Chapter 4

Network Layer

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Network Layer 4-1

Chapter 4: network layer

chapter goals:
understand principles behind network layer
services:
network layer service models
forwarding versus routing
how a router works
routing (path selection)
broadcast, multicast
instantiation, implementation in the Internet

Network Layer 4-2

1
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and link state
datagram networks distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
datagram format RIP
IPv4 addressing OSPF
ICMP BGP
IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-3

Network layer
application
transport segment from transport
network

sending to receiving host data link

physical
network network

on sending side network

data link
data link
physical
data link
physical

encapsulates segments physical network

data link
network
data link

into datagrams physical physical

on receiving side, delivers network

data link
network
data link

segments to transport physical physical

network
data link

layer network
physical
application
transport
network layer protocols network
data link
physical
network
data link
network
data link

in every host, router data link

physical
physical physical

router examines header

fields in all IP datagrams
passing through it
Network Layer 4-4

2
Two key network-layer functions
forwarding: move packets analogy:
from router’s input to
appropriate router routing: process of
output planning trip from source
to dest
routing: determine route
taken by packets from forwarding: process of
source to dest. getting through single
interchange
routing algorithms

Network Layer 4-5

Interplay between routing and forwarding

routing algorithm routing algorithm determines

end-end-path through network

local forwarding table forwarding table determines

header value output link local forwarding at this router
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

Network Layer 4-6

3
Connection setup
3rd important function in some network
architectures:
ATM, frame relay, X.25
before datagrams flow, two end hosts and
intervening routers establish virtual connection
routers get involved
network vs transport layer connection service:
network: between two hosts (may also involve intervening
routers in case of VCs)
transport: between two processes

Network Layer 4-7

Network service model

Q: What service model for “channel” transporting
datagrams from sender to receiver?
example services for example services for a flow
individual datagrams: of datagrams:
guaranteed delivery in-order datagram
guaranteed delivery with delivery
less than 40 msec delay guaranteed minimum
bandwidth to flow
restrictions on changes in
inter-packet spacing

Network Layer 4-8

4
 Network layer service models:
Guarantees ?
Network Service Congestion
Architecture Model Bandwidth Loss Order Timing feedback

Internet best effort none no no no no (inferred

via loss)
ATM CBR constant yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM VBR guaranteed yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM ABR guaranteed no yes no yes
minimum
ATM UBR none no yes no no

Network Layer 4-9

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and link state
datagram networks distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
datagram format RIP
IPv4 addressing OSPF
ICMP BGP
IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-10

5
Connection, connection-less service
datagram network provides network-layer
connectionless service
virtual-circuit network provides network-layer
connection service
analogous to TCP/UDP connecton-oriented /
connectionless transport-layer services, but:
service: host-to-host
no choice: network provides one or the other
implementation: in network core

Network Layer 4-11

Virtual circuits
“source-to-dest path behaves much like telephone
circuit”
performance-wise
network actions along source-to-dest path

call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host
address)
every router on source-dest path maintains “state” for
each passing connection
link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be
allocated to VC (dedicated resources = predictable
service)
Network Layer 4-12

6
 VC implementation
a VC consists of:
1. path from source to destination
2. VC numbers, one number for each link along path
3. entries in forwarding tables in routers along path
packet belonging to VC carries VC number
(rather than dest address)
VC number can be changed on each link.
new VC number comes from forwarding table

Network Layer 4-13

VC forwarding table
12 22 32

1 3
2
VC number
interface
forwarding table in number
northwest router:
Incoming interface Incoming VC # Outgoing interface Outgoing VC #

1 12 3 22
2 63 1 18
3 7 2 17
1 97 3 87
… … … …

VC routers maintain connection state information!

Network Layer 4-14

7
Virtual circuits: signaling protocols
used to setup, maintain teardown VC
used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25
not used in today’s Internet

application application
transport 5. data flow begins 6. receive data
transport
network 4. call connected 3. accept call network
data link 1. initiate call 2. incoming call data link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-15

Datagram networks
no call setup at network layer
routers: no state about end-to-end connections
no network-level concept of “connection”
packets forwarded using destination host address

application application
transport transport
network 1. send datagrams
2. receive datagrams network
data link data link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-16

8
Datagram forwarding table
4 billion IP addresses, so
routing algorithm rather than list individual
destination address
local forwarding table
list range of addresses
dest address output link
(aggregate table entries)
address-range 1 3
address-range 2 2
address-range 3 2
address-range 4 1

IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2

Network Layer 4-17

Datagram forwarding table

Destination Address Range
Link Interface
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
through 0
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

through 1
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

through 2
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111

otherwise 3

Q: but what happens if ranges don’t divide up so nicely?

Network Layer 4-18

9
Longest prefix matching
longest prefix matching
when looking for forwarding table entry for given
destination address, use longest address prefix that
matches destination address.

Destination Address Range Link interface

11001000 00010111 00010*** ********* 0
11001000 00010111 00011000 ********* 1

11001000 00010111 00011*** ********* 2

otherwise 3

examples:
DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001 which interface?
DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010 which interface?
Network Layer 4-19

Datagram or VC network: why?

