Chapter 4: Incompressible Flow over Airfoils

The shape of the airfoil at the leading edge is

AIRFOIL NOMENCLATURE usually circular, with a leading-edge
radius of approximately 0.02c.

The shapes of all standard NACA airfoils are

generated by specifying the shape of the
mean camber line and then wrapping a
specified symmetrical thickness distribution
around the mean camber line.

NACA 2412
maximum thickness in hundredths of chord

location of maximum camber along the chord from

the leading edge in tenths of chord
maximum camber in hundredths of chord
For the NACA 2412 airfoil, the maximum camber is 0.02c located at 0.4c from the leading 1
edge, and the maximum thickness is 0.12c.
NACA 23012 five-digit” series
give the maximum thickness in hundredths of chord

when divided by 2 give the location of maximum camber along the

chord from the leading edge in hundredths of chord
when multiplied by 3/2 gives the design lift coefficient in tenths
For the NACA 23012 airfoil, the design lift coefficient is 0.3, the location of maximum camber is at
0.15c, and the airfoil has 12 percent maximum thickness.

NACA 65-218 6-series

the maximum thickness in hundredths of chord

the design lift coefficient in tenths
location of minimum pressure in tenths of chord from the leading
identifies the series edge
2
For the NACA 65-218 airfoil, the 6 is the series designation, the minimum pressure occurs at 0.5c
for the basic symmetric thickness distribution at zero lift, the design lift coefficient is 0.2, and the
airfoil is 18 percent thick.
In addition, many of the large aircraft companies
today design their own special-purpose airfoils;
for example, the Boeing 727, 737, 747, 757, 767,
and 777 have specially designed Boeing airfoils.

AIRFOIL CHARACTERISTICS

The inviscid flow airfoil theory discussed in this

chapter allows us to predict the lift slope a0 and L=0 for
a given airfoil. It does not allow us to calculate cl,max.

3
 Here, the moment coefficient is taken about the quarter-
chord point. (quarter-chord point is commonly used)

The lift slope a0 is not influenced by Re; however, cl,max is

dependent upon Re.

The moment coefficient is also insensitive to Re except at

large .

Experimental data for lift coefficient

and moment

4
 The physical source of this drag coefficient is
both skin friction drag and pressure drag due
to flow separation (so-called form drag).

The sum of these two effects yields the profile

drag coefficient cd for the airfoil.

Note that cd is sensitive to Re, which is to be

expected since both skin friction and flow
separation are viscous effects.

In general, moments on an airfoil are a

function of .

There is one point on the airfoil about which

the moment is independent of angle of
attack; such a point is defined as the
aerodynamic center.
Experimental data for profile drag coefficient 5
PHILOSOPHY OF THEORETICAL SOLUTIONS FOR LOW-SPEED FLOW OVER AIRFOILS:
THE VORTEX SHEET

Recall that in chapter 3, with its counterclockwise flow,

corresponds to a negative value of Γ. By convention, a
vortex filament positive Γ induces a clockwise flow.

Let s be the distance measured along the vortex sheet in

the edge view.

Define = (s) as the strength of the vortex sheet, per unit

length along s.
6
Thus, the strength of an infinitesimal portion ds of the sheet is ds.
Now consider point P in the flow, located at a distance r from ds; the cartesian coordinates of P
are (x,z).

The small section of the vortex sheet of strength ds induces an infinitesimally small velocity dV at
point P.

The velocity at P induced by the entire vortex sheet is the summation of equation above from
point a to point b.

Note that dV, which is perpendicular to r, changes direction at point P as we sum from a to b;
hence, the incremental velocities induced at P by different sections of the vortex sheet must be
added vectorially.
Because of this, it is sometimes more convenient to deal with the velocity potential.

the increment in velocity potential d

induced at point P by the elemental
vortex ds
From chapter 3

7
The velocity potential at P due to the entire vortex sheet from a to b is

The circulation around the vortex sheet is the sum of the strengths of the elemental vortices

the circulation around the dashed path is

However, since the strength of the vortex sheet contained inside the dashed path
is ds, we also have

Therefore, from above equations

8
Let the top and bottom of the dashed line approach the vortex sheet

the local jump in tangential velocity across the vortex sheet is equal to the local sheet strength

1. Replace the airfoil surface with a

vortex sheet of variable strength
(s).

