LESSON 3: INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS AND SOCIETY

Topic: A. Intellectual Revolutions and Society and

B. Cradles of Science

Learning Outcomes: At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Identify the intellectual revolutions that shaped society across time;

2. Explain how intellectual revolutions transformed the views of society about dominant
scientific thought; and
3. Discuss how scientific and technological developments affect society and the
environment.

Intellectual Revolutions in Society

Let’s remember! I know you have encountered them in your history classes before so let’s
review on their great contributions in science.

1.) Nicolaus Copernicus was a

Polish astronomer known
as the father of modern
astronomy. He was the first
modern European scientist to
propose that Earth and other
planets revolve around the
sun, or the Heliocentric
Theory of the universe. Prior
to the publication of his major
astronomical work, “Six Books
Concerning the Revolutions of
the Heavenly Orbs,” in 1543,
European astronomers
argued that Earth lay at the center of the
universe, the view also held by most ancient
philosophers and biblical writers. In addition to
correctly postulating the order of the known
planets, including Earth, from the sun, and
estimating their orbital periods relatively
accurately, Copernicus argued that Earth turned
daily on its axis and that gradual shifts of this axis
accounted for the changing seasons.
([Link]
aus-copernicus)
2.) Charles Robert Darwin was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known of his
contributions to the science of evolution. His proposition that all species have descended over
time from common ancestors is now widely accepted and considered a foundational concept in
science. In a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace, he introduced his scientific theory that
 this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection.
([Link]/[Link])

3.) Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who developed

psychoanalysis, a method through which an analyst unpacks
unconscious conflicts based on the free associations, dreams and
fantasies of the patient. His theories on child sexuality, libido and
the ego, among other topics, were some of the most
influential academic concepts of the 20th century.

Since we already have a brief background of our three great contributors, can you imagine
a world without science as an avenue for intellect? Do you think we can still live the society even
without these revolutionary intellectuals? Perhaps no, because without them science will not bring
us this far, into our own perspectives.

Therefore, for this discussion, intellectual revolutions should not be confused with the
Greeks pre-Socratic speculations about the behavior of the universe. In science and technology,
intellectual revolutions refer to the series of events that led to the emergence of modern science
and the progress of scientific thinking across critical periods in history. Although there are many
intellectual revolutions, this lesson focuses on three of the most important ones that altered the
way humans view science and its impacts on society: the Copernican, Darwinian, and Freudian
revolutions.

In understanding intellectual revolutions, it is worth noting that these revolutions are, in

themselves, paradigm shifts. These shifts resulted from a renewed and enlightened
understanding of how the universe behaves and functions. They challenged long-held views
about the nature of the universe. Thus, these revolutions were often met with huge resistance on
controversy.

A. COPERNICAN REVOLUTION
Refers to the 16th century paradigm shift named after the Polish mathematician and
astronomer, Nicolaus Copernicus. He formulated the HELIOCENTRIC MODEL
of the universe.

“The center of the solar system was not Earth but the Sun”
-Copernicus

Copernicus introduced the heliocentric

model in a 40-page outline entitled
Commentariolus. He formalized his model in the

This image is the heliocentric model. The sun being the

center of the solar system.
 publication of his treatise, De Revolutioibus
Orbium Coelestium (The Revolution of Celestial
Spheres).

In his model, Copernicus repositioned

the Earth from the center of the Solar System
and introduced the idea that the Earth rotates on
its own axis.

CONFLICT on HELIOCENTRIC MODEL:

The idea that the Sun is at the center of the universe was in conflict with GEOCENTRISM
(Ptolemy’s theory), as Earth being the center of the Solar System.

What happened to the heliocentric model?

One of the Renaissance men, particularly in the field of science, is Nicolas Copernicus.
Knowledge about the nature of the universe had been essentially unchanged since the great days
of Ancient Greece before Copernicus came on the scene. This continued up to the Renaissance
period. In one important way, Copernicus resembled the Greek ancient philosophers or thinkers-
he did not do anything extensive such as observing heavenly bodies or inviting people to test his
ideas so it was just a thought experiment. Copernicus was strongly influenced by a book entitled
Epitome, Muller’s book which contains observations of heavens and some commentary on earlier
works especially that of Ptolemy.