Internet (datagram) ATM (VC)
data exchange among evolved from telephony
computers human conversation:
“elastic” service, no strict strict timing, reliability
timing req. requirements
need for guaranteed service
many link types “dumb” end systems
different characteristics telephones
uniform service difficult complexity inside
“smart” end systems network
(computers)
can adapt, perform control,
error recovery
simple inside network,
complexity at “edge”

Network Layer 4-20

10
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and link state
datagram networks distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
datagram format RIP
IPv4 addressing OSPF
ICMP BGP
IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-21

Router architecture overview

two key router functions:
run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing link

forwarding tables computed, routing

pushed to input ports routing, management
processor
control plane (software)

forwarding data
plane (hardware)

high-seed
switching
fabric

router input ports router output ports

Network Layer 4-22

11
 Input port functions
lookup,
link forwarding
line layer switch
termination protocol fabric
(receive)
queueing

physical layer:
bit-level reception
data link layer: decentralized switching:
e.g., Ethernet given datagram dest., lookup output port
see chapter 5 using forwarding table in input port
memory (“match plus action”)
goal: complete input port processing at
‘line speed’
queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric
Network Layer 4-23

Switching fabrics
transfer packet from input buffer to appropriate
output buffer
switching rate: rate at which packets can be
transfer from inputs to outputs
often measured as multiple of input/output line rate
N inputs: switching rate N times line rate desirable
three types of switching fabrics

memory

memory bus crossbar

Network Layer 4-24

12
 Switching via memory
first generation routers:
traditional computers with switching under direct control
of CPU
packet copied to system’s memory
speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus crossings per
datagram)

input output
port memory port
(e.g., (e.g.,
Ethernet) Ethernet)

system bus

Network Layer 4-25

Switching via a bus

datagram from input port memory
to output port memory via a
shared bus
bus contention: switching speed
limited by bus bandwidth
32 Gbps bus, Cisco 5600: sufficient bus
speed for access and enterprise
routers

Network Layer 4-26

13
Switching via interconnection network
Overcome bus bandwidth limitations
banyan networks, crossbar, other
interconnection nets initially
developed to connect processors in
multiprocessor
advanced design: fragmenting
datagram into fixed length cells, crossbar
switch cells through the fabric.
Cisco 12000: switches 60 Gbps
through the interconnection
network

Network Layer 4-27

Output ports

datagram
switch buffer link
fabric layer line
protocol termination
(send)
queueing

buffering required when datagrams arrive from

fabric faster than the transmission rate
scheduling discipline chooses among queued
datagrams for transmission

Network Layer 4-28

14
Output port queueing

switch
switch
fabric
fabric

at t, packets more one packet time later

from input to output

buffering when arrival rate via switch exceeds

output line speed
queueing (delay) and loss due to output port buffer
overflow!
Network Layer 4-29

How much buffering?

RFC 3439 rule of thumb: average buffering equal
to “typical” RTT (say 250 msec) times link
capacity C
e.g., C = 10 Gpbs link: 2.5 Gbit buffer
recent recommendation: with N flows, buffering
equal to
RTT . C
N

Network Layer 4-30

15
 Input port queuing
fabric slower than input ports combined -> queueing may
occur at input queues
queueing delay and loss due to input buffer overflow!
Head-of-the-Line (HOL) blocking: queued datagram at front
of queue prevents others in queue from moving forward

switch switch
fabric fabric

output port contention: one packet time later:

only one red datagram can be green packet
transferred. experiences HOL
lower red packet is blocked blocking

Network Layer 4-31

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and link state
datagram networks distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
datagram format RIP
IPv4 addressing OSPF
ICMP BGP
IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-32

16
 The Internet network layer
host, router network layer functions:

transport layer: TCP, UDP

routing protocols IP protocol

• path selection • addressing conventions
• RIP, OSPF, BGP • datagram format
network • packet handling conventions
layer forwarding
table
ICMP protocol
• error reporting
• router
“signaling”
link layer

physical layer

Network Layer 4-33

IP datagram format
IP protocol version
number 32 bits total datagram
header length head. type of length (bytes)
(bytes) ver length
len service for
“type” of data fragment fragmentation/
16-bit identifier flgs
offset reassembly
max number time to upper header
remaining hops live layer checksum
(decremented at
each router) 32 bit source IP address

upper layer protocol 32 bit destination IP address

to deliver payload to e.g. timestamp,
options (if any)
record route
how much overhead? data taken, specify
(variable length, list of routers
20 bytes of TCP
typically a TCP to visit.
20 bytes of IP
or UDP segment)
= 40 bytes + app
layer overhead

Network Layer 4-34

17
 IP fragmentation, reassembly
network links have MTU
([Link] size) -
largest possible link-level fragmentation:
frame

…
in: one large datagram
different link types, out: 3 smaller datagrams
different MTUs
large IP datagram divided
(“fragmented”) within net reassembly
one datagram becomes
several datagrams
“reassembled” only at

…
final destination
IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments
Network Layer 4-35

IP fragmentation, reassembly
length ID fragflag offset
example: =4000 =x =0 =0
4000 byte datagram
one large datagram becomes
MTU = 1500 bytes several smaller datagrams

1480 bytes in length ID fragflag offset

data field =1500 =x =1 =0

offset = length ID fragflag offset

1480/8 =1500 =x =1 =185

length ID fragflag offset

=1040 =x =0 =370

Network Layer 4-36

18
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and link state
datagram networks distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
datagram format RIP
IPv4 addressing OSPF
ICMP BGP
IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-37

IP addressing: introduction
[Link]
IP address: 32-bit [Link]
identifier for host, router
interface [Link]
[Link] [Link]
interface: connection
between host/router and [Link]
physical link [Link]
[Link]
router’s typically have
multiple interfaces
host typically has one or
[Link] [Link]
two interfaces (e.g., wired
Ethernet, wireless 802.11)
IP addresses associated
with each interface [Link] = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001

223 1 1 1

Network Layer 4-38

19
IP addressing: introduction
[Link]
Q: how are interfaces [Link]
actually connected?
A: we’ll learn about that [Link]
[Link] [Link]

in chapter 5, 6.
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

A: wired Ethernet interfaces

connected by Ethernet switches
[Link] [Link]

For now: don’t need to worry

about how one interface is
connected to another (with no
A: wireless WiFi interfaces
intervening router)
connected by WiFi base station

Network Layer 4-39

Subnets
IP address: [Link]
subnet part - high order
bits [Link] [Link]
[Link] [Link]
host part - low order
bits [Link]
[Link]
what’s a subnet ? [Link]

device interfaces with subnet

same subnet part of IP
[Link]
address [Link]
can physically reach
each other without
intervening router network consisting of 3 subnets