2. Calculate the variation of as a function of s such that the induced

velocity field from the vortex sheet when added to the uniform velocity
of magnitude V∞ will make the vortex sheet (hence the airfoil surface) a
streamline of the flow.
4. Finally, the resulting lift is given by the
3. In turn, the circulation around the airfoil will Kutta-Joukowski theorem:
be given by
9
●
No general analytical solution for = (s) exists for an airfoil of arbitrary shape and thickness.
●
Rather, the strength of the vortex sheet must be found numerically.
●
Today, the above philosophy is the foundation of the modern vortex panel method

This case has the advantage of yielding a closed-form analytical solution.

THE KUTTA CONDITION

There are an infinite number of valid theoretical solutions, corresponding to an infinite 10

choice of Γ.
We know from experience that a given airfoil at a given angle of attack produces a single value of
lift.

A moment just after starting. An intermediate time.

●
Fow tries to curl around the sharp trailing ●
As the real flow develops over the airfoil the
edge from the bottom surface to the top stagnation point on the upper surface moves
surface. toward the trailing edge.
●
Velocity becomes infinitely large at a sharp
corner.
●
It is not tolerated very long by nature.
So, although there is an infinite number of possible potential flow solutions, nature knows how to
pick a particular solution. 11
 ●
Finally, after the initial transient process
dies out, the steady flow shown in figure
below is reached.
●
Fow is smoothly leaving the top and the
bottom surfaces of the airfoil at the trailing
edge.
●
At a given angle of attack, nature adopts
that particular value of circulation.
●
This case is called Kutta-Condition.

Different possible shapes of the trailing edge and their relation to the Kutta condition.
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The strength of such a vortex sheet is variable along the sheet and is denoted by (s).
The statement of the Kutta condition in terms of the vortex sheet is as follows.
At the trailing edge (TE)

For cusped trailing edge

Therefore, the Kutta condition expressed in terms of the strength of the

vortex sheet is

Without Friction Could We Have Lift?

If we lived in a perfectly inviscid world, an airfoil

could not produce lift.

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KELVIN’S CIRCULATION THEOREM
AND THE STARTING VORTEX
●
Kutta condition states that the circulation around an airfoil is just the right value to ensure that
the flow smoothly leaves the trailing edge.
●
How does nature generate this circulation?
●
Does it come from nowhere, or is circulation somehow conserved over the whole flow field?

Consider an arbitrary inviscid, incompressible flow

we can state that circulation around
a closed curve formed by a set of
contiguous fluid elements remains
constant.

the substantial derivative gives the

time rate of change following a given
fluid element

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An interesting consequence of Kelvin’s circulation theorem is proof that a stream surface which is
a vortex sheet at some instant in time remains a vortex sheet for all times.

Kelvin’s theorem helps to explain the generation of

circulation around an airfoil, as follows.

●
Consider an airfoil in a fluid at rest, as shown in figure a.
Because V = 0 everywhere, the circulation around curve
C1 is zero.
●
Now start the flow in motion over the airfoil. Initially, the
flow will tend to curl around the trailing edge.
●
Consequently, a thin region of very large velocity
gradients (and therefore high vorticity) is formed at the
trailing edge.
●
It is flushed downstream as the fluid elements begin to
move downstream from the trailing edge.
●
As it moves downstream, this thin sheet of intense
vorticity is unstable, and it tends to roll up and form a
picture similar to a point vortex.
15
●
This vortex is called the starting vortex.
●
After the flow around the airfoil has come to a steady state
the high velocity gradients at the trailing edge disappear
and vorticity is no longer produced at that point.
●
However, the starting vortex has already been formed
during the starting process, and it moves steadily
downstream with the flow forever after.
●
The fluid elements that initially made up curve C1 in figure
a have moved downstream and now make up curve C2,
●
Thus, from Kelvin’s theorem, the circulation Γ2 around
curve C2 is the same as that around curve C1.

