigma of anther flower of the same species. Plants propagate even without the union of
gametes is called asexual reproduction.

Vegetative propagation - vegetative tissues of the parent plant are used to reproduce new plants. The
following are the examples;

 Stolon or runner – is a slender horizontal stem that runs along the ground. At the nodes, it forms
adventitious roots and buds that grow into a new plant. Example: strawberry and grass
 Bulb - is a short underground stem with fleshy leaf bases. The leaf bases contain food reserves to
enable the plant to survive adverse weather conditions. At the center of the bulb is a vegetative
growing point or an unexpanded flowering shoot. Examples: lily, onion, tulip
  Rhizome - is a horizontal underground stem. Rhizomes have short internodes, send out roots from
the bottom of the nodes, and generate new upward-growing shoots from the top of the nodes.
Examples: ginger, bamboo
 Tuber - is an enlarged underground stem usually from rhizomes which is serve as storage organ for
nutrients. Most tubers bear minute scale leaves, each with a bud that has the potential for developing
into a new plant. Examples: potato
 Corm/bulbotuber - is a very short and vertical modified underground stem bearing membranous
leaves and buds and acting as a vegetative reproductive structure. Example: water chestnut and
gladiolus
 Sucker - is a plant that grows from the base of the root of the plant at a certain distance away from
the plant.
Example: banana
 Grafting - is a technique to produce plants whereby tissues of plants are joined so as to continue
their growth together. The stem of the plant to be grafted is called scion, and the root is known as
stock.
 Cutting - is growing a plant from a stem or root that has been cut from another plant. It is primarily
used for more woody plants such as shrubs and bushes.
 Layering - is a technique in which a stem attached to the plant is bent and covered with soil. The
sharp bend will often induce rooting. This can be done on most plants with low-growing branches
like climbing roses.
 Micropropagation - is a rapid vegetative propagation through tissue culture under laboratory
conditions.

Some plants can produce seeds without fertilization. Either the ovule or part of the ovary, which is diploid
in nature, gives rise to a new seed. This is called an apomixes. It can be classified antheridium that produces
sperm and archegonium that produces one or more eggs. On the other hand, alternation of generations
describes the life cycle of most plants and some algae.

ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
Just like the plants, animals reproduce with two principal modes: asexual (without sex) and sexual (fusion
of gametes) reproduction. Asexual reproduction is the creation of new individuals whose genes all come
from one parent without the fusion of egg and sperm. Sexual reproduction is the creation of offspring by
the fusion of haploid gametes to form a zygote (fertilized egg), which is diploid.

The female gamete, the unfertilized egg (also called an ovum), is a relatively large cell and not
motile.
The male gamete, the sperm, is generally a much smaller, motile cell. Sexual reproduction increases
genetic variability (one of its advantages over asexual reproduction) among offspring by generating unique
combinations of genes inherited from two parents. Thus, by producing offspring having a variety of
phenotypes, sexual reproduction may enhance the reproductive success of parents when environmental
factors (including pathogens) change relatively rapidly.

Asexual reproduction has several potential advantages. For instance, it enables animals living in
isolation to produce offspring without locating mates. It can also create numerous offspring in a short
amount of time, which is ideal for colonizing a habitat rapidly. Theoretically, asexual reproduction is most
advantageous in stable, favourable environments because it perpetuates successful genotypes precisely.
Mechanism of Asexual Reproduction

In asexual reproduction, a single parent splits, buds, or fragments to give rise to two or more
offspring that have hereditary traits identical with those of the parent.

TYPES OF CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLES

ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
Fission the separation of a parent into two or more Sea anemone
individuals of approximately equal size.
Budding in which new individuals arise from outgrowths of Cnidarians and
existing ones; the offspring may either tunicates

Fragmentation the breaking of the body into several pieces, some or Flatworms
all of which develop into complete adults.

Parthenogenesis egg develops into a complete individual without aphids, scorpions,

being fertilized wasps and bees

Regeneration the regrowth of lost body parts; usually accompanied Sea stars
with fragmentation.

Methods of reproduction/giving birth:

 Viviparous - organisms give birth to their young ones

 Oviparous - fertilizations occurs outside of the female’s body
 Ovoviviparous - fertilized eggs remain within the mother to complete the development
 hermaphrodites - ability to self-fertilize but they can also mate with another of their species

PLANT GROWTH
There are two kinds of plant growth; determinate growth which stop growing like a dandelion and
indeterminate growth which persists as long as environmental conditions allow it. Plant growth occurs in
the meristems, regions that undergo mitotic division. A meristem consists of cells that divide frequently,
thus adding new cells.