Network Layer 4-40

20
Subnets
[Link]/24
[Link]/24
recipe [Link]

to determine the [Link] [Link]

subnets, detach each [Link] [Link]

interface from its host [Link]

or router, creating [Link] [Link]

islands of isolated subnet

networks
[Link]
each isolated network [Link]

is called a subnet
[Link]/24

subnet mask: /24

Network Layer 4-41

Subnets [Link]

how many? [Link] [Link]

[Link]

[Link] [Link]

[Link] [Link]
[Link] [Link]

[Link] [Link]

[Link] [Link] [Link] [Link]

Network Layer 4-42

21
IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
subnet portion of address of arbitrary length
address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in
subnet portion of address

subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
[Link]/23

Network Layer 4-43

IP addresses: how to get one?

Q: How does a host get IP address?

hard-coded by system admin in a file

Windows: control-panel->network->configuration-
>tcp/ip->properties
UNIX: /etc/[Link]
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:
dynamically get address from as server
“plug-and-play”

Network Layer 4-44

22
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address from network
server when it joins network
can renew its lease on address in use
allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while
connected/“on”)
support for mobile users who want to join network (more
shortly)
DHCP overview:
host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg [optional]
DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg [optional]
host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg

Network Layer 4-45

DHCP client-server scenario

DHCP
[Link]/24
server
[Link] [Link]

[Link] arriving DHCP

[Link] [Link]
client needs
address in this
[Link]
[Link] network
[Link]

[Link]/24

[Link] [Link]

[Link]/24

Network Layer 4-46

23
DHCP client-server scenario
DHCP server: [Link] DHCP discover arriving
client
src : [Link], 68
dest.: [Link],67
yiaddr: [Link]
transaction ID: 654

DHCP offer
src: [Link], 67
dest: [Link], 68
yiaddrr: [Link]
transaction ID: 654
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: [Link], 68
dest:: [Link], 67
yiaddrr: [Link]
transaction ID: 655
lifetime: 3600 secs

DHCP ACK
src: [Link], 67
dest: [Link], 68
yiaddrr: [Link]
transaction ID: 655
lifetime: 3600 secs

Network Layer 4-47

DHCP: more than IP addresses

DHCP can return more than just allocated IP
address on subnet:
address of first-hop router for client
name and IP address of DNS sever
network mask (indicating network versus host portion
of address)

Network Layer 4-48

24
DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP connecting laptop needs
DHCP UDP its IP address, addr of
DHCP IP
DHCP Eth
first-hop router, addr of
Phy DNS server: use DHCP
DHCP
DHCP request encapsulated
in UDP, encapsulated in IP,
DHCP DHCP [Link] encapsulated in 802.1
DHCP UDP Ethernet
DHCP IP
DHCP Eth router with DHCP
Ethernet frame broadcast
Phy server built into (dest: FFFFFFFFFFFF) on LAN,
router received at router running
DHCP server
Ethernet demuxed to IP
demuxed, UDP demuxed to
DHCP

Network Layer 4-49

DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP DCP server formulates
DHCP UDP DHCP ACK containing
DHCP IP client’s IP address, IP
DHCP Eth address of first-hop
Phy router for client, name &
IP address of DNS server
encapsulation of DHCP
DHCP DHCP server, frame forwarded
DHCP UDP to client, demuxing up to
DHCP IP DHCP at client
DHCP Eth router with DHCP
DHCP
Phy server built into client now knows its IP
router address, name and IP
address of DNS server, IP
address of its first-hop
router

Network Layer 4-50

25
 DHCP: Wireshark Message type: Boot Reply (2)
reply
output (home LAN) Hardware type: Ethernet
Hardware address length: 6
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
Seconds elapsed: 0
Message type: Boot Request (1) Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast)
Hardware type: Ethernet Client IP address: [Link] ([Link])
Hardware address length: 6 Your (client) IP address: [Link] ([Link])
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
request Next server IP address: [Link] ([Link])
Relay agent IP address: [Link] ([Link])
Seconds elapsed: 0 Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast) Server host name not given
Client IP address: [Link] ([Link]) Boot file name not given
Your (client) IP address: [Link] ([Link]) Magic cookie: (OK)
Next server IP address: [Link] ([Link]) Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP ACK
Relay agent IP address: [Link] ([Link]) Option: (t=54,l=4) Server Identifier = [Link]
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a) Option: (t=1,l=4) Subnet Mask = [Link]
Server host name not given Option: (t=3,l=4) Router = [Link]
Boot file name not given Option: (6) Domain Name Server
Magic cookie: (OK) Length: 12; Value: 445747E2445749F244574092;
Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP Request IP Address: [Link];
Option: (61) Client identifier IP Address: [Link];
Length: 7; Value: 010016D323688A; IP Address: [Link]
Hardware type: Ethernet Option: (t=15,l=20) Domain Name = "[Link]."
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Option: (t=50,l=4) Requested IP Address = [Link]
Option: (t=12,l=5) Host Name = "nomad"
Option: (55) Parameter Request List
Length: 11; Value: 010F03062C2E2F1F21F92B
1 = Subnet Mask; 15 = Domain Name
3 = Router; 6 = Domain Name Server
44 = NetBIOS over TCP/IP Name Server
……

Network Layer 4-51

IP addresses: how to get one?

Q: how does network get subnet part of IP addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP’s address
space

ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 [Link]/20

Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 [Link]/23

Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 [Link]/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 [Link]/23
... ….. …. ….
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 [Link]/23

Network Layer 4-52

26
Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation
hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing
information:

Organization 0
[Link]/23
Organization 1
“Send me anything
[Link]/23 with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
[Link]/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP [Link]/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
[Link]/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
beginning
[Link]/16”

Network Layer 4-53

Hierarchical addressing: more specific routes

ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to Organization 1

Organization 0
[Link]/23

“Send me anything
with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
[Link]/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP [Link]/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
[Link]/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
Organization 1 beginning [Link]/16
or [Link]/23”
[Link]/23

Network Layer 4-54

27
 IP addressing: the last word...

Q: how does an ISP get block of addresses?

