5

Friction
When a body moves or tends to move over another body, a force opposing the motion
develops at the contact surfaces. This force which opposes the movement or the tendency of
movement is called frictional force or simply friction. Friction is due to the resistance to
motion offered by minutely projecting particles at the contact surfaces. In this chapter, the
concepts related to friction are explained and the laws of friction presented. Application of
these laws to many engineering problems including wedge and rope/belt are illustrated.

5.1. FRICTIONAL FORCE

As defined above frictional force is the resistance offered by minutely projecting parti-
cles of a body when it moves over another body. Frictional force has a remarkable property of
adjusting itself in magnitude to the force producing or tending to produce the motion so that
motion is prevented.
However, there is a limit beyond which the magnitude of this force cannot increase. If
the applied force is more than this limit, there will be movement of one body over the other.
This limiting value of frictional force when the motion is impending, is known as Limiting
Friction. It may be noted that when the applied force is less than the limiting friction, the
body remains at rest and such frictional force is called Static Friction, which will be having
any value between zero and the limiting friction. If the value of applied force exceeds the
limiting friction, the body starts moving over the other body and the frictional resistance expe-
rienced by the body while moving is known as Dynamic Friction. Dynamic friction is found
to be less than limiting friction. Dynamic friction may be classified into the following two:
(a) Sliding Friction
(b) Rolling Friction. 
Sliding friction is the friction experienced by
a body when it slides over the other body and the
rolling friction is the friction experienced by a body 
when it rolls over a surface. It is experimentally
found that the magnitude of limiting friction bears
a constant ratio to the normal reaction between 
the two surfaces and this ratio is called Coeffi- 
cient of Friction. Thus, referring to Fig. 5.1 in
Fig. 5.1
which the block has a impending motion,
F
Coefficient of friction =
N
where F is limiting friction and N is normal reaction between the contact surfaces. Coefficient
of friction is denoted by . Thus
117
118 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

F
=
N

5.2. LAWS OF FRICTION

The principles discussed in Art. 5.1 are mainly due to the experimental studies by
Coulomb (1781) and by Morin (1831) on solids in dry conditions. These principles constitute
the laws known as Coulomb’s laws of friction/laws of dry friction/laws of solid friction. These
laws are listed below:
(1) The force of friction always acts in a direction opposite to that in which body tends to
move.
(2) Till the limiting value is reached, the magnitude of friction is exactly equal to the
force which tends to move the body.
(3) The magnitude of the limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction
between the two surfaces of contact and this ratio is called coefficient of friction.
(4) The force of friction depends upon the roughness/smoothness of the surfaces.
(5) The force of friction is independent of the area of contact between the two surfaces.
(6) After the body starts moving, the dynamic friction comes into play, the magnitude of
which is less than that of limiting friction and it bears a constant ratio with normal force. This
ratio is called coefficient of dynamic friction.

5.3. ANGLE OF FRICTION, ANGLE OF REPOSE AND CONE OF FRICTION

The above three terms used in this chapter are defined and explained below.
Angle of Friction

Consider the block shown in Fig. 5.2 resting
on a horizontal surface and subjected to horizontal
pull P. Let F be the frictional force developed and N

the normal reaction. Thus at contact surface the re-
actions are F and N. They can be combined graphi-
cally to get the reaction R which acts at angle to 
normal reaction. This angle , called the angle of 
friction is given by 

F
tan = Fig. 5.2
N
As P increases, F increases and hence also increases. can reach the maximum value
when F reaches limiting value. At this stage
F
tan = = ...(5.1)
N
and this value of is called Angle of Limiting Friction. Hence the angle of limiting friction
may be defined as the angle between the resultant reaction and the normal to the plane on
which the motion of the body is impending.
FRICTION 119

Angle of Repose
It is well known that when grains (food grain, soil, sand etc.) are heaped, there exists a
limit for the inclination of the surface. Beyond this limiting inclinations the grains start roll-
ing down. This limiting angle upto which the grains repose (sleep) is called the angle of repose.
Consider the block of weight W resting on an inclined plane which makes an angle
with the horizontal as shown in Fig. 5.3. When is small the block will rest on the plane. If is
increased gradually a stage is reached at which the 
block start sliding down the plane. The angle for
which motion is impending, is called the angle of re-
pose. Thus the maximum inclination of the plane on
which a body, free from external forces, can repose
(sleep) is called Angle of Repose. 
Consider the equilibrium of the block shown
in Fig. 5.3. Since the surface of contact is not smooth, 
not only normal reaction, but frictional force also de-
velops. Since the body tends to slide downward, the Fig. 5.3
frictional force will be up the plane.
Forces normal to the plane = 0, gives
N = W cos ...(5.2)
Forces parallel to the plane = 0, gives
F = W sin ...(5.3)
Dividing eqn. (5.3) by eqn. (5.2), we get
F
tan = ...(5.4)
N
If is the value of when motion is impending, frictional force will be limiting friction
and hence
F
tan =
N
=
= tan
or =
Thus the value of angle of repose is same as the value of limiting angle of repose.
Cone of Friction

