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CHAPTER – 6
ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS
SYNOPSIS
6.1 THE TISSUES :
A tissue is a group of cells having a common origin
and usually performing a common function. A plant is
made up of different kinds of tissues. Tissues are
classified into two main groups, namely, meristematic
and permanent tissues based on whether the cells being
formed are capable of dividing or not.
6.1.1 Meristematic Tissues :
Growth in plants is largely restricted to specialised
regions of active cell division called meristems (Gk.
meristos: divided). Plants have different kinds of
meristems. The meristems which occur at the tips of
roots and shoots and produce primary tissues are called Root apical meristem occupies the tip of a root
apical meristems (Figure 6.1). while the shoot apical meristem occupies the distant most
region of the stem axis. During the formation of leaves
and elongation of stem, some cells ‘left behind’ from
shoot apical meristem, constitute the axillary bud. Such
buds are present in the axils of leaves and are capable
of forming a branch or a flower. The meristem which
occurs between mature tissues is known as intercalary
meristem. They occur in grasses and regenerate parts
removed by the grazing herbivores. Both apical
meristems and intercalary meristems are primary
meristems because they appear early in life of a plant
and contribute to the formation of the primary plant body.
The meristem that occurs in the mature regions of roots
and shoots of many plants, particularly those that produce
woody axis and appear later than primary meristem is
called the secondary or lateral meristem.
They are cylindrical meristems. Fascicular vascular
cambium, interfascicular cambium and cork-cambium
are examples of lateral meristems. These are responsible
for producing the secondary tissues. Following divisions
of cells in both primary and as well as secondary
meristems, the newly formed cells become structurally
and functionally specialised and lose the ability to divide.
Such cells are termed permanent or mature cells and
constitute the permanent tissues.
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During the formation of the primary plant body, narrow cavities (lumen). These are commonly
specific regions of the apical meristem produce dermal found in the fruit walls of nuts; pulp of fruits like guava,
tissues, ground tissues and vascular tissues. pear and sapota; seed coats of legumes and leaves of
6.1.2 Permanent Tissues : tea. Sclerenchyma provides mechanical support to
The cells of the permanent tissues do not generally organs.
divide further. Permanent tissues having all cells similar
in structure and function are called simple tissues.
Permanent tissues having many different types of cells
are called complex tissues.
[Link] Simple Tissues :
A simple tissue is made of only one type of cells.
The various simple tissues in plants are parenchyma,
collenchyma and sclerenchyma (Figure 6.2).
Parenchyma forms the major component within organs.
The cells of the parenchyma are generally isodiametric.
They may be spherical, oval, round, polygonal or
elongated in shape. Their walls are thin and made up of
cellulose. They may either be closely packed or have
small intercellular spaces. The parenchyma performs
various functions like photosynthesis, storage, secretion.
The collenchyma occurs in layers below the
epidermis in most of the dicotyledonous plants. It is found
either as a homogeneous layer or in patches.
It consists of cells which are much thickened at
the corners due to a deposition of cellulose, hemicellulose
and pectin. Collenchymatous cells may be oval, spherical
or polygonal and often contain chloroplasts. These cells
assimilate food when they contain chloroplasts.
Intercellular spaces are absent. They provide mechanical
support to the growing parts of the plant such as young
stem and petiole of a leaf.
Sclerenchyma consists of long, narrow cells with
thick and lignified cell walls having a few or numerous
pits. They are usually dead and without protoplasts. On
the basis of variation in form, structure, origin and
development, sclerenchyma may be either fibres or
sclereids. The fibres are thick-walled, elongated and
pointed cells, generally occuring in groups, in various
parts of the plant. The sclereids are spherical, oval or
cylindrical, highly thickened dead cells with very
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[Link] Complex Tissues : tracheids and vessels are the main water transporting
elements. Vessel is a long cylindrical tube-like structure
made up of many cells called vessel members, each with
lignified walls and a large central cavity. The vessel cells
are also devoid of protoplasm. Vessel members are
interconnected through perforations in their common
walls. The presence of vessels is a characteristic feature
of angiosperms. Xylem fibres have highly thickened walls
and obliterated central lumens. These may either be
septate or aseptate. Xylem parenchyma cells are living