Type Locations Function

Apical Terminal and axillary buds Produce tissues that
of shoots; root tips lengthen the tips of shoots
and roots
Intercalary Between nodes of mature The growth of tissue at base
stems in grasses and other of stem or leaf if tip is
monocots removed
Lateral Internal cylinder along Thicken roots and stems
length of roots and stems Source: Google
of woody plants

Primary growth and secondary growth are the two types of growth. Primary growth lengthens the roots or
shoot tip by adding cells produced by the apical meristems. Secondary growth is the result of increase in
girth of woody plants.

ANIMAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Cell division is distributed throughout the body. Increase in size is rapid during embryonic period.
Early Development
The Zygote

The zygote is a fertilized egg that has the potential to give rise to all the diverse cell types of the complete
individual. In most vertebrate zygotes, the cytoplasm contains yolk, which serves as food for the developing
embryo. The amount and distribution of yolk vary among different animal groups. Yolk is absent from the
human zygote.

Cleavage: From One Cell to Many

Cleavage is a process wherein the zygote undergoes a rapid mitosis. By about 24 hours after fertilization,
the human zygote has completed the first mitotic division and reached the two-cell stage. Each of the cells
of the two-cell stage embryo undergoes mitosis, bringing the number of cells to four. Repeated divisions
continue to increase the number of cells making up the embryo. At about the 16-cell stage, the embryo
consists of a tiny cluster of cells called the morula. As cleavage takes place, the embryo is pushed along
the uterine tube by ciliary action and muscular contraction. By the time the embryo reaches the uterus, on
about the fifth day of development, it is in the morula stage.

The Blastocyst

During this period, its cells arrange themselves into the form of hollow ball called blastocyst (blastula),
eventually forms and nutritive membranes (the chorion and placenta) that surround the embryo. A little
cluster of cells, the inner cell mass, projects into the cavity of the blastocyst. These cells give rise to the
embryo itself.

STAGES IN THE HUMAN LIFE CYCLE

Source: Villee, C.A., Solomon, E. P., & Davis, P. W. (1985). Biology. USA: CBS College Publishing

Plant Nutrition

The basic photosynthetic reaction combines carbon dioxide with water in two stages to yield glucose and
oxygen. Glucose contains the elements carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen – the only elements occurring in
complex sugars and in most fats. Thus, the carbohydrates and fats occurring in plants can be made from
water and carbon dioxide alone. However, plants do also require various other inorganic nutrients.
Biosynthesis of compounds such as amino acids, phospholipids, nucleic acids, and ATP requires the
elements phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur.

Often the very nutrients a plant requires in modest amounts can poison it when present in excess. Overuse
of fertilizer, for instance, can make the soil hypertonic to the plant, resulting in osmotic stress that injures
or kills the plant. Plants like animals, have optimum ranges in which nutrients are present in concentrations
that best promote their health and growth.

The uptake of nutrients by a plant: a review. From CO2, O2, H20, and minerals, the plant produces all of its
own organic materials.
Source:[Link]

Plant Nutrient Requirements

Nutrient – refers to any substance required for the growth and maintenance of an organism. The two types
of organisms based on the mode of nutrition are:

i. autotrophs – organisms that obtain energy from sunlight and chemicals to produce their own food.
Example: plants

ii. heterotrophs – organisms that cannot make their own food and obtain their energy from other
organism. Example: fungi

THE MACRONUTRIENTS
Macronutrients are those nutrients needed by all plants in relatively large amounts. The following list of
required nutrients should be considered as of more than passing interest, for our lives depend upon them.

I. Nitrogen. Nitrogen was one of the first nutrients to be discovered. Although it can be provided in
the form of nitrate or ammonia, it is usually absorbed in the form of nitrate. Nitrogen is needed for
proper leaf growth and development. A deficiency may produce yellowing of older leaves or a
general lightening of all the green parts of the plant, combined with a stunting of growth. An excess
produces hypertrophy of foliage and suppresses fruit production. Nitrogen is mainly important as a
component of proteins and nucleic acids.
II. Potassium. Potassium, another early known plant nutrient, is traditionally added to the soil in the
form of wood ash. The main intracellular cation, potassium, is probably most important for
maintaining the membrane potential of pant cells, and perhaps their turgidity as well (especially in
the guard cells of the stomata). Deficiency produces general symptoms of poor health, which can
 include localized chlorosis (low chlorophyll content), or mottling of leaves with small spots of dead
tissue at the tips and between the veins of lower leaves.
III. Phosphorus. Deficient in a great many soils, phosphorus is essential for the production of such
vital compounds as the nucleic acids and ATP. It is needed for flowering, fruiting, and root
development. Deficiency results in small dark green leaves over the entire plant and the abnormal
presence of red and purple colors in the leaves and stalks.
IV. Sulfur. Sulfur is an essential component of protein because of its occurrence in the amino acids
cysteine and methionine. Deficiency produces chlorosis in new leaves and buds, usually without
spotting, and poor root development. Sulfur cannot be absorbed in elemental form but must be
present as sulfate.
V. Calcium. Calcium deficiency results in abnormal growth and cell division, since calcium is an
important component of the middle lamella of cell walls (along with pectin). Typically, the terminal
bud dies, following a period of in which small leaves with dried-up tips are produced. Calcium has
a multitude of cellular functions in the plant body.
VI. Magnesium. Magnesium is required for the action of many enzymes and is needed also in the
synthesis of chlorophyll, which contains it. Deficiency, therefore, produces mottled chlorosis.

