Analog System Electrical signals Radix or Base

- It is a system that uses - Such as voltages and - Specifies the actual of digits
continues values. currents are the most included in its order.
common.
Digital System Number
Binary
- Any system that can be used - It is a collection of digits
for the transmission or - The signals in all-present day included in its ordered set.
processing of information in electronic digital-systems
Polynomial Notation
which the information is have only two discrete
represented by physical values. - The number is expressed as
quantities or signals that are the sum of powers of r
Digital Computer
so constrained as to take multiplied by their
only discrete values. - An automatic electronic corresponding coefficients, a.
- A major criterion is the apparatus for making
Juxtapositional Notation
absence or presence of a calculations for controlling
signal and not its actual operations that are - The number expressed as
value. expressible in numerical or coefficients of power of r are
logical terms. presented, it is done by
Signal
placing the number side by
- Is a physical quantity that side.
represents discrete Number System
Decimal Number System
elements of information in a
- It is a language system
digital system. - Is said to be of Base or Radix
consisting of an ordered set
10 because it uses
of symbols called digits with
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 and the
defined rules for different
coefficients are multiplied by
mathematical operations.
powers of 10.
Binary Number System Bits Logic Levels

- When the Base is equals 2, - A term which is a contraction - These are voltages used to
with values 0 and 1. of the words binary digit. represent a Logic 0 or a Logic
1.
Bit
Base Name Valid Symbols
Timing Diagram
- Is the smallest unit of
2 Binary/ Diadic 0,2
3 Tertiary/ Ternary 0,1,2 information in binary system. - It is a representation of a set
4 Quaternary 0,1,2,3, of signals in the time domain.
5 Quinary/Quintary 0,1,2,3,4 Byte
6 Senary 0,1,2,3,4,5 The horizontal axis of the
7 Septary/Septenary 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 - It is a string of eight bits. It is timing diagram represents
8 Octal/Octenary 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
9 Nonary 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
a basic unit of data operated time, and the vertical axis
10 Decimal
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, upon as a single unit in shows a digital signal as it
9
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,
computers. changes between two
11 Undenary
9,A possible voltage levels.
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, Nibble
12 Duodecimal/Duodenary
9,A,B Logic Analyzer
13 Tredenary
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, - It is a string of four its or half
9,A,B,C
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,
byte long. - It is an electronic instrument
14 Quartodenary
9,A,B,C,D that captures and displays
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,89 Positive Negative
15 Quindenary
,A,B,C,D,E Logic Logic multiple signals from a digital
16 Hexadecimal
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,
High system or digital circuit.
9,A,B,C,D,E,F 1 0
20 Vicenary/Vigesimal Voltage
The complement of a number
60 Sexagesimal Low
0 1
Voltage - Complements are used in
Binary Number System digital computers to simplify
the subtraction operation and
- It is a number system where for logical manipulation.
the Base b is equals to 2. (0
and 1) Radix Complement
 - Also called as r’s 7 0111 - In many practical
complement – in base 2, this 8 1000 applications, for example,
is called 2’s complement. 9 1001 analog to digital conversion,
Weighted Binary Code for Decimal it is desirable to use codes in
Diminished Radix Complement Digit which all successive code
- Also called (r-1)’s - Each binary digit is assigned words differ in only one digit.
complement – in base 2, this a weight, and for each group Codes that have such
is called 1’s complement. of four bits, the sum of the property are referred to as
weights of those binary digits Cyclic Codes.
Binary-Coded Decimal
whose value is to equal to Gray Code
- Binary is the most natural one is equivalent to the
system for digital systems. decimal digit which they - Also known as the Reflected
- Most people are accustomed represent. Code or Unit Distance Code.
to the decimal system. - A code is said to be self- - This code is considered non-
- One way to resolve this is to complementing if the word of weighted and not an
convert decimal numbers to the 9’s complement of N, that arithmetic code.
binary. is, 9-N, can be obtained from - The term reflected is used to
- Another way is to use binary the code word of N by designated codes which have
codes to represent the interchanging all the 1’s and the property that the n-bit
decimal numbers. 0’s. code can be generated by
reflecting the (n-1)st bit code.
Decimal BCD Non-weighted Binary Coded Then, assign a most
0 0000 Decimal
1 0001 significant bit of 0 above the
2 0010 - The Excess-3 Code is a self- axis and 1 below the axis.
3 0011 complementing code formed - Unit distance means it
4 0100 by adding 0011 to each BCD exhibits only a single bit