●
Now let us subdivide C2 into two loops by making the cut
bd, thus forming curves C3 (circuit bcdb) and C4 (circuit
abda).
●
Curve C3 encloses the starting vortex, and curve C4
encloses the airfoil.
●
Since the cut bd is common to both C3 and C4, the sum of
the circulations around C3 and C4 is simply equal to the
circulation around C2: 16
CLASSICAL THIN AIRFOIL THEORY:THE SYMMETRIC AIRFOIL
Our purpose is to calculate the variation of (s) such that the camber line becomes a streamline of
the flow and such that the Kutta condition is satisfied at the trailing edge; that is, (TE) = 0.

Once we have found the particular (s) that satisfies these conditions, then the total circulation Γ
around the airfoil is found by integrating (s) from the leading edge to the trailing edge.

In turn, the lift is calculated from Γ via the Kutta-Joukowski theorem.

●
The freestream velocity is V∞, and the airfoil is at
the angle of attack .
●
The x axis is oriented along the chord line, and
the z axis is perpendicular to the chord.
●
The distance measured along the camber line is
denoted by s.
●
The shape of the camber line is given by z = z(x).
●
The chord length is c.
●
w′ is the component of velocity normal to the
camber line induced by the vortex sheet; so, w′ =
17
w′(s).
If the airfoil is thin, the camber line is close to the chord line; when viewed from a distance, the
vortex sheet appears to fall approximately on the chord line.

Here, = (x).

We still wish the camber line to be a streamline of the flow, and = (x) is calculated to satisfy this
condition as well as the Kutta condition (c) = 0.

That is, the strength of the vortex sheet on the chord line is determined such that the camber line
(not the chord line) is a streamline.

the component of velocity normal

freestream velocity to the camber line induced by the
normal to the camber vortex sheet
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at every point along the camber line
At any point P on the camber line, where the
slope of the camber line is dz∕dx

For a thin airfoil at small angle of attack, both

and tan−1(−dz∕dx) are small values.

Using the approximation that sin ≈ tan ≈ for

small , where is in radians,
is in radians.

We need an expression for w′(s) in terms of the strength of the vortex

sheet
w′(s) Induced velocity component normal to the camber line

w(x) component of velocity normal to the chord line

19
If the airfoil is thin,
We wish to calculate the value of w(x) at the location x.
From page 7 elemental vortex of strength located at a
distance from the origin along the chord line

The velocity dw at point x induced by the elemental vortex

at point is given by

In turn, the velocity w(x) induced at point x by all the elemental

vortices

( = 0) to the trailing edge ( = c)

From page 18
fundamental equation of thin airfoil theory

20
●
For a given airfoil at a given angle of attack, both and dz∕dx are known values.
●
The only unknown in above equation is the vortex strength ().
●
The solution of equation yields the variation of () such that the camber line is a streamline of the
flow.
The central problem of thin airfoil theory is to solve above equation for (), subject to the
Kutta condition, namely, (c) = 0.
Consider symmetrical airfoil; (which means camber coincident with chord)

dz∕dx = 0

In essence, within the framework of thin airfoil theory, a symmetric airfoil is treated the same as a
flat plate; note that our theoretical development does not account for the airfoil thickness
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distribution.
To help deal with the integral in above equations, let us transform into via the following
transformation:

Since x is a fixed point in above equations, it corresponds to a particular value of , namely, 0, such
that

the limits of integration become = 0 at

the leading edge (where = 0) and = at
the trailing edge

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Substitude

This integral It’s solution

frequantly appear
in aerodynamic
problems

Substitude again!

Same equation in
page 22. 23
 It means is the solution of

at the trailing edge, where

=

which is an indeterminant form. However, using L’Hospital’s rule

Means satisfies Kutta condition

In order to calculate the lift coefficient for a thin, symmetric airfoil. The total circulation around the
airfoil is calculated

24
From Kutta-Joukowski theorem

The lift coefficient is

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