Copernicus’ idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in 1510. Not long
after that, he circulated a summary of his ideas to his few close friends in a manuscript called
Commentariolus (Little Commentary).

In his book, he wanted a model of the universe in which everything moved around a single
center at unvarying rates. Copernicus placed the Sun to be the centerpiece of the universe.
The Earth and all the planets are surrounding or orbiting the Sun each year. The Moon, however,
would still be seen orbiting the Earth. Copernicus’ model of the Earth orbiting around the Sun
automatically positioned the planets into a logical sequence. In his model, Copernicus outlined
two kinds of planetary motion:

1. The orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside the orbit of the Earth, thus closer to the
Sun.
2. The orbits of Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter lay outside the Earth’s orbit, thus farther
from the Sun.

From this model, he would work on the length of time it will take for each planet to orbit
once around the Sun. The result would form a sequence from Mercury, with a shortest year,
through Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn with the longest year. He placed the planets in
order of increasing distance from the Sun. One of the great problems in the Copernicus model,
however, was the position of the stars. The stars cannot be placed in a fixed position like crystals
in a distance sphere.
 B. DARWINIAN REVOLUTION

The concept of evolution is depicted in the previous pictures. Charles Darwin’s famous
Natural Selection is one of the limelight of science. It tells us that organisms including humans,
inherit, develop, and adapt traits that favor survival and reproduction. I’m sure that this theory had
been discussed repeatedly in your history and science subjects before and this is not new to you.
Come to think of it, do we really come from monkeys? Up to now there are still no strong evidences
that will support that belief but I know some of you are really confused. If that’s the case, then
Darwin’s theory did not fail to prove the way how we see science. We are then products of the
great influence of what we so call Darwinian revolution.

What is Darwinian Revolution?

⮚ The English naturalist, geologist, and biologist, Charles Darwin is credited for stirring
another important intellectual revolution in the mid-19th century. His treatise on the science
of evolution, On the Origin of Species, was published in 1859 and began a revolution that
brought humanity to a new era of intellectual discovery.

⮚ This benefitted from earlier intellectual revolutions especially those in the 16 th and 17th
centuries, such that it was guided by confidence in human reason’s ability to explain
phenomena in the universe.

⮚ This theory of evolution was, of course, met with resistance and considered to be
controversial. Critics accused the theory of being either short in accounting for the broad
and complex evolutionary process or dismissive of the idea that the functional design of
organisms was a manifestation of an omniscient God.

What happened to the Darwinian theory?

Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book is considered to be
one of the most important works in scientific literature. Darwin collected many significant materials
in order to present his theory with overwhelming evidence. His book presented evidence on how
species evolved over time and adaptation that differentiate species. Like many other scholars,
Darwin accumulated many pertinent materials data that he could ever possibly need to
substantiate his theory.

Darwin’s observational skills as scientist were extraordinary that moved beyond the realms
of plants and animals into the realms of humans. His book The Descent of Man was so impressive
yet very controversial. He introduced the idea of all organic life, including human beings, under
the realm of evolutionary thinking. This replaced the dominant views of a religious or biblical
design that places human beings in a privileged position of having been created by God. Darwin’s
theory of evolution scientifically questioned this view.

His accomplishments were so diverse that it is useful to distinguish two fields to which he
made major contributions: evolutionary biology and philosophy of science. More than these works,
what made Darwin truly remarkable was his courage to challenge religious and unscientific ideas
that are deemed to be prominent during those days. His unconventional way of pursuing science
gave more value to evidence-based science.

C. FREUDIAN REVOLUTION
⮚ Austrian neurologist, Sigmund Freund, is credited for stirring a 20th- century intellectual
revolution named after him, the Freudian Revolution. Psychoanalysis as a school of
thought in Psychology is at the center of this revolution.

What is Psychoanalysis?
- A scientific method of understanding inner and unconscious conflicts embedded
within one’s personality, spring from free associations, dreams and fantasies of
the individual.