and thin-walled, and their cell walls are made up of
cellulose. They store food materials in the form of starch
a)
or fat, and other substances like tannins. The radial
conduct ion of water t akes place by the ray
parenchymatous cells.
Primary xylem is of two types – protoxylem and
metaxylem. The first formed primary xylem elements are
called protoxylem and the later formed primary xylem is
called metaxylem. In stems, the protoxylem lies towards
the centre (pith) and the metaxylem lies towards the
periphery of the organ. This type of primary xylem is
called endarch. In roots, the protoxylem lies towards
periphery and metaxylem lies towards the centre.
Such arrangement of primary xylem is called
b) exarch. Phloem transports food materials, usually from
leaves to other parts of the plant. Phloem in angiosperms
is composed of sieve tube elements, companion cells,
phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres. Gymnosperms
have albuminous cells and sieve cells.
Figure 6.3 : a) Xylem, b) Phloem
They lack sieve tubes and companion cells. Sieve
The complex tissues are made of more than one
tube elements are also long, tube-like structures, arranged
type of cells and these work together as a unit. Xylem
longitudinally and are associated with the companion
and phloem constitute the complex tissues in plants
cells. Their end walls are perforated in a sieve-like
(Figure 6.3). Xylem functions as a conducting tissue for
manner to form the sieve plates. A mature sieve element
water and minerals from roots to the stem and leaves. It
possesses a peripheral cytoplasm and a large vacuole
also provides mechanical strength to the plant parts. It
but lacks a nucleus.
is composed of four different kinds of elements, namely,
The functions of sieve tubes are controlled by the
tracheids, vessels, xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma.
nucleus of companion cells. The companion cells are
Gymnosperms lack vessels in their xylem. Tracheids are
specialised parenchymatous cells, which are closely
elongated or tube like cells with thick and lignified walls
associated with sieve tube elements. The sieve tube
and tapering ends. These are dead and are without
elements and companion cells are connected by pit fields
protoplasm. The inner layers of the cell walls have
present between their common longitudinal walls. The
thickenings which vary in form. In flowering plants,
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companion cells help in maintaining the pressure gradient the interfascicular cambium. Thus, a continuous ring of
in the sieve tubes. Phloem parenchyma is made up of cambium is formed.
elongated, tapering cylindrical cells which have dense [Link] Activity of the cambial ring :
cytoplasm and nucleus. The cell wall is composed of The cambial ring becomes active and begins to
cellulose and has pits through which plasmodesmatal cut off new cells, both towards the inner and the outer
connections exist between the cells. The phloem sides. The cells cut off towards pith, mature into
parenchyma stores food material and other substances secondary xylem and the cells cut off towards periphery
like resins, latex and mucilage. Phloem parenchyma is mature into secondary phloem. The cambium is generally
absent in most of the monocotyledons. Phloem fibres more active on the inner side than on the outer. As a
(bast fibres) are made up of sclerenchymatous cells. result, the amount of secondary xylem produced is more
These are generally absent in the primary phloem but than secondary phloem and soon forms a compact mass.
are found in the secondary phloem. These are much The primary and secondary phloems get gradually
elongated, unbranched and have pointed, needle like crushed due to the continued formation and accumulation
apices. The cell wall of phloem fibres is quite thick. At of secondary xylem. The primary xylem however
maturity, these fibres lose their protoplasm and become remains more or less intact, in or around the centre. At
dead. Phloem fibres of jute, flax and hemp are used some places, the cambium forms a narrow band of
commercially. parenchyma, which passes through the secondary xylem
The first formed primary phloem consists of narrow and the secondary phloem in the radial directions. These
sieve tubes and is referred to as protophloem and the are the secondary medullary rays (Figure 6.9).
later formed phloem has bigger sieve tubes and is
referred to as metaphloem.
6.4 SECONDARY GROWTH :
The growth of the roots and stems in length with
the help of apical meristem is called the primary growth.
Apart from primary growth most dicotyledonous plants
exhibit an increase in girth. This increase is called the
secondary growth.
The tissues involved in secondary growth are the
two lateral meristems: vascular cambium and cork
cambium.
6.4.1 Vascular Cambium :
The meristematic layer that is responsible for
cutting off vascular tissues – xylem and pholem – is called
vascular cambium. In the young stem it is present in Figure 6.9 : Secondary growth in a dicot stem
