Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract .................................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ ix
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... x
Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................... xi

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1

1.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Setting the Scene: Reflections on Comprehensive School Counseling in Nepal ............. 4
1.2 Background .................................................................................................................... 7
1.3 Rationale of the Study .................................................................................................. 12
1.4 Research Purpose .......................................................................................................... 15
1.5 Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 16
1.6 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................. 17
1.7 Delimitations of the Study ............................................................................................ 20
Summary .............................................................................................................................. 22

CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................... 23
2.0 Chapter Overview ........................................................................................................... 23
2.1 Reflective Practice and Navigating the “Swampy Lowlands” of Practice ..................... 25
2.2 Cultural Humility and Reflexivity in Counseling .......................................................... 27
2.3 Indigenous Knowledge and Indigenization of School Counseling in Nepal: Philosophical
Foundations and Psychological Frameworks.. …………………………………………….28
2.3.1 Indigenous Knowledge and Psychological Wellbeing ........................................... 28
2.3.2 Indigenization of School Counseling in Nepal ...................................................... 30
2.3.3 Western and Eastern Conceptions of Psychological Wellbeing ............................ 31
2.3.4 Indigenous Psychological Frameworks for Counseling in Nepal ......................... 32
[Link] Bhagavad Gita and Indigenous Counseling Psychology ................................. 32
[Link] Vedic and Ayurvedic Psychological Perspectives ........................................... 33
[Link] Yoga and Holistic Mental Health .................................................................... 34
[Link] Buddhist and Kirant Indigenous Perspectives ................................................ 35
[Link] A Buddhist Model of Indigenized School Counseling (BMISC) ..................... 36
2.4 Thematic Review .......................................................................................................... 38
2.4.1 Concept of Psychosocial Problems and Need of Psychosocial Support and Wellbeing... 38
2.4.2 School Counseling and School Counseling Programs ........................................... 40
2.4.3 Comprehensive School Counseling Program (CSCP) ........................................... 41
2.4.4 International Frameworks for Comprehensive School Counseling ...................... 42
2.4.5 Comprehensive school Counseling Framework ...................................................... 44
2.5 Psychosocial Wellbeing .................................................................................................. 46
2.6 Theoretical Referents .................................................................................................... 47
2.6.1 The Buddhist Karuna-Compassion Model ............................................................ 47
2.6.2 Social Constructivist Theory ................................................................................. 48
2.7 Policy Review ................................................................................................................ 49
2.7.1 Constitutional and Legal Framework .................................................................... 49
2.7.2 Education Act and National Education Policy (NEP) 2019 ................................... 50
2.7.3 School Sector Reform Plan (SSRP), School Sector Development Plan (SSDP), School
Education Sector Plan (SESP) ........................................................................... 51
2.7.4 16th Plan and National Mental Health Strategy .................................................... 52
2.7.5 International Frameworks .................................................................................... 52
2.8 Empirical Review .......................................................................................................... 53
2.8.1 Evidence on School Counseling and Adolescent Mental Health in Nepal ............ 53
2.8.2 Prevalence of Adolescent Mental Health Issues in Nepal ..................................... 54
2.8.3 Existing Counseling Models and Service Gaps ..................................................... 56
2.8.4 Mental Health Literacy and Help-Seeking Behavior ............................................. 57
2.8.5 Gender, Caste, and Socioeconomic Dimensions ................................................... 58
2.9 Research Gaps in School Counseling in Nepal ............................................................. 59
2.9.1 Theoretical Gap .................................................................................................... 59
2.9.2 Methodological Gap ............................................................................................. 60
2.9.3 Context Gap .......................................................................................................... 61
2.9.4 Content Gap .......................................................................................................... 62
2.10 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................... 63
2.10.1 Buddhist Karuna-Compassion Model .................................................................. 63
2.10.2 Vygotsky’s Social Constructivist Theory ............................................................ 64
2.10.3 Comprehensive School Counseling Program (CSCP) ......................................... 65
2.10.4 Integration and Contextualization ....................................................................... 66
Summary .............................................................................................................................. 67
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................... 68
3.0 Chapter Overview ........................................................................................................... 68
3.1 Philosophical Underpinnings ........................................................................................ 69
3.2 Research Paradigm ........................................................................................................ 71
3.3 Research Design ............................................................................................................ 72
3.4 Qualitative Research Method ........................................................................................ 73
3.5 Participatory Action Research ....................................................................................... 74
3.6 PAR Praxis in Co-Designing a Comprehensive School Counseling Program ............... 76
3.7 Methodological Boundaries .......................................................................................... 78
3.8 Collection of Data: Planning, Acting, and Reflecting in Two PAR Cycles ................... 79
3.9 Analysis and Interpretation of Data: Reflecting and Further Planning ......................... 81
3.10 Decisions in Presentation of the Research: Final Cycle of Action .............................. 83
3.11 Selection of Site and Participants ............................................................................... 85
3.12 Means of Information Collection ................................................................................ 87
3.13 Data Analysis and Data Analysis Process ................................................................. 89
3.14 Quality Standards ....................................................................................................... 92
3.15 Researcher’s Positionality .......................................................................................... 95
Summary .............................................................................................................................. 97