A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers [Link]
allocates addresses
manages DNS
assigns domain names, resolves disputes

Network Layer 4-55

NAT: network address translation

rest of local network
Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 [Link]

[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

[Link]

all datagrams leaving local datagrams with source or

network have same single destination in this network
source NAT IP address: have 10.0.0/24 address for
[Link],different source source, destination (as usual)
port numbers
Network Layer 4-56

28
 NAT: network address translation
motivation: local network uses just one IP address as far
as outside world is concerned:
range of addresses not needed from ISP: just one
IP address for all devices
can change addresses of devices in local network
without notifying outside world
can change ISP without changing addresses of
devices in local network
devices inside local net not explicitly addressable,
visible by outside world (a security plus)

Network Layer 4-57

NAT: network address translation

implementation: NAT router must:

outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #) of

every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address, new port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP
address, new port #) as destination addr

remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP address,

port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #) translation pair

incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port #) in

dest fields of every incoming datagram with corresponding
(source IP address, port #) stored in NAT table

Network Layer 4-58

29
 NAT: network address translation
NAT translation table 1: host [Link]
2: NAT router WAN side addr LAN side addr
changes datagram sends datagram to
source addr from [Link], 5001 [Link], 3345 [Link], 80
[Link], 3345 to …… ……
[Link], 5001,
updates table S: [Link], 3345
D: [Link], 80
[Link]
1
S: [Link], 5001
2 D: [Link], 80 [Link]
[Link]
[Link] S: [Link], 80
D: [Link], 3345
4
S: [Link], 80
D: [Link], 5001 3 [Link]
4: NAT router
3: reply arrives changes datagram
dest. address: dest addr from
[Link], 5001 [Link], 5001 to [Link], 3345

Network Layer 4-59

NAT: network address translation

16-bit port-number field:
60,000 simultaneous connections with a single
LAN-side address!
NAT is controversial:
routers should only process up to layer 3
violates end-to-end argument
• NAT possibility must be taken into account by app
designers, e.g., P2P applications
address shortage should instead be solved by
IPv6

Network Layer 4-60

30
NAT traversal problem
client wants to connect to
server with address [Link]
server address [Link] local to [Link]
client
LAN (client can’t use it as
destination addr) ?
only one externally visible NATed [Link]
address: [Link]
solution1: statically configure [Link] NAT
NAT to forward incoming router
connection requests at given
port to server
e.g., ([Link], port 2500)
always forwarded to [Link] port
25000

Network Layer 4-61

NAT traversal problem

solution 2: Universal Plug and Play
(UPnP) Internet Gateway Device
(IGD) Protocol. Allows NATed [Link]
host to: IGD
learn public IP address
([Link])
add/remove port mappings
(with lease times) NAT
router

i.e., automate static NAT port

map configuration

Network Layer 4-62

31
 NAT traversal problem
solution 3: relaying (used in Skype)
NATed client establishes connection to relay
external client connects to relay
relay bridges packets between to connections

2. connection to
relay initiated 1. connection to [Link]
by client relay initiated
by NATed host
3. relaying
client established
[Link] NAT
router

Network Layer 4-63

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and link state
datagram networks distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
datagram format RIP
IPv4 addressing OSPF
ICMP BGP
IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-64

32
ICMP: internet control message protocol

used by hosts & routers

to communicate network- Type Code description
0 0 echo reply (ping)
level information 3 0 dest. network unreachable
error reporting: 3 1 dest host unreachable
unreachable host, network, 3 2 dest protocol unreachable
port, protocol 3 3 dest port unreachable
echo request/reply (used by 3 6 dest network unknown
ping) 3 7 dest host unknown
network-layer “above” IP: 4 0 source quench (congestion
ICMP msgs carried in IP control - not used)
datagrams 8 0 echo request (ping)
9 0 route advertisement
ICMP message: type, code 10 0 router discovery
plus first 8 bytes of IP 11 0 TTL expired
datagram causing error 12 0 bad IP header

Network Layer 4-65

Traceroute and ICMP

source sends series of when ICMP messages
UDP segments to dest arrives, source records
first set has TTL =1 RTTs
second set has TTL=2, etc.
unlikely port number stopping criteria:
when nth set of datagrams UDP segment eventually
arrives to nth router: arrives at destination host
router discards datagrams destination returns ICMP
and sends source ICMP “port unreachable”
messages (type 11, code 0) message (type 3, code 3)
ICMP messages includes
name of router & IP address
source stops

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes
Network Layer 4-66

33
 IPv6: motivation
initial motivation: 32-bit address space soon to be
completely allocated.
additional motivation:
header format helps speed processing/forwarding
header changes to facilitate QoS

IPv6 datagram format:

fixed-length 40 byte header
no fragmentation allowed

Network Layer 4-67

IPv6 datagram format

priority: identify priority among datagrams in flow
flow Label: identify datagrams in same “flow.”
(concept of“flow” not well defined).
next header: identify upper layer protocol for data
ver pri flow label
payload len next hdr hop limit
source address
(128 bits)
destination address
(128 bits)

data

32 bits
Network Layer 4-68

34
Other changes from IPv4
checksum: removed entirely to reduce processing
time at each hop
options: allowed, but outside of header, indicated
by “Next Header” field
ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
additional message types, e.g. “Packet Too Big”
multicast group management functions

Network Layer 4-69

Transition from IPv4 to IPv6

not all routers can be upgraded simultaneously
no “flag days”
how will network operate with mixed IPv4 and
IPv6 routers?
tunneling: IPv6 datagram carried as payload in IPv4
datagram among IPv4 routers