5 0101 change from one code to the
code word. It is also known
6 0110 next.
as XS3 Code or Stibitz Code.
Error Detection Code represent other characters to 9), and 33 special
such as symbols and various characters.
- It is used to detect error in
instructions necessary for - The first 32 characters are
digital circuit, especially
conveying information. non-graphic commands that
during transmission of bits
- ASCII and EBCIDIC are never printed or
from one location to the other
displayed and used only for
location. ASCII
control purposes.
- Digital systems use a parity
- Also known as American - It allows manufacturers to
bit as a means for Bit Error
Standard Code for standardize 1/0 hardware
Detection. Error detection
Information Interchange. It is such as keyboard, printer,
codes contain either an even
a universally accepted and video display.
or odd number of 1s.
alphanumeric code used in
EBCDIC
Parity Bit most computers and other
electronic equipment. - It is also known as the
- An extra bit attached to a
- The code was first publisged Extended Binary Coded
group of bits to make the
as a standard in 1967 and Decimal Interchange code.
total number of 1s in a group
subsequently updated and - It is an 8-bit character code
either even or odd.
publisged as ANSI X3.4-1968, accommodating up to 256
- Odd parity if the number of 1s
then ANSI X3.4-1977 and characters developed by the
is odd.
finally as ANSI X3.4-1986. IBM that is used mainly
- Even parity if the number of
- It has 128 characters and popular with larger systems.
1s is even.
symbols represented by a 7- - It is used in the IBM
Aphanumeric Codes bit binary code. equipment to represents
- It currently defines 95 characters and symbols. Its
- These are codes that
printable characters importance in the earlier
represents numbers and
including 26 upper-case days lay in the fact that it
alphabetic characters. Most
letters (A to Z), 26 lower-case made relatively easier to
such codes, however, also
letters (a to z), 10 numerals (0
 enter data into larger - It is used to describe, in a Digital Logic Gates
machines with punch cards. mathematical way, the
Buffer
manipulation of processing
Logic Gate
of binary information. - A device that isolates two
- An electronic circuit that has other devices or stages.
Truth table
one or more inputs and only - It has high input impedance
one output. - It is a Boolean operation and a low output impedance
- It is the smallest building table in which the values 0 and is used to drive loads
element of computer and 1 given to the variables that require high current.
circuitry. are interpreted as measuring
NOT
- Its output is either a logic 1 or True or False.
a logic 0. - Also known as the Inverter
Switching Circuit Theory
- The output is the complement
Logic circuit
- It is a mathematical study of of the output.
- It is a circuit that provides an the properties of networks of
OR
input-output relationship idealized switches.
corresponding to a boolean - It has a logic one output when
algebra logic function to one of its input is a logic one.
govern a particular sequence Boolean Algebra
NOR
of operations in a given
- It is a branch of Algebra in
system. - It has a logic one output when
which the values of the
all of the inputs are logic
Binary Logic variables are the truth values
zeros.
True and False, usually
- It deals with variables that
denoted 1 and 0 respectively. AND
take on two discrete values
and with operations that - It has a logic 1 output when all
assume logical meaning. of its inputs are logic ones.
NAND - It is the mathematical system - Used to simplify digital
of binary logic. circuit’s Boolean expression
- It has a logic zero output
- It is named after George so that the circuit can be built
when all inputs are logic
Boole – A British with fewer logic gates and
ones.
Mathematician who connections.
XOR published his paper “An
Variable
Investigation of the Laws of
- It has a logic one output when
Thought” in 1854 on which - It is a symbol used to
there are an odd number of
mathematical theories of represent a logical quantity.
logic one inputs.
logic and probabilities are
Complement
XNOR founded.
- Boolean Algebra had no - It is the inverse of a variable
- It has a logic one output when
practical operation until 1938
there are an even number of Literal
when Claude E. Shannon, the
logic one inputs.
father of Information Theory, - It is a variable either in
Logic Gates Technology applied Boole’s work to the complement or
analysis and design of uncomplemented form.
- TTL which stands for
telephone switching circuits.
Transistor-Transistor Logic. Boolean Addition
- It is a mathematical tool used
- CMOS which stands for
n describing, analyzing, - It is equivalent to the OR
Complementary Metal-
designing, and implementing operation.
Oxide-Semiconductor which
digital circuits. Sum Term
is the 4000 series of chips.
- It describes the relationship
Boolean Algebra between a logic circuit’s - It is a sum of literals which is
inputs and output as an produced by an OR operation
- Also known as switching
algebraic equation also with no AND operations
algebra
known as Boolean involved.
Expression.
Boolean Multiplication Consensus Theorem Sum of Products

