c01Introduction.

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30 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

1.11 If V is a velocity, / a length, and n a fluid property †1.19 Cite an example of a restricted homogeneous equation con-
(the kinematic viscosity) having dimensions of L2T ⫺1, which of the tained in a technical article found in an engineering journal in your
following combinations are dimensionless: (a) V/n, (b) V/ Ⲑn, field of interest. Define all terms in the equation, explain why it is
(c) V 2n, (d) VⲐ/n? a restricted equation, and provide a complete journal citation
1title, date, etc.2.
1.12 If V is a velocity, determine the dimensions of Z, a, and G,
which appear in the dimensionally homogeneous equation 1.20 Water flows from a large drainage pipe at a rate of
4500 LⲐmin. What is this volume rate of flow in m3Ⲑs?
V ⫽ Z1a ⫺ 12 ⫹ G
1.21 Dimensionless combinations of quantities (commonly
1.13 The volume rate of flow, Q, through a pipe containing a called dimensionless parameters) play an important role in
slowly moving liquid is given by the equation fluid mechanics. Make up five possible dimensionless para-
meters by using combinations of some of the quantities listed
pR4 ¢p in Table 1.1.
Q⫽
8m/ 1.22 GO An important dimensionless parameter in certain types
where R is the pipe radius, ¢p the pressure drop along the pipe, of fluid flow problems is the Froude number defined as VⲐ 1g/,
m a fluid property called viscosity 1FL⫺2T2 , and / the length of where V is a velocity, g the acceleration of gravity, and ᐉ a length.
pipe. What are the dimensions of the constant p Ⲑ8? Would you Determine the value of the Froude number for V ⫽ 3 mⲐs,
classify this equation as a general homogeneous equation? g ⫽ 9.81 mⲐs2, and / ⫽ 0.6 m. Recalculate the Froude number
Explain. using SI units for V, g, and /. Explain the significance of the re-
sults of these calculations.
1.14 According to information found in an old hydraulics book,
the energy loss per unit weight of fluid flowing through a nozzle
connected to a hose can be estimated by the formula
Section 1.4 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight
h ⫽ 10.04 to 0.092 1DⲐd2 4V 2Ⲑ2g
1.23 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the
where h is the energy loss per unit weight, D the hose diameter, d density or specific weight of a fluid is important. Print this
the nozzle tip diameter, V the fluid velocity in the hose, and g the photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation
acceleration of gravity. Do you think this equation is valid in any involved.
system of units? Explain.
1.24 A tank contains 500 kg of a liquid whose specific gravity is
1.15 The pressure difference, ¢p, across a partial blockage 2. Determine the volume of the liquid in the tank.
in an artery 1called a stenosis2 is approximated by the equation
1.25 Clouds can weigh thousands of pounds due to their
⫹ Ku a ⫺ 1b rV 2
mV 2
A0 liquid water content. Often this content is measured in grams per
¢p ⫽ Kv cubic meter (g/m3). Assume that a cumulus cloud occupies a
D A1
volume of one cubic kilometer, and its liquid water content is
where V is the blood velocity, m the blood viscosity 1FL⫺2T 2, 0.2 g/m3. (a) What is the volume of this cloud in cubic
r the blood density 1ML⫺3 2, D the artery diameter, A0 the area of the kilometers? (b) How much does the water in the cloud weigh in
unobstructed artery, and A1 the area of the stenosis. Determine the newtons?
dimensions of the constants Kv and Ku. Would this equation be valid
in any system of units? 1.26 A tank of oil has a mass of 365 kg. (a) Determine its
weight in newtons at the Earth’s surface. (b) What would be its
1.16 Assume that the speed of sound, c, in a fluid depends on an mass 1in kg2 and its weight 1in newtons2 if located on the moon’s
elastic modulus, Ev, with dimensions FL⫺2, and the fluid density,
r, in the form c ⫽ 1Ev 2 a 1r2 b. If this is to be a dimensionally
surface where the gravitational attraction is approximately one-
sixth that at the Earth’s surface?
homogeneous equation, what are the values for a and b? Is your
result consistent with the standard formula for the speed of sound? 1.27 A certain object weighs 300 N at the Earth’s surface.
1See Eq. 1.19.2 Determine the mass of the object 1in kilograms2 and its weight 1in
newtons2 when located on a planet with an acceleration of gravity
1.17 A formula to estimate the volume rate of flow, Q, flow-
equal to 1.92 mⲐs2.
ing over a dam of length, B, is given by the equation
1.28 The density of a certain type of jet fuel is 775 kg/m3.
Q ⫽ 1.70 BH 3Ⲑ2
Determine its specific gravity and specific weight.
where H is the depth of the water above the top of the dam 1called
1.29 A hydrometer is used to measure the specific grav-
the head2. This formula gives Q in m3/s when B and H are in meter.
ity of liquids. (See Video V2.8.) For a certain liquid, a hydrom-
Is the constant, 1.70, dimensionless? Would this equation be valid
eter reading indicates a specific gravity of 1.15. What is the
if units other than meter and seconds were used?
liquid’s density and specific weight? Express your answer in SI
1.18 The force, P, that is exerted on a spherical particle moving units.
slowly through a liquid is given by the equation 1.30 The specific weight of a certain liquid is 1366 kg/m3.
P ⫽ 3pmDV Determine its density and specific gravity.
where m is a fluid property (viscosity) having dimensions of FL⫺2T, 1.31 An open, rigid-walled, cylindrical tank contains 0.1 m3
D is the particle diameter, and V is the particle velocity. What are of water at 4 °C. Over a 24-hour period of time the water temper-
the dimensions of the constant, 3p? Would you classify this equa- ature varies from 4 to 32 °C. Make use of the data in Appendix B
tion as a general homogeneous equation? to determine how much the volume of water will change. For a
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Problems 31
tank diameter of 0.6 m, would the corresponding change in water 1.42 A closed tank having a volume of 0.06 m3 is filled with
depth be very noticeable? Explain. 1.3 N of a gas. A pressure gage attached to the tank reads 83 kPa
when the gas temperature is 27 °C. There is some question as to
†1.32 Estimate the number of kilogram of mercury it would take whether the gas in the tank is oxygen or helium. Which do you
to fill your bathtub. List all assumptions and show all calculations. think it is? Explain how you arrived at your answer.
1.33 A mountain climber’s oxygen tank contains 4.45 N of oxy- 1.43 A tire having a volume of 0.081 m3 contains air at a gage
gen when he begins his trip at sea level where the acceleration pressure of 180 kPa and a temperature of 21 ⬚C. Determine the
of gravity is 9.81 m/s2. What is the weight of the oxygen in the density of the air and the weight of the air contained in the tire.
tank when he reaches the top of Mt. Everest where the acceler-
ation of gravity is 9.78 m/s2? Assume that no oxygen has been 1.44 A compressed air tank contains 5 kg of air at a tem-
removed from the tank; it will be used on the descent portion of perature of 80 °C. A gage on the tank reads 300 kPa. Determine
the climb. the volume of the tank.