THE MICRONUTRIENTS
Micronutrients are as vital as macronutrients but are required only in extremely small amounts. The
following elements in trace amounts are now known to have a significant role in maintaining plant health.

I. Iron. Iron is needed in several of the electron transport substances of the cell (ferredoxin,
cytochromes), and in some other materials (e.g., phytochrome). It is also required for chlorophyll
synthesis. Deficiency in iron absorption can occur in soils with high or low pH. If there is a
deficiency, it results to interveinal chlorosis characterized by yellowing of the leaf along the veins,
that is confined to the youngest leaves.
II. Boron. The function of Boron is unknown. Deficiency results in abnormally dark foliage, growth
abnormalities, and malformations. Root tip elongation also shows.
III. Zinc. Zinc is required for the production of amino acid tryptophan. Since auxins are derived from
tryptophan, zinc is indirectly required for the production of auxins as well; it is also required as a
cofactor for some of the DNA polymerase enzymes. Deficiency produces small leaves and stunted
stems owing to short internodes. In excess, zinc is poisonous to plants.
IV. Manganese. Manganese is required as a cofactor for enzymes in oxidative metabolism and in
photosynthetic oxygen production. Its deficiency produces a mottled, characteristic form of
chlorotic leaf yellowing.
V. Chlorine. Probably required for ionic balance and maintenance of cellular membrane potentials,
chlorine (in the form of chloride) is apparently also needed for oxygen production in
photosynthesis. Its deficiency results in very small leaves and slow growth. Leaves become wilted,
chlorotic, or even necrotic and may eventually become bronze-colored.
VI. Molybdenum. Molybdenum is needed as part of the denitrifying and nitrogenfixing enzymes of
microorganisms. Molybdenum is also needed by the nitrate reductase enzyme present in most plant
roots. Plants must utilize this enzyme if they are to employ nitrate as a nitrogen source. However,
plants that absorb ammonia as a nitrogen source do not need molybdenum. Low productivity was
related to molybdenum deficiency.
VII. Copper. Copper is a component of some enzymes and cytochromes. Its deficiency results in a
lowered rate of protein synthesis and sometimes in chlorosis. Young leaves may be dark green and
twisted, with dead spots.

Source: [Link]

SPECIALIZED ABSORPTIVE STRUCTURES

a) Root hairs – slender extensions of specialized epidermal cells that greatly increase the surface area
available for absorption.
b) Root nodules – localized swellings in roots of certain plants where bacterial cells exist
symbiotically with the plant. The bacteria help the plant fix nitrogen and in turn, the bacteria are
able to utilize some organic compounds provided by the plant.
c) mycorrhizae (singular, mycorrhiza) – a symbiotic interaction between a young root and a fungus.
The fungus obtains sugars and nitrogen-containing compounds from root cells while the plant is
able to get some scarce minerals that the fungus is better able to absorb from the soil.
ANIMAL NUTRITION

According to Johnson and Raven, Calorie is a unit of energy that indicates the amount of energy
contained in food. It specifically refers to the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1
kg (2.2 lb.) of water by 1oC (1.8oF). And so, the greater the number of Calories in a quantity of food, the
greater energy it contains.

Nutritional Requirements of Animals

1) Carbohydrates – serve as a major energy source for the cells in the body. These are usually
obtained from grains, cereals, breads, fruits and vegetables. On average, carbohydrates contain 4
Calories per gram.
2) Proteins – can also be used as an energy source but the body mainly uses these as building
materials for cell structures and as enzymes, hormones, parts of muscles, and bones. Proteins come
from dairy products, poultry, fish, meat, and grains. Like carbohydrates, proteins also contain 4
Calories per gram.
3) Fats – are used to build cell membranes, steroid hormones, and other cellular structures; also used
to insulate nervous tissue., and also serve as an energy source. Fats also contain certain fat-soluble
vitamins that are important for good health. Fats are obtained from oils, margarine, butter, fried
foods, meat, and processed snack foods. They contain a higher amount of energy per gram than
carbohydrates and proteins, about 9 Calories per gram.