- It is equivalent to the AND - Given a pair of terms for - A product term or several
operation. which a variable appears in product terms logically
one term and the added together.
Product Term
complement of that variable
Product of Sums
- A product of literals which is appears on the other term,
produced by an AND the consensus term is - A sum term or several sum
operation with no OR. formed by multiplying the terms logically multiplied
original terms together, together.
Boolean Function
leaving out the selected
BOOLEAN FUNCTION IN STANDARD
- It specifies the behavior of a variable and the
FORM
digital system given certain complement.
inputs represented by a - It is the Boolean function
Sum Term
certain variable. expressed as Sum-of-
- It is a single variable or the Products (SOP) or Product-
Duality
logical sum of several of-Sums (POS) wherein each
- It states that every algebraic variables. term may or may not contain
expression deducible from all the variables in the
the postulates of Boolean function.
Algebra remains valid if the Product Term
Minterm
operators and identity
- It is a single variable or the
elements are interchanged. - It is also known as Standard
logical product of several
- If the dual of an algebraic Product.
variables.
expression is desired, we - It is a product term that
simply interchange OR and contains all the variables in
AND operators and replaces complemented or
1’s by 0’s, vice versa. uncomplemented form.
 - Each minterm is obtained Sum of Minterms Canonical Product of Maxterms
from an AND term of n
- It is the logical OR of multiple - It is a complete set of
variables.
product terms. maxterms that defines when
- Each variable with prime or
- Each product term is the AND an output variable is a logical
bar corresponds to Logic 0.
of binary literals. 0.
- Each variable without a
- Product Term is a literal or - Each maxterm corresponds
prime or bar corresponds to
the logical product (AND) of to the row in the Truth Table
Logic 1.
multiple literals. where the output function is a
Maxterm Logic 0.
Canonical Sum of Minterms
- It is also known as Standard BOOLEAN FUNCTION IN CANONICAL
- It is a complete set of
Sums. FORM
minterms that defines when
- It is a sum term that contains
an output variable is a logical - It is the Boolean function
all the variables in
1. expressed as Sum-of-
complemented or
- Each minterm corresponds Minterms or Product-of-
uncomplemented form.
to the row in the Truth Table Maxterms wherein each term
- Each maxterm is obtained
where the output function is contains all the variables in
from an OR term of n
Logic 1. the function.
variables.
- Canonical means
- Each variable with prime or Product of Maxterms
“conforming to a general
bar corresponds to Logic 1.
- It is the logical AND of rule”. The “rule” for switching
- Each variable without prime
multiple sum terms. logic is that each term used
or bar corresponds to Logic
- Each sum term is the OR of in a switching equation must
0.
binary literals. contain all of the available
- Sum Term is a literal or the input variables.
logical sum (OR) of multiple
literals.
STEPS IN LOGIC CIRCUIT DESIGN simplified using any
simplification method.
Step One (Problem Analysis):
Step Four: (Derivation of Logic
- The problem is stated.
Circuit Diagram)
- The number of available input
variables and the required - The logic circuit diagram is
output variable is drawn from the simplified
determined. Boolean function.
- The input and output
Step Five: (Implementation of Logic
variables are assigned letter
Circuit Diagram)
symbols.
- The relationship between the - The drawn logic circuit
input and output is diagram is implemented in
determined. actual.

Step Two: (Generation of Truth

- The Truth Table that defines

Step Three (Derivation of Boolean

- The corresponding Boolean