1.34 GO The information on a can of pop indicates that the can 1.45 A rigid tank contains air at a pressure of 620 kPa and
contains 355 mL. The mass of a full can of pop is 0.369 kg, while a temperature of 15 ⬚C. By how much will the pressure increase
an empty can weighs 0.153 N. Determine the specific weight, den- as the temperature is increased to 43 ⬚C?
sity, and specific gravity of the pop and compare your results with
1.46 The density of oxygen contained in a tank is 2.0 kg/m3 when
the corresponding values for water at 20 °C. Express your results
the temperature is 25 ⬚C. Determine the gage pressure of the gas
in SI units.
if the atmospheric pressure is 97 kPa.
*1.35 The variation in the density of water, r, with 1.47 The helium-filled blimp shown in Fig. P1.47 is used at var-
temperature, T, in the range 20 °C ⱕ T ⱕ 50 °C, is given in the ious athletic events. Determine the number of newtons of helium
following table. within it if its volume is 1926 m3 and the temperature and pres-
sure are 27 °C and 98 kPa, respectively.
Density 1kgⲐ m32 998.2 997.1 995.7 994.1 992.2 990.2 988.1

Temperature 1°C2 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Use these data to determine an empirical equation of the form

r ⫽ c1 ⫹ c2T ⫹ c3T 2, which can be used to predict the density
over the range indicated. Compare the predicted values with the
data given. What is the density of water at 42.1 °C?

1.36 If 1 cup of cream having a density of 1005 kg/m3 is

turned into 3 cups of whipped cream, determine the specific grav- ■ Figure P1.47
ity and specific weight of the whipped cream.