- Psychoanalysis is part of a larger movement known as depth psychology, which

argues that the most important aspects of personality lie below the level of
conscious introspection, and are not visible to those who confine their observations
to superficial features of social behavior. All depth psychologies make use of the
iceberg metaphor: just as only one-ninth of an iceberg is visible above the surface
of the ocean, so only a small portion of personality is apparent in what people do,
and think, in the ordinary course of everyday living. People are not aware of, or at
least cannot articulate, the reasons for their own behavior. For this reason, overt
behavior of the type assessed by trait psychologists is of little interest -- the more
appropriate focus is on what lies below. ([Link]
 This flowchart summarizes the theory of
Chart retrieved from:
Psychoanalysis. It has three
([Link]
psychoanalytic concepts which include
psychosexual development, libido
and ego.
✔ Freud suggested that humans
are inherently pleasure-seeking individuals.

✔ Scientists working on a biological approach in studying human behavior criticized

psychoanalysis for lack of vitality and bordering on being unscientific as a theory.
Particularly, the notion that all humans are destined to exhibit Oedipus and Electra
complexes (Example: Sexual desire towards the parent of the opposite sex and
exclusion of the parent of the same sex) did not seem to be supported by empirical
data. They call then Psychoanalysis as an ideological instance than a scientific
one.

What happened to Freud’s theory?

● Amidst controversy, Freud’s psychoanalysis is widely credited for dominating

psychotherapeutic practice in the early 20th century. Psychodynamic therapies that treat a
myriad of psychological disorders still remain largely informed by Freud’s work on
psychoanalysis.
 LEARNING TASK

In not more than 4 sentences, share your insights on this question.

C. By looking for other sources and literatures, what are the controversies or
questions on Freud’s ideas?
CRADLES OF EARLY SCIENCE

Since time immemorial, inventions in science and technology have contributed greatly to
improve our way of living. Can you imagine us today without these inventions? The world now will
be miserable if these were not invented. In order for us to better understand this, let us study three
developments of science in Mesoamerica, Asia, and Africa. At this point, let’s time travel and take
a look in the progress of our society with the help of our history.

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN MESOAMERICA

Where is Mesoamerica?

- The term Mesoamerica is derived from the

Greek and means "Middle America." It refers to a
geographical and cultural area which extends from
central Mexico down through Central America,
including the territory which is now made up of the
countries of Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El
Salvador. It is therefore seen as partly in North
America, and encompassing a large part of Central
America

A. Maya Civilization
⮚ It is one of the famous civilizations in Mesoamerica that lasted for approximately 2,000
years. These people are known for their works in astronomy ( Moon, planets, Milky Way,
Sun, and astronomical phenomena by the Pre-Columbian Maya Civilization of Mesoamerica)

Mayan knowledge and understanding about

celestial bodies were advanced for their
time, as evidenced by their knowledge of
predicting eclipse and using astrological
cycles in planting and harvesting. They are
also known for measuring time using two
complicated calendar systems. These
calendars were very useful for their life
especially in planning their activities and in
observing their religious rituals and cultural
celebrations.
⮚ Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and building elaborate
cities using ordinary machineries and tools. They built hydraulics systems with
sophisticated waterways to supply water to different communities.

MICA

⮚ Mayans also built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made
from a mineral mica.

⮚ They are also believed to be one of the first people to produce rubber products 3,000
years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844.

⮚ Famous of using a writing system Mayan hieroglyphic. Mayans made use of a very well-
developed and advanced written language. Since the language comprised of symbols and
images, resembling the language of ancient Egypt, the Spanish conquistadors termed it
hieroglyphics. The individual units in the language, or its alphabets, were called glyphs.
The use of Mayan hieroglyphics was limited to the Mayan priestly class. The priests used
the language to pen down books on a wide range of subjects, including books related to
astronomy, religion, mythology and mathematics. Mayan hieroglyphics were also
inscribed on monumental structures as part of stelas or carvings.