When a body is having impending motion
in the direction of force P, the frictional force will
be limiting friction and the resultant reaction R

will make limiting angle with the normal as
shown in Fig. 5.4. If the body is having impending
motion in some other direction, the resultant re- 
action makes limiting frictional angle with the 
normal to that direction. Thus when the direction
of force P is gradually changed through 360°, the 
resultant R generates a right circular cone with
semi-central angle equal to . Fig. 5.4
120 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

If the resultant R is on the surface of this inverted right circular cone whose semi-
central angle is limiting frictional angle ( ) the motion of the body is impending. If the result-
ant is within this cone the body is stationary. This inverted cone with semi-central angle
equal to limiting frictional angle , is called Cone of Friction.
Example 5.1. Block A weighing 1000 N rests over block B which weighs 2000 N as
shown in Fig. 5.5(a). Block A is tied to wall with a horizontal string. If the coefficient of friction
between blocks A and B is 0.25 and between B and floor is 1/3, what should be the value of P to
move the block (B), if
(a) P is horizontal.
(b) P acts at 30° upwards to horizontal ?
Solution.
(a) When P is horizontal:
The free body diagrams of the two blocks are shown in Fig. 5.5(b). It may be noted that
the frictional forces F1 and F2 are to be marked in the opposite directions of impending relative
motion. Considering block A,
V=0
N1 – 1000 = 0 or N1 = 1000 N

 






 
 
  

 

 




 






Fig. 5.5
Since F1 is limiting friction,
F1
= = 0.25
N1
F1 = 0.25 N1 = 0.25 × 1000 = 250 N.
FRICTION 121

H=0
F1 – T = 0
or T = F1 = 250 N
Consider equilibrium of block B.
V=0
N2 – 2000 – N1 = 0
or N2 = 2000 + N1 = 2000 + 1000 = 3000 N
Since F2 is limiting friction,
1
F2 = N2 = × 3000 = 1000 N
3
H=0
P – F1 – F2 = 0
P = F1 + F2 = 250 + 1000
P = 1250 N Ans.
(b) When P is inclined:
Free body diagram for this case is shown in Fig. 5.5(c).
As in the previous case here also,
N1 = 1000 N
and F1 = 250 N. Consider the equilibrium of block B.
V=0
N2 – 2000 – N1 + P sin 30° = 0
N2 + P sin 30° = 2000 + N1
N2 + 0.5 P = 2000 + 1000
N2 = 3000 – 0.5P
From law of friction,
1 1
F2 = N2 = (3000 – 0.5P)
3 3
0.5
= 1000 – P
3
H=0
P cos 30° – F1 – F2 = 0
FG 0.5 I
PJ = 0
H
P cos 30° – 250 – 1000
3 K

F
P GH cos 30 +
0.5 I
J = 1250
3 K
or P = 1210.43 N Ans.
Example 5.2. What should be the value of in Fig. 5.6(a) that will make the motion of
900 N block down the plane to impend ? The coefficient of friction for all contact surfaces is 1/3.
122 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Solution. 9000 N block is on the verge of moving downward. Hence frictional forces
F1 and F2 [Ref. Fig. 5.6 (b)] act up the plane on 900 N block. Free body diagram of the blocks is
as shown in Fig. 5.6(b).

 

 


 




 

Fig. 5.6
Consider equilibrium of 300 N block.
Forces normal to plane = 0, gives
N1 – 300 cos = 0
or N1 = 300 cos ...(1)
From law of friction, F1 = 1/3 N1 = 1/3 × 300 cos
= 100 cos ...(2)
Consider equilibrium of 900 N block:
Forces normal to the plane = 0, gives
N2 – N1 – 900 cos = 0
N2 = N1 + 900 cos
= (300 + 900) cos
= 1200 cos ...(3)
From law of friction,
1 1
F2 = N = × 1200 cos = 400 cos ...(4)
3 2 3
Forces parallel to plane = 0, gives
F1 + F2 – 900 sin = 0
100 cos + 400 cos = 900 sin
5
tan =
9
= 29.05° Ans.
Example 5.3. A block weighing 500N just starts moving down a rough inclined plane
when supported by a force of 200N acting parallel to the plane in upward direction. The same
block is on the verge of moving up the plane when pulled by a force of 300N acting parallel to
the plane. Find the inclination of the plane and the coefficient of friction between the inclined
plane and the block.
Solution. Free body diagram of the block when it just start moving down is shown in
Fig. 5.7(a). The direction of frictional force is upward in this case since the direction of impend-
ing motion is downward. Since it is limiting case
FRICTION 123

F
=
N
Force perpendicular to plane = 0, gives
N – 500 cos = 0 or N = 500 cos ...(1)
From law of friction,
F1 = N = 500 cos ...(2)
Forces parallel to plane = 0, gives
200 + F1 – 500 sin = 0
i.e. 200 = 500 sin – F1
200 = 500 sin – 500 cos ...(3)
When the block starts moving up the plane when 300 N pull is applied, frictional force
F2 is downward. Free body diagram for this case is shown in Fig. 5.7(b). In this case,

 
 
 
 



  

 