1.37 A liquid when poured into a graduated cylinder is found to *1.48 Develop a computer program for calculating the density
weigh 8 N when occupying a volume of 500 ml (milliliters). of an ideal gas when the gas pressure in pascals 1abs2, the tem-
Determine its specific weight, density, and specific gravity. perature in degrees Celsius, and the gas constant in JⲐkg # K are
specified. Plot the density of helium as a function of tempera-
†1.38 The presence of raindrops in the air during a heavy ture from 0 °C to 200 °C and pressures of 50, 100, 150, and
rainstorm increases the average density of the air–water mixture. 200 kPa (abs).
Estimate by what percent the average air–water density is greater
than that of just still air. State all assumptions and show
calculations. Section 1.6 Viscosity (also see Lab Problems 1.1LP
and 1.2LP)
Section 1.5 Ideal Gas Law 1.49 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the vis-
cosity of a fluid is important. Print this photo and write a brief
1.39 Determine the mass of air in a 2 m3 tank if the air is at room paragraph that describes the situation involved.
temperature, 20 °C, and the absolute pressure within the tank is
200 kPa (abs). 1.50 For flowing water, what is the magnitude of the velocity
gradient needed to produce a shear stress of 1.0 N/m2?
1.40 Nitrogen is compressed to a density of 4 kg/m3 under
an absolute pressure of 400 kPa. Determine the temperature in de- 1.51 Make use of the data in Appendix B to determine the dynamic
grees Celsius. viscosity of glycerin at 29 °C.
1.52 Make use of the data in Appendix B to determine the dynamic
1.41 The temperature and pressure at the surface of Mars viscosity of mercury at 24 ⬚C.
during a Martian spring day were determined to be ⫺50 °C and
900 Pa, respectively. (a) Determine the density of the Martian at- 1.53 One type of capillary-tube viscometer is shown in
mosphere for these conditions if the gas constant for the Martian Video V1.5 and in Fig. P1.53. For this device the liquid to be tested
atmosphere is assumed to be equivalent to that of carbon dioxide. is drawn into the tube to a level above the top etched line. The time
(b) Compare the answer from part (a) with the density of the Earth’s is then obtained for the liquid to drain to the bottom etched line.
atmosphere during a spring day when the temperature is 18 °C and The kinematic viscosity, ␯, in m2/s is then obtained from the equa-
the pressure 101.6 kPa (abs). tion n ⫽ KR 4t where K is a constant, R is the radius of the capillary
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32 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

tube in mm, and t is the drain time in seconds. When glycerin at Plot these data and fit a second-order polynomial to the data using
20 C is used as a calibration fluid in a particular viscometer, the a suitable graphing program. What is the apparent viscosity of this
drain time is 1430 s. When a liquid having a density of 970 kg/m3 fluid when the rate of shearing strain is 70 s 1? Is this apparent
is tested in the same viscometer the drain time is 900 s. What is viscosity larger or smaller than that for water at the same
the dynamic viscosity of this liquid? temperature?
1.60 Water flows near a flat surface and some mea-
surements of the water velocity, u, parallel to the surface, at dif-
ferent heights, y, above the surface are obtained. At the surface
y  0. After an analysis of the data, the lab technician reports that
the velocity distribution in the range 0 6 y 6 0.1 m is given by
Glass the equation
strengthening
bridge
u  0.81  9.2y  4.1  103y3
with u in m/s when y is in m. (a) Do you think that this equa-
Etched lines
tion would be valid in any system of units? Explain. (b) Do you
think this equation is correct? Explain. You may want to look at
Video 1.4 to help you arrive at your answer.
Capillary
tube 1.61 Calculate the Reynolds numbers for the flow of wa-