CHAPTER IV
THE PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH PROCESS – NEEDS ASSESSMENT,
CO-DESIGN, AND PLANNING................................................................................. 98
4.0 Needs Assessment for Co-Designing a Culturally Responsive Comprehensive School
Counseling Program ........................................................................................................... 98
4.1 Needs Assessment and Intervention Development ....................................................... 99
4.2 Bridging-the-Gap Workshop ...................................................................................... 100
4.3 Developing Intervention Activities ............................................................................. 101
4.4 Mapping the Intervention Action Plan ........................................................................ 103
4.5 Co-Designing Comprehensive School Counseling Action Plan .................................. 104
4.6 Setting the Scene and Informal Talks ......................................................................... 105
4.7 Formation of PAR Committee and Student’s Club .................................................... 106
4.8 Formation of Student’s Club ...................................................................................... 107
4.9 Steps in the Participatory Action Research Process ................................................... 108
4.10 Initial Workshop ....................................................................................................... 110
4.11 Conducting Need Assessment .................................................................................. 111
4.12 Thematic Analysis of Need Assessment Data .......................................................... 112
4.13 Intervention Mapping .............................................................................................. 114
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 115
CHAPTER V
IMPLEMENTATION, REFLECTION, EVALUATION, AND EMERGING OUTCOMES
………………………………………………………………………………………….... 116
5.0 Participatory Action Research Cycle 1: Planning and Initial Action ........................... 116
5.1 Participatory Action Research Cycle 1: Planning, Initial Action, Outcomes, and
Reflections ..................................................................................................................... 117
5.2 Intervention Design and Implementation ................................................................... 119
5.3 Reflection, Evaluation, and Revision .......................................................................... 121
5.4 Summary of PAR Contributions ................................................................................. 123
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 124
References ............................................................................................................................ 125
Appendix 1: PAR Committee Composition and Roles ...................................................... 140
Appendix 2: Sample Informed Consent Form .................................................................... 141
Appendix 3: Focus Group Discussion Guide ...................................................................... 143
Appendix 4: Semi-Structured Interview Protocol .............................................................. 145
Appendix 5: Psychosocial Wellbeing Assessment Tools .................................................... 147
Appendix 6: Intervention Session Plans (Tier 1–3) ........................................................... 149
Appendix 7: Reflective Journal Template .......................................................................... 152
Appendix 8: Evaluation Indicators and Tools .................................................................... 154
Appendix 9: Major Themes and Sub-Themes from Needs Assessment ............................. 156
Appendix 10: Participant Quotations Reference List ........................................................ 158

List of Tables
Table 1: Themes and Sub-Themes from Need Assessment Data ....................................... 112
Table 2: Intervention Session Overview ............................................................................ 113
Table 3: Indicators Used in Evaluating the PAR Process .................................................. 122
Table 4: Details of Action Plan .......................................................................................... 109
List of Figures
Figure 1: Participatory Action Research Cycles (Plan–Act–Observe–Reflect) ................. 79
Figure 2: Integration of Buddhist Karuna Model and Social Constructivist Theory in
CSCP ............................................................................................................................... 65
Figure 3: Intervention Mapping Matrix .............................................................................. 103

Abbreviations
ASCA – American School Counselor Association
BMISC – Buddhist Model of Indigenized School Counseling
CSCP – Comprehensive School Counseling Program
FGD – Focus Group Discussion
IDI – In-Depth Interview
MOEST – Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
MTSS – Multi-Tiered Systems of Support
NEP – National Education Policy
NGO – Non-Governmental Organization
PAR – Participatory Action Research
PNA – Participatory Needs Assessment
SEL – Social-Emotional Learning
SSDP – School Sector Development Plan
WHO – World Health Organization