Fig. 5.7
Forces normal to plane = 0, gives
N – 500 cos = 0 or N = 500 cos ...(4)
From the law of friction,
F2 = N = 500 cos ...(5)
Forces parallel to plane = 0, gives
300 – F2 – 500 sin = 0
or 300 = F2 + 500 sin
= 500 cos + 500 sin ...(6)
Adding eqns. (3) and (6), we get
500 = 1000 sin
or sin = 0.5
= 30° Ans.
Substituting it in eqn. (6), we get
300 = 500 cos 30° + 500 sin 30°
i.e. 500 cos 30° = 300 – 500 × 0.5 = 50
50
or = = 0.11547 Ans.
500 cos 30
124 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Example 5.4. What is the value of P in the system shown in Fig. 5.8(a) to cause the
motion of 500N block to the right side ? Assume the pulley is smooth and the coefficient of
friction between other contact surfaces is 0.20.


  
 
  
 

  




 
 

Fig. 5.8
Solution. Free body diagrams of the blocks are as shown in Fig. 5.8(b). Consider the
equilibrium of 750N block.
Forces normal to the plane = 0, gives
N1 – 750 cos 60° = 0 or N1 = 375 N.
Since the motion is impending
F1 = N1 = 0.2 × 375 = 75 N.
Forces parallel to the plane = 0, gives
T – F1 – 750 sin 60° = 0
T = F1 + 750 sin 60° = 75 + 750 sin 60° = 724.52N.
Consider the equilibrium of 500 N block.
V=0
N2 – 500 + P sin 30° = 0
or N2 + 0.5P = 500
i.e., N2 = 500 – 0.5P
From law of friction,
F2 = 0.2 N2 = 0.2(500 – 0.5P) = 100 – 0.1P
H=0
P cos 30° – T – F2 = 0
P cos 30° – 724.52 – (100 – 0.1P) = 0
P (cos 30° + 0.1) = 724.52 + 100 = 824.52
P = 853.52 N Ans.
Example 5.5. Two blocks connected by a horizontal link AB are supported on two rough
planes as shown in Fig. 5.9(a). The coefficient of friction between the block A and horizontal
surface is 0.4. The limiting angle of friction between block B and inclined plane is 20°. What is
the smallest weight W of the block A for which equilibrium of the system can exist, if the weight
of block B is 5 kN ?
FRICTION 125

Solution. Free body diagrams for block A and B are as shown in Fig. 5.9(b).



  

 
 

 




 

Fig. 5.9
Consider the equilibrium of block B.
From law of friction,
F1 = N1 tan 20° [since = tan 20°]
V=0
N1 sin 30° + F1 sin 60° – 5 = 0
0.5N1 + N1 tan 20° sin 60° = 5
N1 = 6.133 kN
F1 = 6.133 tan 20° = 2.232 kN
H=0
C + F1 cos 60° – N1 cos 30° = 0
C = 6.133 cos 30° – 2.232 cos 60°
= 4.196 kN.
Now consider the equilibrium of block A.
H=0
F2 – C = 0
or F2 = C = 4.196 kN
From law of friction
F2 = N2 = 0.4N2
F2 4.196
N2 = = 10.49 kN
0.4 0.4
V=0
W – N2 = 0
W = N2 = 10.49 kN Ans.
Example 5.6. Two blocks A and B weighing 2000N each are to be held from slipping by
the thrust of two weightless link reds each of which is connected by pin joints at one end to the
blocks and interconnected by a pin joint at other end O 2 and subjected to a horizontal force P
required to keep the blocks from slipping as shown in Fig. 5.10(a). Coefficient of friction is 0.25
for all contact surfaces.
126 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Solution. Let C1 be the force in link AO and C2 be the force in link OB. The free body
diagrams of blocks A and B and the hinge O are shown in Fig. 5.10(b). Block A is on the verge
of slipping. From the law of friction,

 








 
 
 
   



  

Fig. 5.10
F1 = N1 = 0.25 N1
Consider the equilibrium of block A.
H=0
N1 – C1 cos 30° = 0, or N1 = C1 cos 30°
V=0
F1 + C1 sin 30° – 2000 = 0
0.25 N1 + 0.5 C1 = 2000
0.25 C1 cos 30° + 0.5 C1 = 2000
2000
C1 = = 2791.32 N.
0.25 cos 30 0.5
Applying Lami’s theorem to the equilibrium of the joint O, we get
P C2 C1
sin 90 sin 150 sin 120
P = 3223.14 N Ans.
and C = 1611.57 N Ans.
The above solution holds good, provided block B is not slipping. To verify this, consider
the equilibrium of block B.
H=0
F2 – C2 cos 60° = 0
F2 = 1611.57 cos 60° = 805.79 N
V=0
N2 – 2000 – C2 sin 60° = 0
N2 = 2000 + 1611.57 sin 60° = 3393.60 N
Hence limiting friction = N2 = 0.25 × 3393.6 = 842.92 N.
FRICTION 127

Since the actual frictional force F2 developed is less than the limiting frictional force,
block B is stationary and hence P = 3223.14 N is correct answer.
[Note: If F2 calculated is more than the limiting friction N2, there is no possibility of maintain-
ing equilibrium condition in the position shown.]
Example 5.7. Two planes AC and BC inclined at 60° and 30° to the horizontal meet at C
as shown in Fig. 5.11(a). A block of weight 1000N rests on the inclined plane BC and is tied by
a rope passing over a pulley to a block weighing W newtons and resting on the plane AC. If the
coefficient of friction between the block and plane BC is 0.28 and that between the block and the
plane AC is 0.20, find the least and the greatest value of W for the equilibrium of the system.