ter and for air through a 4 mm diameter tube, if the mean velocity
is 3 m  s and the temperature is 30 °C in both cases (see Exam-
ple 1.4). Assume the air is at standard atmospheric pressure.
1.62 SAE 30 oil at 15 C flows through a 5 cm diameter pipe with
■ Figure P1.53 a mean velocity of 1.5 m/s. Determine the value of the Reynolds
number (see Example 1.4).
1.54 The viscosity of a soft drink was determined by 1.63 For air at standard atmospheric pressure the values of the
using a capillary tube viscometer similar to that shown in constants that appear in the Sutherland equation 1Eq. 1.102 are
Fig. P1.53 and Video V1.5. For this device the kinematic viscosity, C  1.458  106 kg 1m # s # K12 2 and S  110.4 K. Use these
, is directly proportional to the time, t, that it takes for a given values to predict the viscosity of air at 10 °C and 90 °C and com-
amount of liquid to flow through a small capillary tube. That is, pare with values given in Table B.4 in Appendix B.
n  Kt. The following data were obtained from regular pop and
diet pop. The corresponding measured specific gravities are also *1.64 Use the values of viscosity of air given in Table B.4 at tem-
given. Based on these data, by what percent is the absolute vis- peratures of 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 °C to determine the con-
cosity, , of regular pop greater than that of diet pop? stants C and S which appear in the Sutherland equation 1Eq. 1.102.
Compare your results with the values given in Problem 1.68. 1Hint:
Regular pop Diet pop Rewrite the equation in the form
t(s) 377.8 300.3
T 3 2
a bT
1 S
SG 1.044 1.003 m C C
1.55 Determine the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of water to air and plot T 32m versus T. From the slope and intercept of this curve,
at a temperature of 60 °C. Compare this value with the corre- C and S can be obtained.2
sponding ratio of kinematic viscosities. Assume the air is at stan-
dard atmospheric pressure. 1.65 The viscosity of a fluid plays a very important role in
1.56 The kinematic viscosity and specific gravity of a liquid are determining how a fluid flows. (See Video V1.3.) The value of the
3.5  104 m2/s and 0.79, respectively. What is the dynamic vis- viscosity depends not only on the specific fluid but also on the fluid
cosity of the liquid in SI units? temperature. Some experiments show that when a liquid, under the
action of a constant driving pressure, is forced with a low veloc-
1.57 A liquid has a specific weight of 945 kg/m3 and a ity, V, through a small horizontal tube, the velocity is given by the
dynamic viscosity of 131.67 N.s/m2. Determine its kinematic equation V  Km. In this equation K is a constant for a given tube
viscosity. and pressure, and  is the dynamic viscosity. For a particular liq-
uid of interest, the viscosity is given by Andrade’s equation (Eq.
1.58 The kinematic viscosity of oxygen at 20 °C and a pressure 1.11) with D  0.000023 N.sm2 and B  2222 K. By what per-
of 150 kPa 1abs2 is 0.104 stokes. Determine the dynamic viscosity centage will the velocity increase as the liquid temperature is in-
of oxygen at this temperature and pressure. creased from 4 C to 37 C? Assume all other factors remain
constant.
*1.59 Fluids for which the shearing stress, , is not linearly
related to the rate of shearing strain, ᝽, are designated as non- *1.66 Use the value of the viscosity of water given in Table B.2
Newtonian fluids. Such fluids are commonplace and can exhibit at temperatures of 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 °C to determine the
unusual behavior, as shown in Video V1.6. Some experimental data constants D and B which appear in Andrade’s equation 1Eq. 1.112.
obtained for a particular non-Newtonian fluid at 27 C are shown Calculate the value of the viscosity at 50 °C and compare with the
below. value given in Table B.2. 1Hint: Rewrite the equation in the form