IPv4 header fields IPv6 header fields

IPv4 payload
IPv4 source, dest addr IPv6 source dest addr
UDP/TCP payload

IPv6 datagram
IPv4 datagram
Network Layer 4-70

35
Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

Network Layer 4-71

Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

flow: X src:B src:B flow: X

src: A dest: E src: A
dest: F
dest: E
dest: F
Flow: X Flow: X
Src: A Src: A
data Dest: F Dest: F data

data data

A-to-B: E-to-F:
IPv6 B-to-C: B-to-C: IPv6
IPv6 inside IPv6 inside
IPv4 IPv4 Network Layer 4-72

36
 Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and link state
datagram networks distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
datagram format RIP
IPv4 addressing OSPF
ICMP BGP
IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-73

Interplay between routing, forwarding

routing algorithm determines
routing algorithm
end-end-path through network
forwarding table determines
local forwarding table
local forwarding at this router
dest address output link
address-range 1 3
address-range 2 2
address-range 3 2
address-range 4 1

IP destination address in
arriving packet’s header
1
3 2

Network Layer 4-74

37
Graph abstraction
5

v 3 w
2 5
u 2 z
1
3
1
x y 2
graph: G = (N,E) 1

N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }

E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

aside: graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts, e.g.,

P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections

Network Layer 4-75

Graph abstraction: costs

5 c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3 e.g., c(w,z) = 5
v w
2 5
u cost could always be 1, or
2 1 z inversely related to bandwidth,
3
1 or inversely related to
x y 2
congestion
1

cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

key question: what is the least-cost path between u and z ?

routing algorithm: algorithm that finds that least cost path

Network Layer 4-76

38
Routing algorithm classification
Q: global or decentralized Q: static or dynamic?
information?
static:
global: routes change slowly over
all routers have complete time
topology, link cost info dynamic:
“link state” algorithms routes change more
decentralized: quickly
router knows physically- periodic update
connected neighbors, link in response to link
costs to neighbors cost changes
iterative process of
computation, exchange of
info with neighbors
“distance vector” algorithms
Network Layer 4-77

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and link state
datagram networks distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
datagram format RIP
IPv4 addressing OSPF
ICMP BGP
IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-78

39
A Link-State Routing Algorithm
Dijkstra’s algorithm notation:
net topology, link costs c(x,y): link cost from
known to all nodes node x to y; = ∞ if not
accomplished via “link state direct neighbors
broadcast” D(v): current value of
all nodes have same info cost of path from source
computes least cost paths to dest. v
from one node (‘source”) p(v): predecessor node
to all other nodes along path from source to
gives forwarding table for v
that node N': set of nodes whose
iterative: after k least cost path definitively
iterations, know least cost known
path to k dest.’s
Network Layer 4-79

Dijsktra’s Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u
5 then D(v) = c(u,v)
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'

Network Layer 4-80

40
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z)
Step N' p(v) p(w) p(x) p(y) p(z)
0 u 7,u 3,u 5,u ∞ ∞
1 uw 6,w 5,u 11,w ∞
2 uwx 6,w 11,w 14,x
3 uwxv 10,v 14,x
4 uwxvy 12,y
5 uwxvyz x
9
notes: 5 7
construct shortest path tree by 4
tracing predecessor nodes 8
ties can exist (can be broken u 3 w y z
arbitrarily) 2
3
7 4
v
Network Layer 4-81

Dijkstra’s algorithm: another example

Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

v 3 w
2 5
u 2 z
1
3
1
x y 2
1
Network Layer 4-82

41
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (2)
resulting shortest-path tree from u:

v w
u z
x y

resulting forwarding table in u:

destination link
v (u,v)
x (u,x)
y (u,x)
w (u,x)
z (u,x)
Network Layer 4-83

Dijkstra’s algorithm, discussion

algorithm complexity: n nodes
each iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N
n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)
oscillations possible:
e.g., support link cost equals amount of carried traffic:

1
A 1+e A A A
2+e 0 0 2+e 2+e 0
D 0 0 B D 1+e 1 B D B D 1+e 1 B
0 0
0 e 0 0
C C 0 1
C 1+e C 0
1 1
e given these costs, given these costs, given these costs,
initially find new routing…. find new routing…. find new routing….
resulting in new costs resulting in new costs resulting in new costs
Network Layer 4-84

42
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and link state
datagram networks distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
datagram format RIP
IPv4 addressing OSPF
ICMP BGP
IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-85

Distance vector algorithm

Bellman-Ford equation (dynamic programming)

let
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y
then
dx(y) = min
v
{c(x,v) + dv(y) }

cost from neighbor v to destination y

cost to neighbor v

min taken over all neighbors v of x

Network Layer 4-86

43
Bellman-Ford example
5
clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v 3 w
2 5
u 2 z B-F equation says:
1
3
1 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
x y 2
1 c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
node achieving minimum is next
hop in shortest path, used in forwarding table
Network Layer 4-87

Distance vector algorithm

Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to y
x maintains distance vector Dx = [Dx(y): y є N ]
node x:
knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v)
maintains its neighbors’ distance vectors. For
each neighbor v, x maintains
Dv = [Dv(y): y є N ]

Network Layer 4-88

44
Distance vector algorithm
key idea:
from time-to-time, each node sends its own
distance vector estimate to neighbors
when x receives new DV estimate from neighbor,
it updates its own DV using B-F equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

under minor, natural conditions, the estimate Dx(y)

converge to the actual least cost dx(y)

Network Layer 4-89

Distance vector algorithm

iterative, asynchronous: each node:
each local iteration
caused by:
local link cost change wait for (change in local link
cost or msg from neighbor)
DV update message from
neighbor
distributed: recompute estimates
each node notifies
neighbors only when its
DV changes if DV to any dest has
neighbors then notify their changed, notify neighbors
neighbors if necessary