⮚ Skilled in mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral 20

⮚ Developed the concept of zero and positive value even before the Romans did.
B. Inca Civilization

The Inca first appeared in the Andes region during

the 12th century A.D. and gradually built a massive
kingdom through the military strength of their
emperors. Known as Tawantinsuyu, the Inca state
spanned the distance of northern Ecuador to central
Chile and consisted of 12 million inhabitants from
more than 100 different ethnic groups at its peak.
Well-devised agricultural and roadway systems,
along with a centralized religion and language,
helped maintain a cohesive state. Despite their
power, the Inca were quickly overwhelmed by the
diseases and superior weaponry of Spanish
invaders, the last bastion of their immense empire
overtaken in 1572. The Inca first appeared in what is
today southeastern Peru during the 12th century
A.D. According to some versions of their origin
myths, they were created by the sun god, Inti, who
sent his son Manco Capac to Earth through the
middle of three caves in the village of Paccari
Tampu. After killing his brothers, Manco Capac led
his sisters and their followers through the wilderness
before settling in the fertile valley near Cusco circa
1200.
([Link]
america/inca)

⮚ The Incas made advanced scientific ideas considering their limitations as an old
civilization. The following were scientific ideas and tools that they developed to help them
in everyday life:
1. Roads paved with stones
2. Stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters
3. Irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all
types of lands
4. Calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for
planting season
5. The first suspension bridge
6. Quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret
7. Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specialties prized artistic achievements.

STONE INCA’S
INCA’S
BUILDING IRRIGATIO
CALENDA
INCA’S
FIRST
SUSPENSI
ON
BRIDGE
C. Aztec Civilization

Aztec, self-name Culhua-Mexica, Nahuatl-speaking people who in the 15th and early 16th
centuries ruled a large empire in what is now central and southern Mexico. The Aztecs are so
called from Aztlán (“White Land”), an allusion to their origins, probably in northern Mexico.
They were also called the Tenochca, from an eponymous ancestor, Tenoch, and the Mexica,
probably from Metzliapán (“Moon Lake”), the mystical name for Lake Texcoco. From
Tenochca was derived the name of their great city, Tenochtitlán, and from Mexica came the
name for the city that superseded the Aztecs capital and for the surrounding valley, which was
applied later to the whole Mexican nation. The Aztecs referred to themselves as Culhua-
Mexica, to link themselves with Colhuacán, the center of the most-civilized people of the
Valley of [Link] alsopre-Columbian civilizations: Aztec culture to the time of theSpanish
conquest.

([Link]

⮚ Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to
science and technology and to the society as a whole. Some of their contributions are the
following:
1. Mandatory Education. The Aztec puts value on education; that is why their
children is mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or
age. It is an early form of universal or inclusive education.

2. Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. in the
Mayan culture they used it as a currency. The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly
and made it as part of their tribute to their gods.

3. Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that

could prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.
 4. Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the
land was divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.

5. Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals and planting
season.

6. Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.

[Link] B. AZTEC CALENDAR C. AZTEC’S CANOE

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ASIA

Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient civilizations. It is
a host to many cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities of all ages. In the field of
science, technology, and mathematics, great civilizations have stood out: India, China, and
the Middle East Civilizations. These civilizations were incomparable in terms of their
contributions to the development of knowledge during their time.

A. India

⮚ It is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by huge mountains
in its northern boarders. The Indians creatively developed various ideas and technologies
useful in their everyday lives.
⮚ They are known of manufacturing iron and in metallurgical works. Their iron steel is
considered to be the best and held with high regard in the whole of Roman empire.

⮚ Famous also of medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that
originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, is still practiced as a form of alternative
medicine. They discovered some medicinal properties of plants that led them to develop
medicines to cure various illnesses. Some ancient texts like Susruta Samhita, describes
different surgical and other medical procedures famous in ancient India.

⮚ Notable in the field of astronomy. They developed theories on the configuration of the
universe, the spherical self-supporting Earth, and the year of 360 days with 12 equal
parts of 30 days each.

Siddhanta Shiromani – textbook of ancient India which covered topics such as:
mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; three problems of
diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets;
risings and settings; the moon’s crescent; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed
stars; and the paths of the Sun and Moon.
⮚ Mohenjodaro ruler was designed by Indians in the Indus Valley Civilization to standardize
measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy.