ln m  1B2
 (kPa) 1
0 0.1 0.37 0.89 1.5  ln D
T
᝽ (s1) 0 50 100 150 200
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Problems 33

and plot ln m versus 1 T. From the slope and intercept of this curve, 1.72 A 25 mm diameter shaft is pulled through a cylindri-
B and D can be obtained. If a nonlinear curve-fitting program is cal bearing as shown in Fig. P1.72. The lubricant that fills the
available, the constants can be obtained directly from Eq. 1.11 with- 0.3 mm gap between the shaft and bearing is an oil having a kine-
out rewriting the equation.2 matic viscosity of 8.0  104 m2s and a specific gravity of 0.91.
Determine the force P required to pull the shaft at a velocity of
1.67 For a certain liquid m  0.0034 N.s/m2 at 4 C and m  0.009 3 m/s. Assume the velocity distribution in the gap is linear.
N.s/m2 at 66 C. Make use of these data to determine the constants
D and B which appear in Andrade’s equation (Eq. 1.11). What
would be the viscosity at 27 C? Bearing Lubricant

1.68 GO For a parallel plate arrangement of the type shown in

P
Fig. 1.5 it is found that when the distance between plates is 2 mm, Shaft
a shearing stress of 150 Pa develops at the upper plate when it is
pulled at a velocity of 1 m/s. Determine the viscosity of the fluid
between the plates. Express your answer in SI units.
1.69 Two flat plates are oriented parallel above a fixed lower plate 0.5 m
as shown in Fig. P1.69. The top plate, located a distance b above
■ Figure P1.72
the fixed plate, is pulled along with speed V. The other thin plate
is located a distance cb, where 0 c 1, above the fixed plate.
This plate moves with speed V1, which is determined by the vis- 1.73 A piston having a diameter of 13.92 cm and a length of
cous shear forces imposed on it by the fluids on its top and bot- 24.13 cm slides downward with a velocity V through a vertical
tom. The fluid on the top is twice as viscous as that on the bottom. pipe. The downward motion is resisted by an oil film between the
Plot the ratio V1/V as a function of c for 0 c 1. piston and the pipe wall. The film thickness is 0.005 cm, and the
V
cylinder weighs 0.23 kg. Estimate V if the oil viscosity is 0.766
N.s/m2. Assume the velocity distribution in the gap is linear.
2μ
1.74 A 10 kg block slides down a smooth inclined surface
b as shown in Fig. P1.74. Determine the terminal velocity of the
V1 block if the 0.1 mm gap between the block and the surface con-
cb μ tains SAE 30 oil at 15 °C. Assume the velocity distribution in the
gap is linear, and the area of the block in contact with the oil is
0.1 m2.
■ Figure P1.69
0.1 mm gap
V
1.70 There are many fluids that exhibit non-Newtonian 20°
behavior (see, for example, Video V1.6). For a given fluid the dis-
tinction between Newtonian and non-Newtonian behavior is usu-
ally based on measurements of shear stress and rate of shearing
strain. Assume that the viscosity of blood is to be determined
by measurements of shear stress, , and rate of shearing strain,
du/dy, obtained from a small blood sample tested in a suitable vis-
cometer. Based on the data given below, determine if the blood is
a Newtonian or non-Newtonian fluid. Explain how you arrived at ■ Figure P1.74
your answer.
1.75 A layer of water flows down an inclined fixed surface
(N/m2) 0.04 0.06 0.12 0.18 0.30 0.52 1.12 2.10 with the velocity profile shown in Fig. P1.75. Determine the mag-
du/dy (s1 ) 2.25 4.50 11.25 22.5 45.0 90.0 225 450 nitude and direction of the shearing stress that the water exerts on
the fixed surface for U  2 ms and h  0.1 m.
1.71 The sled shown in Fig. P1.71 slides along on a thin
horizontal layer of water between the ice and the runners. The
horizontal force that the water puts on the runners is equal to 5.3 N
when the sled’s speed is 15 m/s. The total area of both runners in con-
tact with the water is 0.007 m2, and the viscosity of the water is h
U
168  105 N.sm2. Determine the thickness of the water layer under
y u
the runners. Assume a linear velocity distribution in the water layer.
u
__ y y2
= 2 __ – __2
U h h

■ Figure P1.75

1.76 A thin layer of glycerin flows down an inclined, wide plate

with the velocity distribution shown in Fig. P1.76. For h 
0.75 cm and a  20, determine the surface velocity, U. Note that
for equilibrium, the component of weight acting parallel to the plate
surface must be balanced by the shearing force developed along
■ Figure P1.71 the plate surface. In your analysis assume a unit plate width.
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34 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

and the stationary base. Determine the frictional torque on the shaft
when it rotates at 5000 rpm.

U
u y α 5000 rpm

y
u = __ y2
__ 2 – __2
U h h
h 0.5 cm

■ Figure P1.76

*1.77 Standard air flows past a flat surface, and velocity

measurements near the surface indicate the following 30°
distribution:

y 1m2 0.0025 cm µ = 0.479 N.s/m2

1.510–3 310–3 610–3 1210–3 1810–3 2410–3
u 1ms2 0.23 0.46 0.92 1.94 3.11 4.39

The coordinate y is measured normal to the surface and u is the ■ Figure P1.80
velocity parallel to the surface. (a) Assume the velocity distribu-
tion is of the form 1.81 The viscosity of liquids can be measured through the use of a
rotating cylinder viscometer of the type illustrated in Fig. P1.81. In
u  C1y  C2 y3 this device the outer cylinder is fixed and the inner cylinder is rotated
with an angular velocity, v. The torque t required to develop  is
measured and the viscosity is calculated from these two measure-
and use a standard curve-fitting technique to determine the con-
stants C1 and C2. (b) Make use of the results of part 1a2 to deter-
ments. (a) Develop an equation relating m, v, t, /, Ro, and Ri. Neglect
mine the magnitude of the shearing stress at the wall 1y  02 and
end effects and assume the velocity distribution in the gap is linear.
(b) The following torque-angular velocity data were obtained with a
at y  0.05 ft. rotating cylinder viscometer of the type discussed in part (a).
1.78 A new computer drive is proposed to have a disc, as
shown in Fig. P1.78. The disc is to rotate at 10,000 rpm, and the Torque 1N.m2 17.8 35.3 53.6 71.5 87.9 106.5
reader head is to be positioned 0.012 mm above the surface of the
disc. Estimate the shearing force on the reader head as a result of Angular 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
the air between the disc and the head. velocity 1rads2

For this viscometer Ro  6.35 cm, Ri  6.22 cm, and /  12.7 cm.
Make use of these data and a standard curve-fitting program to de-
termine the viscosity of the liquid contained in the viscometer.
Stationary reader head
5 mm dia. Fixed
outer
10,000 rpm
cylinder
0.012 mm Liquid ᐀
ω
50 mm
Rotating disc Ri
Ro