  

c 


 



 

 
 

Fig. 5.11
Solution. (a) For the least value of W:
In this case motion of 1000 N block is impending downward. For this case free body
diagram of blocks are as shown in Fig. 5.11(b).
Consider the equilibrium of 1000 N block:
Forces normal to the plane = 0, gives
N1 – 1000 cos 30° = 0 N1 = 866.03 newton.
From the law of friction,
F1 = N1 = 0.28 × 866.03 = 242.49 newton.
Forces parallel to the plane = 0
T + F1 – 1000 sin 30° = 0
T = – 242.49 + 500 = 257.51 newton.
Now consider the equilibrium of block weighing W:
Forces normal to the plane = 0, gives
N2 – W cos 60° = 0 N2 = 0.5 W
F2 = N2 = 0.2 × 0.5 W = 0.1 W
Forces parallel to the plane = 0, gives
T – F2 – W sin 60° = 0
257.51 – 0.1 W – W sin 60° = 0
257.51
W= = 266.57 Ans.
(0.1 sin 60 )
(b) For greatest value of W:
In this case 1000N block will be on the verge of moving up the plane. The free body
diagram for this case is as shown in Fig. 5.11(c).
128 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

 

 



 


Fig. 5.11(c)
Consider the equilibrium of block weighing 1000N
N1 = 866.03 newton
and F1 = 242.49 newton, as in the previous case.
Parallel to plane = 0, gives
T – 1000 sin 30° – F1 = 0
T = 1000 sin 30° + 242.49 = 742.49 newton.
Consider the equilibrium of block weighing W.
Forces normal to plane = 0, gives
N2 – W cos 60° = 0 N2 = 0.5 W
F2 = N2 = 0.2 × 0.5 W = 0.1 W
Forces parallel to plane = 0, gives
T + F2 – W sin 60° = 0
742.49 + 0.1W – W sin 60° = 0
742.49
W= = 969.28 newton Ans.
(0.1 sin 60 )
Example 5.8. Two blocks A and B each weighing 1500N are connected by a uniform
horizontal bar weighing 1000N. If the angle of limiting friction for all contact surfaces is 15°,
find the force P directed parallel to the 60° inclined plane that will cause motion impending to
the right [Ref. Fig. 5.12 (a)].
Solution. Free body diagrams of block A, beam AB and block B are as shown in
Figs. 5.12(b), (c) and (d) respectively.
From vertical equilibrium condition for AB, it may be found that 500N force is trans-
ferred at A and B, which may be directly added to self weights of the blocks.
Now consider equilibrium of block A.
V=0
NA cos 30° + FA sin 30° – (1500 + 500) = 0
But from law of friction, FA = NA tan 15°
NA (cos 30° + tan 15° sin 30°) = 2000
NA = 2000 newton
FA = 2000 tan 15° = 535.90 newton.
H=0
– C + NA sin 30° – FA cos 30° = 0
C = NA sin 30° – FA cos 30°
= 2000 sin 30° – 535.90 cos 30° = 535.90 newton.
FRICTION 129
  


 



  

 

  

 
   

   

    




Fig. 5.12
Consider the equilibrium of block B.
Forces normal to the inclined plane = 0, gives
NB – 2000 cos 60° – C cos 30° = 0
NB = 2000 cos 60° + 535.90 cos 30° = 1464.10 newton
FB = NB tan 15° = 1464.90 tan 15°
= 392.30 newton.
Forces parallel to the inclined plane = 0, gives
P – FB – 2000 sin 60° + C sin 30° = 0
P = 392.30 + 2000 sin 60° + 535.90 sin 30°
P = 1856.40 Ans.

5.4. WEDGES
Wedges are small pieces of materials with two of their opposite surfaces not parallel.
They are used to slightly lift heavy blocks, machinery, precast beams etc. for final alignments
or to make place for inserting lifting devices. The weight of the wedge is very small compared
to the weight lifted. Hence, in all problems, the self weight of wedge is neglected.
In the analysis, instead of treating normal reaction and frictional force independently,
it is advantageous to consider their resultant. If F is limiting friction, then resultant makes
limiting frictional angle with the normal. Its direction should be marked correctly. For this,
it should be noted that the tangential component R is the frictional force and it always acts
opposite to impending motion. The analysis procedure is illustrated with two examples below:
Example 5.9. Determine the minimum force required to move the wedge shown in
Fig. 5.13(a). The angle of friction for all contact surfaces is 15°.
Solution. As wedge is driven, it moves towards left and block moves upwards. Force P
required to move the system is minimum when the motion is impending and hence at this
130 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

stage limiting frictional force acts. Hence resultant makes limiting angle of 15° with normal.
The free body diagrams for block and wedge are shown in Fig. 5.13(b). The forces on block and
wedge are redrawn in Figs. 5.13(c) and (d) so that Lami’s theorem can be applied conveniently.
Applying Lami’s theorem to the system of forces on block, we get