Essential Nutrients

These include substances that animals can only get from the foods they eat because they could not
be synthesized inside the body. These include:

1) Essential amino acids – needed for synthesis of proteins and enzymes; among the 20 amino acids,
eight could not be synthesized by humans: lysine, tryptophan, threonine, methionine,
phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine and valine.
2) Essential fatty acids – used for making special membrane lipids; an example is linoleic acid in
humans.
3) Vitamins – organic molecules required in small amounts for normal metabolism; examples include
fat-soluble Vitamins A, D, E, K, and water-soluble Vitamins B, B2, B3, B12, and C.
4) Trace elements or minerals – inorganic nutrients needed by the body in minute amounts, these
form part of enzymes, body tissues, and body fluids; examples include: iodine, cobalt, zinc,
molybdenum, manganese, selenium.

TYPES OF ANIMALS BASED ON FEEDING MECHANISMS

 a) Substrate-feeders – animals that live in or on their food [Link]: earthworms that feed
through the soil where they live in; caterpillars that eat through the leaves where they live on
b) Filter-feeders – include many aquatic animals which draw in water and strain small organisms
and food particles present in the medium. Examples: whales and coelenterates
c) Fluid-feeders – suck fluids containing nutrients from a living host. Examples: mosquitoes,
leeches, head lice, aphids
d) Bulk-feeders – eat relatively large chunks of food and have adaptations like jaws, teeth,
tentacles, claws, pincers, etc. that help in securing the food and tearing it to pieces.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF DIGESTIVE COMPARTMENTS IN ANIMALS

 Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms – these fuse with lysosomes that contain hydrolytic
enzymes. Example: food vacuole in a protozoa like Paramecium
 Gastrovascular cavity or incomplete digestive system – composed of a single opening through
which the food is taken in and where wastes are disposed of. It is a sac-like body cavity.
Examples: cnidarian Hydra and flatworm Planaria
 Complete digestive system – essentially like a tube with an opening at one end for taking in food
(mouth) and an opening at the outer end where unabsorbed waste materials are eliminated (anus).
In between the mouth and anus, are specialized organs that carry out transport, processing, and
absorption of digested nutrients.

Source:[Link]

Accessory organs for digestion in a complete digestive system

1. Liver – secretes bile for emulsifying fats.
2. Gallbladder – stores bile produced by the liver.
3. Pancreas – secretes enzymes that break down all major food molecules; secretes buffers against HCl
from the stomach; secretes the hormone insulin for control of glucose metabolism.

EVALUATION
I. Matching type. Select the most appropriate answer from column B for each description in column
A. Write the letter of the correct answer only in your activity notebook/sheet.

Column A Column B

1. Regeneration A. Asexual reproduction

2. Internal fertilization B. Sexual reproduction
3. Budding
4. External fertilization
5. Fission

II. Make a Venn diagram between the differences of plant and animal in terms of reproduction, growth
and nutrition.

III. Multiple Choice. Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. Which stage of development extends from conception to the end of the eighth week of prenatal
development?
A. Fetus
B. Embryo
C. Neonate
D. Infant

2. During which stage does rapid growth, morphogenesis, and cellular differentiation occur,
transforming the organism into a physiologically independent form?
A. Embryo
B. Neonate
C. Fetus
D. Infant
3. The period from birth to four weeks of age is known as the:
A. Infant stage
B. Fetal stage
C. Neonate stage
D. Embryonic stage

4. Which developmental stage is characterized by physiological adjustments such as independent

breathing, feeding, and waste excretion?
A. Fetus
B. Neonate
C. Infant
D. Child

5. The stage from the end of the fourth week to about two years of age, marked by rapid growth
and the beginning of language skills, is called:
A. Child
B. Neonate
C. Infant
D. Adolescent

6. Eruption of deciduous teeth and development of muscular coordination are characteristics of

which stage?
A. Infant
B. Child
C. Adolescent
D. Young adult

7. Which stage of development spans from approximately age 2 years to puberty?

A. Infant
B. Adolescent
C. Child
D. Young adult

8. Development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics and a growth spurt are hallmarks
of the:
A. Child stage
B. Adolescent stage
C. Young adult stage
D. Middle age
9. Peak physical development and assumption of adult responsibilities typically occur during:
A. Adolescence
B. Middle age
C. Young adulthood
D. Old age

10. Physiological aging, including menopause in women and graying of hair, commonly begins
during:
A. Young adulthood
B. Middle age
C. Old age
D. Adolescence
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 Alternation of [Link]: Peter coxhead / derivative work: Peter coxhead - This file was derived from: Alternation of
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 Campbell, N.A. & Reece, J. B. (2005). Biology: 7th edition. USA: Pearson Benjamin Cummings
 Villee, C.A., Solomon, E. P., & Davis, P. W. (1985). Biology. USA: CBS College
 Publishing
 Lumen Learning. (nd). Nutritional adaption of plants. Retrieved January 30, 2021
 from [Link]
 DepEd Schools Division of Negros Oriental Region VII