Rotating
inner ᐉ
cylinder
■ Figure P1.78

1.79 The space between two 15 cm long concentric cylin-

ders is filled with glycerin 1viscosity  407  103 N.sm2 2. The ■ Figure P1.81
inner cylinder has a radius of 7.6 cm and the gap width between
cylinders is 0.25 cm. Determine the torque and the power required
to rotate the inner cylinder at 180 revmin. The outer cylinder is 1.82 One type of rotating cylinder viscometer, called a Stormer
fixed. Assume the velocity distribution in the gap to be linear. viscometer, uses a falling weight, ᐃ, to cause the cylinder to ro-
tate with an angular velocity, v, as illustrated in Fig. P1.82. For
1.80 A pivot bearing used on the shaft of an electrical in- this device the viscosity, m, of the liquid is related to ᐃ and v
strument is shown in Fig. P1.80. An oil with a viscosity of   through the equation ᐃ  Kmv, where K is a constant that
0.479 N.s/m2 fills the 0.0025 cm gap between the rotating shaft depends only on the geometry (including the liquid depth) of the
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Problems 35

viscometer. The value of K is usually determined by using a cali- 1.88 A rigid-walled cubical container is completely filled with wa-
bration liquid (a liquid of known viscosity). ter at 4 C and sealed. The water is then heated to 38 C. Deter-
(a) Some data for a particular Stormer viscometer, obtained using mine the pressure that develops in the container when the water
glycerin at 20 C as a calibration liquid, are given below. Plot val- reaches this higher temperature. Assume that the volume of the
ues of the weight as ordinates and values of the angular velocity as container remains constant and the value of the bulk modulus of
abscissae. Draw the best curve through the plotted points and de- the water remains constant and equal to 2.1 GPa.
termine K for the viscometer.
1.89 In a test to determine the bulk modulus of a liquid it was
ᐃ(kg) 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 found that as the absolute pressure was changed from 103 to
21 MPa the volume decreased from 167.8 to 166.13 cm3. Deter-
v (rev/s) 0.53 1.59 2.79 3.83 5.49 mine the bulk modulus for this liquid.
1.90 Estimate the increase in pressure (in kPa) required to
(b) A liquid of unknown viscosity is placed in the same viscometer
decrease a unit volume of mercury by 0.1%.
used in part (a), and the data given below are obtained. Determine
the viscosity of this liquid. 1.91 A 1 m3 volume of water is contained in a rigid con-
tainer. Estimate the change in the volume of the water when a pis-
ᐃ(kg) 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 ton applies a pressure of 35 MPa.
v (rev/s) 0.72 1.89 3.73 5.44 7.42 1.92 Determine the speed of sound at 20 °C in (a) air, (b) helium,
and (c) natural gas (methane). Express your answer in m/s.
1.93 Calculate the speed of sound in m/s for (a) gasoline, (b) mer-
cury, and (c) seawater.
ω
1.94 Air is enclosed by a rigid cylinder containing a piston.
A pressure gage attached to the cylinder indicates an initial read-
ᐃ Weight Rotating ing of 172 kPa. Determine the reading on the gage when the pis-
inner
Fixed outer ton has compressed the air to one-third its original volume.
cylinder
Liquid cylinder
Assume the compression process to be isothermal and the local
atmospheric pressure to be 101.3 kPa.
1.95 Repeat Problem 1.94 if the compression process takes place
■ Figure P1.82 without friction and without heat transfer (isentropic process).
1.96 Carbon dioxide at 30 °C and 300 kPa absolute pres-
1.83 A 30 cm diameter circular plate is placed over a fixed sure expands isothermally to an absolute pressure of 165 kPa.
bottom plate with a 0.25 cm gap between the two plates filled with Determine the final density of the gas.
glycerin as shown in Fig. P1.83. Determine the torque required to
rotate the circular plate slowly at 2 rpm. Assume that the velocity 1.97 Oxygen at 30 C and 300 kPa absolute pressure expands
distribution in the gap is linear and that the shear stress on the edge isothermally to an absolute pressure of 120 kPa. Determine the
of the rotating plate is negligible. final density of the gas.
Rotating plate 1.98 Natural gas at 21 °C and standard atmospheric
Torque pressure of 101.3 kPa (abs) is compressed isentropically to a new
absolute pressure of 483 kPa. Determine the final density and
0.25 cm gap
temperature of the gas.
1.99 Compare the isentropic bulk modulus of air at 101 kPa 1abs2
with that of water at the same pressure.
■ Figure P1.83
*1.100 Develop a computer program for calculating the final gage
pressure of gas when the initial gage pressure, initial and final vol-
†1.84 Vehicle shock absorbers damp out oscillations caused by umes, atmospheric pressure, and the type of process 1isothermal or
road roughness. Describe how a temperature change may affect the isentropic2 are specified. Check your program against the results
operation of a shock absorber. obtained for Problem 1.94.
1.85 Some measurements on a blood sample at 37 °C indi- 1.101 Often the assumption is made that the flow of a certain fluid
cate a shearing stress of 0.52 N m2 for a corresponding rate of shear- can be considered as incompressible flow if the density of the fluid
ing strain of 200 s1. Determine the apparent viscosity of the blood changes by less than 2%. If air is flowing through a tube such that
and compare it with the viscosity of water at the same temperature. the air pressure at one section is 62 kPa and at a downstream sec-
tion it is 59 kPa at the same temperature, do you think that this
Section 1.7 Compressibility of Fluids flow could be considered an incompressible flow? Support your
answer with the necessary calculations. Assume standard atmos-
1.86 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the com- pheric pressure.
pressibility of a fluid is important. Print this photo and write a brief
paragraph that describes the situation involved. 1.102 An important dimensionless parameter concerned
with very high-speed flow is the Mach number, defined as V/c,
1.87 A sound wave is observed to travel through a liquid where V is the speed of the object such as an airplane or projec-
with a speed of 1500 m/s. The specific gravity of the liquid is 1.5. tile, and c is the speed of sound in the fluid surrounding the ob-
Determine the bulk modulus for this fluid. ject. For a projectile traveling at 1290 km/h through air at 10 C
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36 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction

and standard atmospheric pressure, what is the value of the Mach 1.116 Estimate the excess pressure inside a raindrop having a di-
number? ameter of 3 mm.
1.103 Jet airliners typically fly at altitudes between approximately 1.117 What is the difference between the pressure inside a soap
0 to 12200 m. Make use of the data in Appendix C to show on a bubble and atmospheric pressure for a 7.5 cm diameter bubble?
graph how the speed of sound varies over this range. Assume the surface tension of the soap film to be 70% of that of
water at 21 C.
1.104 (See Fluids in the News article titled “This water
jet is a blast,” Section 1.7.1.) By what percent is the volume of 1.118 As shown in Video V1.9, surface tension forces
water decreased if its pressure is increased to an equivalent to can be strong enough to allow a double-edge steel razor blade to
304 MPa? “float” on water, but a single-edge blade will sink. Assume that the
surface tension forces act at an angle  relative to the water sur-
face as shown in Fig. P1.118. (a) The mass of the double-edge
Section 1.8 Vapor Pressure blade is 0.64  10 3 kg, and the total length of its sides is 206 mm.
1.105 During a mountain climbing trip it is observed that Determine the value of  required to maintain equilibrium between
the water used to cook a meal boils at 90 °C rather than the stan- the blade weight and the resultant surface tension force.
dard 100 °C at sea level. At what altitude are the climbers prepar- (b) The mass of the single-edge blade is 2.61  10 3 kg, and the
ing their meal? (See Tables B.2 and C.2 for data needed to solve total length of its sides is 154 mm. Explain why this blade sinks.
this problem.) Support your answer with the necessary calculations.
1.106 When a fluid flows through a sharp bend, low pres-
sures may develop in localized regions of the bend. Estimate the
minimum absolute pressure 1in kPa2 that can develop without caus-
Surface tension
force
ing cavitation if the fluid is water at 70 °C.
Blade θ
1.107 A partially filled closed tank contains ethyl alcohol at
20 C. If the air above the alcohol is evacuated, what is the mini-
mum absolute pressure that develops in the evacuated space? ■ Figure P1.118
1.108 Estimate the minimum absolute pressure 1in pascals2
that can be developed at the inlet of a pump to avoid cavitation if 1.119 To measure the water depth in a large open tank with opaque
the fluid is carbon tetrachloride at 20 °C. walls, an open vertical glass tube is attached to the side of the tank.
1.109 When water at 70 °C flows through a converging The height of the water column in the tube is then used as a mea-
section of pipe, the pressure decreases in the direction of flow. sure of the depth of water in the tank. (a) For a true water depth
Estimate the minimum absolute pressure that can develop without in the tank of 1 m, make use of Eq. 1.21 (with u ⯝ 0°) to deter-
causing cavitation. Express your answer in SI units. mine the percent error due to capillarity as the diameter of the glass
tube is changed. Assume a water temperature of 27 C. Show your
1.110 At what atmospheric pressure will water boil at 35 °C? results on a graph of percent error versus tube diameter, D, in the
Express your answer in SI units. range 0.25 cm 6 D 6 2.5 cm. (b) If you want the error to be less
than 1%, what is the smallest tube diameter allowed?
Section 1.9 Surface Tension 1.120 GO Under the right conditions, it is possible, due
to surface tension, to have metal objects float on water. (See
1.111 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the sur- Video V1.9.) Consider placing a short length of a small diame-
face tension of a fluid is important. Print this photo and write a ter steel (g  77 kN/m3) rod on a surface of water. What is the
brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. maximum diameter that the rod can have before it will sink? As-
1.112 When a 2 mm diameter tube is inserted into a liquid sume that the surface tension forces act vertically upward. Note:
in an open tank, the liquid is observed to rise 10 mm above the A standard paper clip has a diameter of 0.09 cm. Partially un-
free surface of the liquid (see Video V1.10). The contact angle be- fold a paper clip and see if you can get it to float on water. Do
tween the liquid and the tube is zero, and the specific weight of the results of this experiment support your analysis?
the liquid is 1.2  104 N/m3. Determine the value of the surface 1.121 An open, clean glass tube, having a diameter of
tension for this liquid. 3 mm, is inserted vertically into a dish of mercury at 20 °C (see
Video V1.10). How far will the column of mercury in the tube be
1.113 An open 2 mm diameter tube is inserted into a pan of ethyl
depressed?
alcohol, and a similar 4 mm diameter tube is inserted into a pan
of water. In which tube will the height of the rise of the fluid col- 1.122 An open, clean glass tube 1u  0°2 is inserted
umn due to capillary action be the greatest? Assume the angle of vertically into a pan of water (see Video V1.10). What tube
contact is the same for both tubes. diameter is needed if the water level in the tube is to rise one tube
diameter (due to surface tension)?
1.114 Small droplets of carbon tetrachloride at 20 °C are
formed with a spray nozzle. If the average diameter of the droplets 1.123 Determine the height that water at 15 °C will
is 200 mm, what is the difference in pressure between the inside rise due to capillary action in a clean, 0.6 cm diameter tube (see
and outside of the droplets? Video V1.10). What will be the height if the diameter is reduced
to 0.03 cm?
1.115 A 12 mm diameter jet of water discharges vertically into
the atmosphere. Due to surface tension the pressure inside the jet 1.124 Two vertical, parallel, clean glass plates are spaced a dis-
will be slightly higher than the surrounding atmospheric pressure. tance of 2 mm apart. If the plates are placed in water, how high
Determine this difference in pressure. will the water rise between the plates due to capillary action?
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Problems 37