 




   




 
  





 

 
 



 



 
 

Fig. 5.13

R1 R2 20
sin 145 sin 75 sin 140
R1 = 17.847 kN
and R2 = 30.047 kN.
Applying Lami’s theorem to system of forces on the wedge, we get,
P R2
sin 130 sin 105
P = 23.835 kN Ans.
Example 5.10. The block C, weighing 160 kN is to be raised by means of driving wedges
A and B as shown in Fig. 5.14(a). Find the value of force P for impending motion of the block
upwards, if coefficient of friction is 0.25 for all contact surfaces. Self weight of wedges may be
neglected.
FRICTION 131

Solution. Let be the angle of limiting friction. Then

tan = 0.25 = 14.036°
Free body diagrams of wedges A and B, and block C are as shown in Fig. 5.14(b). The
problem being symmetric, the forces R1 and R2 on wedges A and B are equal. The system of
forces on block C and wedge A are shown in the form convenient for applying Lami’s theorem
in Figs. 5.14(c) and (d).

 

   


 


 

 
   

 





 

   


 

 
 

Fig. 5.14
132 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Consider the equilibrium of block C:

R1 160
sin (180 16 ) sin 2( 16 )
R1 160
i.e. , since = 14.036°
sin 149.96 sin 60.072
R1 = 92.41 kN.
Consider the equilibrium of wedge A:
P R1
sin (180 16 ) sin (90 )
P = 66.256 kN Ans.

5.5. PROBLEMS INVOLVING NON-CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEMS

There are many practical problems of non-concurrent force systems involving friction.
In these cases, apart from law of friction, three equations of equilibrium are to be used. The
method of solving such problems is illustrated below with typical problems.
Example 5.11. A ladder of length 4 m, weighing 200 N is placed against a vertical wall
as shown in Fig. 5.15(a). The coefficient friction between the wall and the ladder is 0.2 and that
between the floor and the ladder is 0.3. In addition to self weight, the ladder has to support a
man weighing 600 N at a distance of 3 m from A. Calculate the minimum horizontal force to be
applied at A to prevent slipping.



    
 

 



   
 
 
 


 

Fig. 5.15
Solution. The free body diagram of the ladder is as shown in Fig. 5.15(b).
MA = 0, gives
NB × 4 sin 60° + FB × 4 cos 60° – 600 × 3 cos 60° – 200 × 2 cos 60° = 0
Dividing throughout by 4 and rearranging, we get,
0.866 NB + 0.5 FB = 275 ...(1)
From the law of friction,
FB = 0.2 NB ...(2)
FRICTION 133

Substituting this in eqn. (1), we get

NB(0.866 + 0.5 × 0.2) = 275
NB = 284.68 newton ...(3)
FB = 0.2 × 284.68 = 56.934 newton ...(4)
V=0
NA – 200 – 600 + FB = 0
NA = 200 + 600 – 56.934 = 743.066 newton
FA = 0.3 NA = 0.3 × 743.066 = 222.92 newton.
H=0
P + FA – N B = 0
P = NB – FA = 284.68 – 222.92
i.e. P = 61.76 newton. Ans.
Example 5.12. The ladder shown in Fig. 5.16(a) is 6m long and is supported by a hori-
zontal floor and vertical wall. The coefficient of friction between the floor and the ladder is 0.25
and between wall and the ladder is 0.4. The self weight of the ladder is 200N and may be
considered as concentrated at G. The ladder also supports a vertical load of 900N at C which is
at a distance of 1m from B. Determine the least value of at which the ladder may be placed
without slipping. Determine the reactions developed at that stage.

Fig. 5.16
Solution. Free body diagram of ladder for this case is as shown in Fig. 5.16(b). From the
law of friction,
FA = 0.25 NA ...(1)
and FB = 0.4 NB ...(2)
V=0
NA – 200 – 900 + FB = 0
i.e. NA + 0.4 NB = 1100 ...(3)
H=0
F A – NB = 0
i.e. 0.25 NA = NB ...(4)
134 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

From eqns. (3) and (4), we get

NA + 0.4 × 0.25 NA = 1100
NA = 1000 newton Ans.
FA = 0.25 NA = 0.25 × 1000 = 250 newton Ans.
From eqn. (4), N B = 0.25 NA = 0.25 × 1000 = 250 newton Ans.
Substituting it in eqn. (2), we get
FB = 0.4 × 250 = 100 newton Ans.
MA = 0
NB × 6 sin + FB × 6 cos – 200 × 3 cos – 900 × 5 cos = 0
i.e., 250 × 6 sin + 100 × 6 cos – 600 cos – 4500 cos = 0.
i.e., 1500 sin = (– 600 + 600 + 4500) cos
tan = 3
Hence = 71.563° Ans.
Example 5.13. A horizontal bar AB of length 3m and weighing 500N is lying in a trough
as shown in Fig. 5.17(a). Find how close to end A and B a load of 600N can be placed safely, if
coefficient of friction between contact surfaces is 0.2.