Network Layer 4-90

45
 Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to
table x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3

from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
from

z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0

node y cost to
table x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞
x z
from

y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞

node z cost to
table x y z
x ∞∞ ∞
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-91

Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
node x cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1
from

y 2 0 1
from

z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y cost to cost to cost to
table x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from

y 2 0 1 7
from

z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0

node z cost to cost to cost to

table x y z x y z x y z

x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from

y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
from

y ∞∞ ∞
z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-92

46
 Distance vector: link cost changes
link cost changes:
1
node detects local link cost change y
4 1
updates routing info, recalculates x z
distance vector 50
if DV changes, notify neighbors

“good t0 : y detects link-cost change, updates its DV, informs its

news neighbors.
travels t1 : z receives update from y, updates its table, computes new
fast” least cost to x , sends its neighbors its DV.

t2 : y receives z’s update, updates its distance table. y’s least costs
do not change, so y does not send a message to z.

Network Layer 4-93

Distance vector: link cost changes

link cost changes:
60
node detects local link cost change y
4 1
bad news travels slow - “count to x z
infinity” problem! 50
44 iterations before algorithm
stabilizes: see text
poisoned reverse:
If Z routes through Y to get to X :
Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is infinite (so Y won’t route
to X via Z)
will this completely solve count to infinity problem?

Network Layer 4-94

47
Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
message complexity robustness: what happens if
LS: with n nodes, E links, O(nE) router malfunctions?
msgs sent LS:
DV: exchange between neighbors node can advertise incorrect
only link cost
convergence time varies each node computes only its
own table
speed of convergence DV:
LS: O(n2) algorithm requires
O(nE) msgs DV node can advertise
incorrect path cost
may have oscillations
each node’s table used by
DV: convergence time varies others
may be routing loops • error propagate thru
count-to-infinity problem network

Network Layer 4-95

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and link state
datagram networks distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
datagram format RIP
IPv4 addressing OSPF
ICMP BGP
IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-96

48
Hierarchical routing
our routing study thus far - idealization
all routers identical
network “flat”
… not true in practice

scale: with 600 million administrative autonomy

destinations: internet = network of
can’t store all dest’s in networks
routing tables! each network admin may
routing table exchange want to control routing in
would swamp links! its own network

Network Layer 4-97

Hierarchical routing
aggregate routers into gateway router:
regions, “autonomous at “edge” of its own AS
systems” (AS) has link to router in
routers in same AS another AS
run same routing
protocol
“intra-AS” routing
protocol
routers in different AS
can run different intra-
AS routing protocol

Network Layer 4-98

49
Interconnected ASes

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b AS1
1d forwarding table
configured by both intra-
and inter-AS routing
Intra-AS Inter-AS algorithm
Routing Routing
algorithm algorithm intra-AS sets entries
Forwarding
for internal dests
table inter-AS & intra-AS
sets entries for
external dests
Network Layer 4-99

Inter-AS tasks
suppose router in AS1 AS1 must:
receives datagram 1. learn which dests are
destined outside of AS1: reachable through AS2,
router should forward which through AS3
packet to gateway 2. propagate this
router, but which one? reachability info to all
routers in AS1
job of inter-AS routing!

3c
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-100

50
 Example: setting forwarding table in router 1d
suppose AS1 learns (via inter-AS protocol) that subnet x
reachable via AS3 (gateway 1c), but not via AS2
inter-AS protocol propagates reachability info to all internal
routers
router 1d determines from intra-AS routing info that its
interface I is on the least cost path to 1c
installs forwarding table entry (x,I)

3c
x
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-101

Example: choosing among multiple ASes

now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that subnet

x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine
which gateway it should forward packets towards for dest x
this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!

3c
x
3a
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d
?
Network Layer 4-102

51
 Example: choosing among multiple ASes
now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that subnet
x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine
towards which gateway it should forward packets for dest x
this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!
hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of two
routers.

use routing info determine from

learn from inter-AS hot potato routing: forwarding table the
from intra-AS
protocol that subnet choose the gateway interface I that leads
protocol to determine
x is reachable via that has the to least-cost gateway.
costs of least-cost
multiple gateways smallest least cost Enter (x,I) in
paths to each
of the gateways forwarding table

Network Layer 4-103

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and link state
datagram networks distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
datagram format RIP
IPv4 addressing OSPF
ICMP BGP
IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-104

52
Intra-AS Routing
also known as interior gateway protocols (IGP)
most common intra-AS routing protocols:
RIP: Routing Information Protocol
OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(Cisco proprietary)

Network Layer 4-105

RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)

included in BSD-UNIX distribution in 1982
distance vector algorithm
distance metric: # hops (max = 15 hops), each link has cost 1
DVs exchanged with neighbors every 30 sec in response message (aka
advertisement)
each advertisement: list of up to 25 destination subnets (in IP addressing
sense)

from router A to destination subnets:

u v subnet hops
w u 1
A B
v 2
w 2
x x 3
z C D y 3
y z 2
Network Layer 4-106

53
RIP: example

z
w x y
A D B

C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-107

RIP: example
A-to-D advertisement
dest next hops
w - 1
x - 1
z C 4
…. … ... z
w x y
A D B

C
routing table in router D
destination subnet next router # hops to dest
w A 2
y B 2
A 5
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Network Layer 4-108

54
RIP: link failure, recovery
if no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
routes via neighbor invalidated
new advertisements sent to neighbors
neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if tables
changed)
link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire net
poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops (infinite
distance = 16 hops)

Network Layer 4-109

RIP table processing

RIP routing tables managed by application-level
process called route-d (daemon)
advertisements sent in UDP packets, periodically
repeated
routed routed

transport transprt
(UDP) (UDP)
network forwarding forwarding network
(IP) table table (IP)
link link
physical physical

Network Layer 4-110

55
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
“open”: publicly available
uses link state algorithm
LS packet dissemination
topology map at each node
route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm
OSPF advertisement carries one entry per neighbor
advertisements flooded to entire AS
carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather than
TCP or UDP
IS-IS routing protocol: nearly identical to OSPF

Network Layer 4-111

OSPF “advanced” features (not in RIP)

security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to prevent
malicious intrusion)
multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path in
RIP)
for each link, multiple cost metrics for different TOS
(e.g., satellite link cost set “low” for best effort ToS;
high for real time ToS)
integrated uni- and multicast support:
Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology data
base as OSPF
hierarchical OSPF in large domains.