patches as a single layer between the xylem and phloem. (diagrammatics) - stages in transverse views
Later it forms a complete ring. [Link] Spring wood and autumn wood :
[Link] Formation of cambial ring : The activity of cambium is under the control of
In dicot stems, the cells of cambium present many physiological and environmental factors. In
between primary xylem and primary phloem is the temperate regions, the climatic conditions are not uniform
intrafascicular cambium. through the year. In the spring season, cambium is very
The cells of medullary rays, adjoining these active and produces a large number of xylary elements
intrafascicular cambium become meristematic and form having vessels with wider cavities. The wood formed
during this season is called spring wood or early wood.
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In winter, the cambium is less active and forms fewer Bark is a non-technical term that refers to all tissues
xylary elements that have narrow vessels, and this wood exterior to the vascular cambium, therefore including
is called autumn wood or late wood. secondary phloem. Bark refers to a number of tissue
The spring wood is lighter in colour and has a lower types, viz., periderm and secondary phloem. Bark that
density whereas the autumn wood is darker and has a is formed early in the season is called early or soft bark.
higher density. The two kinds of woods that appear as Towards the end of the season, late or hard bark is
alternate concentric rings, constitute an annual ring. formed. Name the various kinds of cell layers which
Annual rings seen in a cut stem give an estimate of constitute the bark.
the age of the tree. At certain regions, the phellogen cuts off closely
[Link] Heartwood and sapwood : arranged parenchymatous cells on the outer side instead
In old trees, the greater part of secondary xylem of cork cells. These parenchymatous cells soon rupture
is dark brown due to deposition of organic compounds the epidermis, forming a lensshaped openings called
like tannins, resins, oils, gums, aromatic substances and lenticels. Lenticels permit the exchange of gases between
essential oils in the central or innermost layers of the the outer atmosphere and the internal tissue of the stem.
stem. These occur in most woody trees (Figure 6.10).
These substances make it hard, durable and a)
resistant to the attacks of microorganisms and insects.
This region comprises dead elements with highly lignified
walls and is called heartwood. The heartwood does not
conduct water but it gives mechanical support to the
stem. The peripheral region of the secondary xylem, is
lighter in colour and is known as the sapwood. It is
involved in the conduction of water and minerals from
root to leaf.
6.4.2 Cork Cambium :
As the stem continues to increase in girth due to
the activity of vascular cambium, the outer cortical and
epidermis layers get broken and need to be replaced to
b)
provide new protective cell layers. Hence, sooner or
later, another meristematic tissue called cork cambium
or phellogen develops, usually in the cortex region.
Phellogen is a couple of layers thick. It is made of narrow,
thin-walled and nearly rectangular cells. Phellogen cuts
off cells on both sides. The outer cells differentiate into
cork or phellem while the inner cells differentiate into
secondary cortex or phelloderm. The cork is impervious
to water due to suberin deposition in the cell wall.
The cells of secondary cortex are parenchymatous.
Phellogen, phellem, and phelloderm are collectively
known as periderm. Due to activity of the cork cambium,
pressure builds up on the remaining layers peripheral to
phellogen and ultimately these layers die and slough off.
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Figure 6.10 : a) Lenticel and b) Bark
6.4.3 Secondary Growth in Roots :
In the dicot root, the vascular cambium is
completely secondary in origin. It originates from the
tissue located just below the phloem bundles, a portion
of pericycle tissue, above the protoxylem forming a
complete and continuous wavy ring, which later becomes
circular (Figure 6.11). Further events are similar to those
already described above for a dicotyledon stem.
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TAXONOMY - FAMILIES
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Comparision of Sub - Families of Leguminosae :

(1) Habit : Herbs, shrubs, trees or climbers

(2) Leaves : Simple or pinnately compound, stipulate or exstipulate, Leaf-base pulvinate. alternate.

(3) Inflorescence : Racemose

(4) Flower : Complete, bisexual, hypogynous and pentamerous

(5) Calyx : Sepals 5, gamosepalous, imbricate or valvate aestivation, odd sepal anterior.

(6) Corolla : Petals 5, free, imbricate or valvate

(7) Androcecium : Stamens 5 to many, polyandrous or variously connate/Adnate.

(8) Gynoecium : Superior, monocarpellary, unilocular, marginal placentation.

(9) Fruit : Legume or lomentum.

(10) Seed : Mostly non- endospermic