 


 
   
 
 



  
  

     
 
   
  
     
   
 

Fig. 5.17
Solution. When the load is close to end A, the end A will slip down and end B will slip
up. For this impending motion the free body diagram is as shown in Fig. 5.17(b). From law of
friction
FA = 0.2 NA ...(1)
and FB = 0.2 NB ...(2)
V=0
NA sin 30° + FA sin 60° + NB sin 45° – FB sin 45° = 1100
NA (sin 30° + 0.2 sin 60°) + NB (sin 45° – 0.2 sin 45°) = 1100
0.6732 NA + 0.5657 NB = 1100 ...(3)
H=0
FRICTION 135

NA cos 30° – FA cos 60° – NB cos 45° – FB cos 45° = 0

NA (cos 30° – 0.2 cos 60°) = NB (cos 45° + 0.2 cos 45°)
NA = 1.1077 NB ...(4)
Substituting this value of NA in eqn. (3), we get
0.6732 × 1.1077 NB + 0.5657 NB = 1100
NB = 838.79 newton
NA = 1.1077 × 839.79 = 929.13 newton
MB = 0
600x + 500 × 1.5 – FA sin 60° × 3 – NA sin 30° × 3 = 0
600x = – 750 + 0.2 sin 60° × 929.13 × 3 + 929.13 sin 30° × 3
x = 1.877 m from B. Ans
When the load is close to end B, the end B may slide down and end A up. Let x be the
distance of load from the end B, when motion is impending. For this situation the free body
diagram is as shown in Fig. 5.17(a).
V=0
NA sin 30° – FA sin 60° + NB sin 45° + FB sin 45° = 1100
NA(sin 30° – 0.2 sin 60°) + NB (sin 45° + 0.2 sin 45°) = 1100
0.3268 NA + 0.8485 NB = 1100 ...(5)
H=0
NA cos 30° + FA cos 60° – NB cos 45° + FB cos 45° = 0
NA(cos 30° + 0.2 cos 60°) = NB (cos 45° – 0.2 cos 45°)
NA = 0.5856 NB ...(6)
Substituting it in (5), we get
NB = 1057.82 newton.
and hence, NA = 0.5856 × 1057.82 = 619.67 newton.
MB = 0
600x + 500 × 1.5 – NA sin 30° × 3 + FA sin 60° × 3 = 0
600x = – 750 + 619.67 sin 30° × 3 – 0.2 × 6.19.67 sin 30° × 3
x = – 0.237 m.
It means, the motion will be impending when the load is at 0.237 m to the right of B,
which is not possible case of loading for the bar. Hence load can be placed even on point B
safely.
Thus 600 N load can be placed anywhere between B and a point 1.85 m from B.

5.6. ROPE FRICTION

The transmission of power by means of belt or rope drives is possible because of friction,
which exists between the wheels and the belt. Similarly band brakes stop the rotating discs
because of friction between the belts and the discs. All along the contact surface the frictional
resistance develops. Hence the tension in the rope is more on the side it is pulled and is less on
the other side. Accordingly, the two sides of the rope may be called as tight side and slack side.
The relationship between the forces on slack side and tight side can be derived as explained
below:
136 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Figure 5.18(a) shows a load W being pulled up by a force P over a fixed drum. Let the
force on slack side be T1 and on tight side be T2 [Ref. Fig. 5.18(b)]. T2 is more than T1 because
frictional force develops between drum and the rope as shown in Fig. 5.18(c). Let be the angle
of contact between rope and the drum. Now consider an elemental length of rope as shown in
Fig. 5.18(d).

d /2 d /2

 
 

 
  d /2

  
   

Fig. 5.18
Let T be the force on slack side and T + dT on tight side. There will be normal reaction
N on the rope in the radial direction and frictional force F = N in the tangential direction.
Then
Forces in radial direction = 0, gives
d d
N – T sin – (T + dT) sin =0
2 2
d d
Since d is very small angle, sin = .
2 2
d d
N–T – (T + dT) =0
2 2

FG dT IJ d
i.e., N= T
H 2 K ...(1)

From the law of friction,

FGT dT IJ d
F= N=
H 2 K ...(2)

where is coefficient of friction.