Network Layer 4-112

56
Hierarchical OSPF
boundary router
backbone router

backbone
area
border
routers

area 3

internal
routers
area 1
area 2

Network Layer 4-113

Hierarchical OSPF
two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
link-state advertisements only in area
each nodes has detailed area topology; only know
direction (shortest path) to nets in other areas.
area border routers: “summarize” distances to nets in
own area, advertise to other Area Border routers.
backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.

Network Layer 4-114

57
 Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto
inter-domain routing protocol
“glue that holds the Internet together”
BGP provides each AS a means to:
eBGP: obtain subnet reachability information from
neighboring ASs.
iBGP: propagate reachability information to all AS-
internal routers.
determine “good” routes to other networks based on
reachability information and policy.
allows subnet to advertise its existence to rest of
Internet: “I am here”
Network Layer 4-115

BGP basics
BGP session: two BGP routers (“peers”) exchange BGP
messages:
advertising paths to different destination network prefixes (“path vector”
protocol)
exchanged over semi-permanent TCP connections

when AS3 advertises a prefix to AS1:

AS3 promises it will forward datagrams towards that prefix
AS3 can aggregate prefixes in its advertisement

3c
BGP
3a message
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-116

58
BGP basics: distributing path information
using eBGP session between 3a and 1c, AS3 sends prefix
reachability info to AS1.
1c can then use iBGP do distribute new prefix info to all routers
in AS1
1b can then re-advertise new reachability info to AS2 over 1b-to-
2a eBGP session
when router learns of new prefix, it creates entry for
prefix in its forwarding table.

eBGP session
3a iBGP session
3b
AS3 2c other
1c 2a networks
other 1a 2b
networks 1b AS2
AS1 1d

Network Layer 4-117

Path attributes and BGP routes

advertised prefix includes BGP attributes
prefix + attributes = “route”
two important attributes:
AS-PATH: contains ASs through which prefix
advertisement has passed: e.g., AS 67, AS 17
NEXT-HOP: indicates specific internal-AS router to next-
hop AS. (may be multiple links from current AS to next-
hop-AS)
gateway router receiving route advertisement uses
import policy to accept/decline
e.g., never route through AS x
policy-based routing

Network Layer 4-118

59
BGP route selection
router may learn about more than 1 route to
destination AS, selects route based on:
1. local preference value attribute: policy decision
2. shortest AS-PATH
3. closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
4. additional criteria

Network Layer 4-119

BGP messages
BGP messages exchanged between peers over TCP
connection
BGP messages:
OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and authenticates
sender
UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws old)
KEEPALIVE: keeps connection alive in absence of
UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg; also
used to close connection

Network Layer 4-120

60
BGP routing policy
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

A,B,C are provider networks

X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
X does not want to route from B via X to C
.. so X will not advertise to B a route to C

Network Layer 4-121

BGP routing policy (2)

legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

A advertises path AW to B
B advertises path BAW to X
Should B advertise path BAW to C?
No way! B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAW since neither W nor
C are B’s customers
B wants to force C to route to w via A
B wants to route only to/from its customers!

Network Layer 4-122

61
Why different Intra-, Inter-AS routing ?
policy:
inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic
routed, who routes through its net.
intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions needed
scale:
hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update
traffic
performance:
intra-AS: can focus on performance
inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance

Network Layer 4-123

Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and link state
datagram networks distance vector
4.3 what’s inside a router hierarchical routing
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol 4.6 routing in the Internet
datagram format RIP
IPv4 addressing OSPF
ICMP BGP
IPv6 4.7 broadcast and multicast
routing

Network Layer 4-124

62
Broadcast routing
deliver packets from source to all other nodes
source duplication is inefficient:
duplicate
duplicate R1 creation/transmission R1
duplicate
R2 R2

R3 R4 R3 R4

source in-network
duplication duplication

source duplication: how does source determine

recipient addresses?
Network Layer 4-125

In-network duplication
flooding: when node receives broadcast packet,
sends copy to all neighbors
problems: cycles & broadcast storm
controlled flooding: node only broadcasts pkt if it
hasn’t broadcast same packet before
node keeps track of packet ids already broadacsted
or reverse path forwarding (RPF): only forward packet
if it arrived on shortest path between node and source
spanning tree:
no redundant packets received by any node

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63
Spanning tree
first construct a spanning tree
nodes then forward/make copies only along
spanning tree

A A

B B
c c

D D
F E F E

G G
(a) broadcast initiated at A (b) broadcast initiated at D

Network Layer 4-127

Spanning tree: creation

center node
each node sends unicast join message to center
node
message forwarded until it arrives at a node already
belonging to spanning tree

A A
3
B B
c c
4
2
D D
F E F E
1 5
G G
(a) stepwise construction of (b) constructed spanning
spanning tree (center: E) tree
Network Layer 4-128

64
Multicast routing: problem statement
goal: find a tree (or trees) connecting routers having
local mcast group members legend
tree: not all paths between routers used group
shared-tree: same tree used by all group members member
not group
source-based: different tree from each sender to rcvrs member
router
with a
group
member
router
without
group
member

shared tree source-based trees

Network Layer 4-129

Approaches for building mcast trees

approaches:
source-based tree: one tree per source
shortest path trees
reverse path forwarding
group-shared tree: group uses one tree
minimal spanning (Steiner)
center-based trees