1.125 (See Fluids in the News article titled “Walking on which is located in WileyPLUS or on the book’s website, www.
water,” Section 1.9.) (a) The water strider bug shown in Fig. [Link]/college/munson.
P1.125 is supported on the surface of a pond by surface tension
acting along the interface between the water and the bug’s legs. ■ Lifelong Learning Problems
Determine the minimum length of this interface needed to support 1.1 LL Although there are numerous non-Newtonian fluids that
the bug. Assume the bug weighs 104 N and the surface tension occur naturally (quicksand and blood among them), with the ad-
force acts vertically upwards. (b) Repeat part (a) if surface tension vent of modern chemistry and chemical processing, many new
were to support a person weighing 750 N. manufactured non-Newtonian fluids are now available for a vari-
ety of novel applications. Obtain information about the discovery
and use of newly developed non-Newtonian fluids. Summarize
your findings in a brief report.
1.2 LL For years, lubricating oils and greases obtained by refin-
ing crude oil have been used to lubricate moving parts in a wide
variety of machines, motors, and engines. With the increasing cost
of crude oil and the potential for the reduced availability of it, the
need for non-petroleum-based lubricants has increased consider-
ably. Obtain information about non-petroleum-based lubricants.
Summarize your findings in a brief report.
■ Figure P1.125 1.3 LL It is predicted that nanotechnology and the use of nano
sized objects will allow many processes, procedures, and products
that, as of now, are difficult for us to comprehend. Among new
■ Lab Problems nanotechnology areas is that of nano scale fluid mechanics. Fluid
behavior at the nano scale can be entirely different than that for
1.1LP This problem involves the use of a Stormer viscometer to the usual everyday flows with which we are familiar. Obtain in-
determine whether a fluid is a Newtonian or a non-Newtonian fluid. formation about various aspects of nano fluid mechanics. Sum-
To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H, which is located marize your findings in a brief report.
in WileyPLUS or on the book’s website, [Link]/col-
lege/munson. ■ FE Exam Problems
1.2LP This problem involves the use of a capillary tube vis- Sample FE (Fundamentals of Engineering) exam question for fluid
cometer to determine the kinematic viscosity of water as a function mechanics are provided in WileyPLUS or on the book’s website,
of temperature. To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H, [Link]/college/munson.