Forces in tangential direction = 0, gives
d d
(T + dT) cos = F + T cos
2 2
d
Since d is very small angle, cos =1
2
T + dT = F + T or dT = F ...(3)
From eqns. (2) and (3), we get

FGT dT IJ d
dT =
H 2 K
FRICTION 137

Neglecting small quantity of higher order, we get

dT = T d
dT
or = d
T
Integrating both sides over 0 to , we get

z
T1
T2 dT
T z
0
d

LMlog T OP T2

= LM OP
N Q T1 NQ 0

T2
log =
T1

T2
i.e., =e
T1
or T2 = T 1 e ...(4)
[Note: should be in radians.]
1
Example 5.14. A rope making 1 turns around a stationary horizontal drum is used to
4
support a weight W [Fig. 5.19]. If the coefficient of friction is 0.3 what range of weight can be
supported by exerting a 600N force at the other end of the  
rope ?
Solution. Angle of contact = 1.25 × 2 = 2.5
Case 1. Let the impending motion of the weight be
downward. Then
T1 = 600 newton and T2 = W
From law of rope friction,

W = 600 e 2.5 = 600 e0.3×2.5 = 600 e0.75
= 6330.43 newton. Fig. 5.19
Case (2). Let the impending motion of weight be
upwards. Then
T1 = W and T2 = 600 newton
T2 = T1 e gives
600 = W e0.75
W = 56.87 newton.
Thus a 600 N force can support a range of loads between 56.87 N to 6330.43 N
weight on the other side of the drum.
Example 5.15. In Fig. 5.20(a), the coefficient of friction between the rope and the fixed
drum is 0.2 and between other surfaces of contact is 0.3. Determine the minimum weight W to
prevent downward motion of the 1000N block.
138 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Solution. Since 1000 N block is on the verge of sliding down, the rope connecting it is
tight side and the rope connecting W is the slack side. Free body diagrams for W and 1000 N
block are as shown in Fig. 5.20(b).

Fig. 5.20
Now, tan = 3/4 = 36.87°
Consider the equilibrium of block W
Forces perpendicular to plane = 0, gives
N1 – W cos = 0 or N1 = W cos 36.87° = 0.8 W ...(1)
F1 = N1 = 0.3 × 0.8 W = 0.24 W ...(2)
Forces parallel to the plane = 0, gives
T1 – F1 – W sin = 0
or T1 = F1 + W sin 36.87° = 0.24 W + 0.6 W = 0.84 W ...(3)
Angle of contact of rope with pulley = 180° = radians
From friction equation for rope, we get
T2 = T1 e = T1 e0.3
i.e., T2 = 2.566 T1
Substituting the value of T1 from eqn. (3),
T2 = 2.566 × 0.84 W = 2.156 W ...(4)
Now consider the equilibrium of 1000 N block.
Forces perpendicular to the plane = 0, gives,
N2 – N1 – 1000 cos = 0
N2 – N1 = 800, since cos = cos 36.87° = 0.8
Substituting the value of N1 from eqn. (1), we get
N2 = N1 + 800 = 0.8 W + 800
F2 = 0.3 N2 = 0.3 × 0.8 W + 0.3 × 800 = 0.24 W + 240 ...(5)
Forces parallel to the plane = 0, gives
F1 + F2 – 1000 sin + T2 = 0
FRICTION 139

i.e. 0.24 W + 0.24 W + 240 – 1000 sin 36.87° + 2.156 W = 0

W = 136.57 newton Ans.
Example 5.16. A torque of 300 N-m acts on a brake drum shown in Fig. 5.21(a). If the
brake band is in contact with the brake drum through 250° and the coefficient of friction is 0.3,
determine the force P applied at the end of the brake lever for the position shown in the figure.





 





 


 
Fig. 5.21
Solution. Figure 5.21(b) shows the free body diagram of brake drum and the lever arm.

Now, = 250 × radians, r = 250 mm.

180
= 0.3

= 0.3 × 250 × = 1.309

180
From rope friction equation,
T2 = T1 e = T1 e1.309 = 3.7025 T1
Now, (T2 – T1)r = M
i.e., (3.7025 – 1) T1 × 250 = 300 × 103
T1 = 444.04 newton
T2 = 3.7025 × 444.04 = 1644.06 newton.
Consider the equilibrium of lever arm
T2 × 50 = P × 300
1644.06 50
P= = 274.0 newton Ans.
300

Important Definitions and Formulae

Definitions
1. The maximum value of the frictional force, which develops between two contacting sur-
faces when the motion is impending is called limiting friction.
140 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

2. Between two contacting surfaces, the magnitude of limiting friction bears a constant
F
ratio to normal reaction. This ratio is called coefficient of friction. Thus = , where
N
F is limiting friction and N normal reaction.
3. The angle between the resultant reaction and the normal reaction is called Angle of
F
Friction i.e. = tan–1 = tan–1 .
N
4. The maximum angle at which grains can repose is called Angle of Repose.
5. The inverted cone with semi-central angle equal to the angle of friction is called Cone
of Friction.

Formulae
F
1. = , where F is limiting friction.
N
F
2. = tan–1 = tan–1 .
N
3. In case of rope friction, T2 = T1 e .