⮚ Aryabhatiya book made by Aryabhata (476-550) introduced a number of trigonometric

functions, tables, and techniques, as well as algorithms of algebra.

⮚ Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction and lucidly explained the
use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit along with Hindu-Arabic numeral
system now used universally throughout the world.

⮚ Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered as the founder of mathematical analysis.

Ancient India was an early leader in

metallurgy, as evidenced by the
wrought iron Pillar of Delhi.

Astrolabe- The Astrolabe is an ancient instrument

that measures the positions of stars and the solar
system.
 B. China

⮚ One of the ancient civilizations with substantial

contributions in many areas of life like medicine,
astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy,
and music among others. Its civilization greatly
influenced many of its neighbor countries like Korea,
Japan, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia,
Myanmar, and other countries that belong to the old
Silk Road.

⮚ Known for traditional medicines. They discovered

various medical properties and uses of different
plants and animals to cure human illness. Example is
the practice of acupuncture.

⮚ Invented compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and printing tools.

⮚ Invented also, tools like iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller.

⮚ Developed design of different models of bridges, invented first seismological detector,

and developed a dry dock facility.

⮚ Made significant records on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which
were carefully recorded and preserved to understand better the heavenly bodies and
their effects to our world.

China made substantial contributions in various fields. The list of their discoveries and inventions
is overwhelming. These contributions were made along with mathematics, logic, philosophy, and
medicine. However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into
modern science.

China’s Early Rockets China’s

Ancient
Compass
 China’s Ancient Plow China’s Ancient Gunpowder

C. Middle East Countries

⮚ The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the spread of
Islams in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or what is called the
Golden Age of Islam lasted until the 13th century.

⮚ Muslim scientist named Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the Father of Optics in his
empirical proof of the intromission theory of light

⮚ Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of algorithm
while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his
publications.
 ⮚ Jabir ibn Hayyan a Muslim chemist who was considered as the Father of Chemistry.

⮚ Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician
to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine, the Book of Healing
and The Canon of Medicine were used as a standard medicinal text in both the Muslim
world and in Europe during the 17th century. Among his many contributions are the
discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases and the introduction of
clinical pharmacology.

There are numerous Muslim scholars who made significant contributions in the field of science,
astronomy, philosophy, and even in the field of social sciences. The decline of this golden age of
Islam started in the 11th to 13th century due to the conquest of the Mongols whereby libraries,
observatories, and other learning institutions were destroyed.

Ibn al-Haytham Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi Jabir ibn Hayyan

(Father of Optics) (Father of Chemistry)

 DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN AFRICA

Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Science also emerged in this part of
the planet long before the European colonized it. The history of science and mathematics show
that similar to the other ancient civilizations, the early civilizations in Africa are knowledge
producers too.

⮚ The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant
advances in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. For example, the
development of geometry was a product of necessity to preserve the layout and ownership
of farmlands of the Egyptians living along the Nile River.

⮚ Egypt was known to be the center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval forerunner
of chemistry. They tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology and applied important
components such as examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for the treatment
of diseases. These components displayed strong parallels to the basic empirical method
of studying science.

⮚ Astronomy was also famous in the African Region. For instance, documents show that
Africans used three types of calendars: lunar, solar, and stellar or a combination of three.

⮚ Metallurgy was also known in the African regions during the ancient times. North Africa
and the Nile Valley imported iron technology from the Near East region that enabled them
to benefit from the developments during the Bronze Age until the Iron Age. They invented
metal tools used in their homes, in agriculture, and in building their magnificent
architectures.

⮚ Mathematics was also known to be prominent in the life of early people in the African
continent. The Lebombo Bone from the mountains between Swaziland and South Africa,
which may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple mathematical
 calculation or a six-month lunar calendar, is considered to be the oldest known
mathematical artifact dated from 35,000 BCE.

⮚ The Islamic regions in Africa during the medieval period was also benefiting from
mathematical learning, which is considered advanced during those times such as algebra,
geometry, and trigonometry.

AFRICA’S ALCHEMY

AFRICA’S METALLURGY PRODUCT

*** END of the Lesson Proper***