…we first look at basic approaches, then specific protocols

adopting these approaches

Network Layer 4-130

65
Shortest path tree
mcast forwarding tree: tree of shortest path
routes from source to all receivers
Dijkstra’s algorithm

s: source LEGEND
R1 2 router with attached
1 R4
group member
R2 5 router with no attached
3 4 group member
R5
i link used for forwarding,
R3 6
i indicates order link
R6 R7 added by algorithm

Network Layer 4-131

Reverse path forwarding

rely on router’s knowledge of unicast shortest

path from it to sender
each router has simple forwarding behavior:

if (mcast datagram received on incoming link on

shortest path back to center)
then flood datagram onto all outgoing links
else ignore datagram

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66
Reverse path forwarding: example
s: source LEGEND
R1
R4 router with attached
group member
R2
router with no attached
R5 group member
R3 datagram will be forwarded
R6 R7
datagram will not be
forwarded

result is a source-specific reverse SPT

may be a bad choice with asymmetric links

Network Layer 4-133

Reverse path forwarding: pruning

forwarding tree contains subtrees with no mcast group
members
no need to forward datagrams down subtree
“prune” msgs sent upstream by router with no
downstream group members
s: source
LEGEND
R1
R4
router with attached
group member
R2
P
router with no attached
R5 group member
P
R3 P prune message
R6 links with multicast
R7 forwarding

Network Layer 4-134

67
Shared-tree: steiner tree

steiner tree: minimum cost tree connecting all

routers with attached group members
problem is NP-complete
excellent heuristics exists
not used in practice:
computational complexity
information about entire network needed
monolithic: rerun whenever a router needs to
join/leave

Network Layer 4-135

Center-based trees
single delivery tree shared by all
one router identified as “center” of tree
to join:
edge router sends unicast join-msg addressed to center
router
join-msg “processed” by intermediate routers and
forwarded towards center
join-msg either hits existing tree branch for this center,
or arrives at center
path taken by join-msg becomes new branch of tree for
this router

Network Layer 4-136

68
Center-based trees: example
suppose R6 chosen as center:

LEGEND

R1 router with attached

R4
3 group member

R2 router with no attached

2 group member
1
R5 path order in which join
messages generated
R3
1 R6
R7

Network Layer 4-137

Internet Multicasting Routing: DVMRP

DVMRP: distance vector multicast routing

protocol, RFC1075
flood and prune: reverse path forwarding, source-
based tree
RPF tree based on DVMRP’s own routing tables
constructed by communicating DVMRP routers
no assumptions about underlying unicast
initial datagram to mcast group flooded everywhere
via RPF
routers not wanting group: send upstream prune msgs

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69
DVMRP: continued…
soft state: DVMRP router periodically (1 min.)
“forgets” branches are pruned:
mcast data again flows down unpruned branch
downstream router: reprune or else continue to receive
data
routers can quickly regraft to tree
following IGMP join at leaf
odds and ends
commonly implemented in commercial router

Network Layer 4-139

Tunneling
Q: how to connect “islands” of multicast routers in a
“sea” of unicast routers?

physical topology logical topology

mcast datagram encapsulated inside “normal” (non-

multicast-addressed) datagram
normal IP datagram sent thru “tunnel” via regular IP unicast
to receiving mcast router (recall IPv6 inside IPv4 tunneling)
receiving mcast router unencapsulates to get mcast
datagram
Network Layer 4-140

70
PIM: Protocol Independent Multicast
not dependent on any specific underlying unicast
routing algorithm (works with all)
two different multicast distribution scenarios :

dense: sparse:
group members densely # networks with group
packed, in “close” members small wrt #
proximity. interconnected networks
bandwidth more plentiful group members “widely
dispersed”
bandwidth not plentiful

Network Layer 4-141

Consequences of sparse-dense dichotomy:

dense sparse:
group membership by no membership until routers
routers assumed until explicitly join
routers explicitly prune receiver- driven construction
data-driven construction on of mcast tree (e.g., center-
mcast tree (e.g., RPF) based)
bandwidth and non-group- bandwidth and non-group-
router processing profligate router processing conservative

Network Layer 4-142

71
PIM- dense mode
flood-and-prune RPF: similar to DVMRP but…
underlying unicast protocol provides RPF info
for incoming datagram
less complicated (less efficient) downstream
flood than DVMRP reduces reliance on
underlying routing algorithm
has protocol mechanism for router to detect it
is a leaf-node router

Network Layer 4-143

PIM - sparse mode

center-based approach
router sends join msg to R1
R4
rendezvous point (RP) join
intermediate routers R2
update state and join
forward join R5
join
after joining via RP, router R3
can switch to source- R6
specific tree R7
all data multicast rendezvous
increased from rendezvous point
performance: less point
concentration, shorter
paths

Network Layer 4-144

72
PIM - sparse mode
sender(s):
R1
unicast data to RP, R4
join
which distributes
down RP-rooted tree R2
join
RP can extend mcast R5
tree upstream to R3
join

source R6
RP can send stop msg all data multicast R7
rendezvous
if no attached from rendezvous
point
point
receivers
“no one is listening!”

Network Layer 4-145

Chapter 4: done!
4.1 introduction 4.5 routing algorithms
4.2 virtual circuit and link state, distance vector,
datagram networks hierarchical routing
4.3 what’s inside a router 4.6 routing in the Internet
RIP, OSPF, BGP
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
datagram format, IPv4
4.7 broadcast and multicast
addressing, ICMP, IPv6 routing

understand principles behind network layer services:

network layer service models, forwarding versus routing
how a router works, routing (path selection), broadcast,
multicast
instantiation, implementation in the Internet

Network Layer 4-146

73