PROBLEMS FOR EXERCISE

5.1 A pull of 180 N applied upward at 30° to a rough horizontal plane was required to just move a
body resting on the plane while a push of 220 N applied along the same line of action was re-
quired to just move the same body downwards. Determine the weight of the body and the coeffi-
cient of friction. [Ans. W = 990 N; = 0.1722]
5.2 The block A shown in Fig. 5.22 weighs 2000 N. The cord attached to A passes over a frictionless
pulley and supports a weight equal to 800 N. The value of coefficient of friction between A and
the horizontal plane is 0.35. Solve for horizontal force P: (1) if motion is impending towards the
left, and (2) if the motion is impending towards the right. [Ans. (1) 1252.82 N; (2) 132.82 N]


  

  
 
A
 


Fig. 5.22 Fig. 5.23

5.3 A 3000 N block is placed on an inclined plane as shown in Fig. 5.23. Find the maximum value of
W for equilibrium if tipping does not occur. Assume coefficient of friction as 0.2. [Ans. 2636.15]
5.4 Find whether block A is moving up or down the plane in Fig. 5.24 for the data given below.
Weight of block A = 300 N. Weight of block B = 600 N. Coefficient of limiting friction between
plane AB and block A is 0.2. Coefficient of limiting friction between plane BC and block B is 0.25.
Assume pulley as smooth. [Ans. The block A is stationary since F developed < Flim]
FRICTION 141






  
 

Fig. 5.24 Fig. 5.25

5.5 Two identical blocks A and B are connected by a rod and they rest against vertical and horizontal
planes respectively as shown in Fig. 5.25. If sliding impends when = 45°, determine the coeffi-
cient of friction, assuming it to be the same for both floor and wall. [Ans. 0.414]
5.6 Determine the force P required to start the wedge as shown in Fig. 5.26. The angle of friction for
all surfaces of contact is 15°. [Ans. 26.678 kN]

  
  
  

Fig. 5.26 Fig. 5.27

5.7 Two blocks A and B weighing 3 kN, and 15 kN respectively, are held in position against an
inclined plane by applying a horizontal force P as shown in Fig. 5.27. Find the least value of P
which will induce motion of the block A upwards. Angle of friction for all contact surfaces is 12°.
[Ans. 14.025 kN]
5.8 In Fig. 5.28, C is a stone block weighing 6 kN. It is being raised slightly by means of two wooden
wedges A and B with a force P on wedge B. The angle between the contacting surfaces of the
wedge is 5°. If coefficient of friction is 0.3 for all contacting surfaces, compute the value of P
required to impend upward motion of the block C. Neglect weight of the wedges.
[Ans. 2.344 kN]

 


  



 

Fig. 5.28 Fig. 5.29

5.9 Find the horizontal force P required to pull the block A of weight 150 N which carries block B of
weight 1280 N as shown in Fig. 5.29. Take angle of limiting friction between floor and block A as
14° and that between vertical wall and block B as 13° and coefficient of limiting friction between
the blocks as 0.3. [Ans. P = 1294.2 N]
142 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

5.10 The level of a precast beam, weighing    


20,000 N is to be adjusted by driving a 
wedge as shown in Fig. 5.30. If coefficient
of friction between the wedge and pier is 
0.35 and that between beam and the wedge
is 0.25, determine the minimum force P re-
quired on the wedge to make adjustment of
Fig. 5.30
the beam. Angle of the wedge is 15°.
(Hint: Vertical component of reaction on wedge at contact with beam = 1/2 vertical load on beam
= 10,000 kN) [Ans. 9057.4 N]
5.11 A ladder 5 m long rests on a horizontal ground and leans against a smooth vertical wall at an
angle of 70° with the horizontal. The weight of the ladder is 300 N. The ladder is on the verge of
sliding when a man weighing 750 N stands on a rung 1.5 m high. Calculate the coefficient of
friction between the ladder and the floor. [Ans. = 0.1837]
5.12 A 4 m ladder weighing 200 N is placed against a vertical wall as shown in Fig. 5.31. As a man
weighing 800 N, reaches a point 2.7 m from A, the ladder is about to slip. Assuming that the
coefficient of friction between the ladder and the wall is 0.2, determine the coefficient of friction
between the ladder and the floor. [Ans. 0.3548]

 

 

 


Fig. 5.31 Fig. 5.32

5.13 Determine the maximum weight that can be lowered by a person who can exert a 300 N pull on
1
rope if the rope is wrapped 2 turns round a horizontal spur as shown in Fig. 5.32. Coefficient
2
of friction between spur and the rope is 0.3. [Ans. 33395.33 N]
5.14 Determine the minimum value of W required to cause motion of blocks A and B towards right
(ref. Fig. 5.33). Each block weighs 3000 N and coefficient of friction between blocks and inclined
planes is 0.2. Coefficient of friction between the drum and rope is 0.1. Angle of wrap over the
drum is 90°. [Ans. 3065.18 N]


 


   

 


Fig. 5.33 Fig. 5.34

FRICTION 143

5.15 Block A shown in Fig. 5.34 weighs 2000 N. The cord attached to A passes over a fixed drum and
supports a weight equal to 800 N. The value of coefficient of friction between A and the horizon-
tal plane is 0.25 and between the rope and the fixed drum is 0.1. Solve for P: (1) if motion is
impending towards the left, (2) if the motion is impending towards the right.
[Ans. (1) 1230.94 N; (2) 143.0 N]
5.16 The dimension of a brake drum is as shown in Fig. 5.35. Determine the torque M exerted on the
drum if the load P = 50 N. Assume coefficient of kinetic friction between rope and drum to be
0.15. [Ans. 747.685 N-m]

  

 




Fig. 5.35