CE321 STRUCTURAL DESIGN II TO EUROCODE III CHAPTER I

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Design requirements for steel structures

The principal design requirement of a structure is that it should be effective; that is, it should fulfil the objectives
and satisfy the needs for which it was created. The structure may provide shelter and protection against the
environment by enclosing space, as in buildings; or it may provide access for people and materials, as in bridges; or
it may store materials, as in tanks and silos; or it may form part of a machine for transporting people or materials,
as in vehicles, or for operating on materials. The design requirement of effectiveness is paramount, as there is little
point in considering a structure which will not fulfil its purpose.
The satisfaction of the effectiveness requirement depends on whether the structure satisfies the structural and
other requirements.
 The structural requirements relate to the way in which the structure resists and transfers the forces and loads
acting on it. The primary structural requirement is that of safety, and the first consideration of the structural
engineer is to produce a structure which will not fail in its design lifetime, or which has an acceptably low risk of
failure.
 The other important structural requirement is usually concerned with the stiffness of the structure, which must be
sufficient to ensure that the serviceability of the structure is not impaired by excessive deflections, vibrations, and
the like.
The other design requirements include those of economy and of harmony.
 The cost of the structure, which includes both the initial cost and the cost of maintenance, is usually of great
importance to the owner, and the requirement of economy usually has a significant influence on the design of the
structure. The cost of the structure is affected not only by the type and quantity of the materials used, but also by
the methods of fabricating and erecting it. The designer must therefore give careful consideration to the methods of
construction as well as to the sizes of the members of the structure.
 The requirements of harmony within the structure are affected by the relationships between the different systems
of the structure, including the load resistance and transfer system (the structural system), the architectural system,
the mechanical and electrical systems, and the functional systems required by the use of the structure. The
serviceability of the structure is usually directly affected by the harmony, or lack of it, between the systems. The
structure should also be in harmony with its environment, and should not react unfavourably with either the
community or its physical surroundings.

1.2 Code of Practice to be used

Eurocode 3 has 12 sub-parts; of these only 3 parts shall be used.
Part 1:1 General Rules and Rules for Building. This offers guidance on bending and shear.
Part 1:5 Plated Structural Elements. It is for web and stiffener design.
Part 1:8 Design of Joints.

1.3 Comparison between Euro code 3 and BS 5950

1. Structure
The organization of material in EC3 is quite different from that in BS 5950.
 BS 5950 contains separate sections on the design of different types of elements in the building structure e.g.
beams, columns and connections.
 EC3 divides the material on the basis of design criteria e.g. deflection, tension, compression, bending, shear,
and buckling, which may apply to any element.
2. Principles and Applications [Cl. 1.4, EC 3]
The clauses in EC3 have been divided into principles and application rules.
 Principles comprise general statements, definitions, requirements and analytical methods for which there is
no permitted alternative. Principles are indicated by letter P after clause number.
 Application rules are generally recognized rules which satisfy the requirements given in the principles, but
for which EC3 permits the use of alternative application rules to those recommended by the code. All
clauses without letter P are application rules.

3. Symbols [Cl. 1.6, EC 3]

A number of symbols in EC3 are different from those in BS 5950. These symbols are defined in clause 1.6.
For example,
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 Elastic and plastic moduli above the major axis are defined by:
Wel, y and Wpl, y in EC3
Z xx and s xx in BS 5950
 The elastic and plastic moduli above the minor axis are denoted by:
Wel, z and Wpl, z in EC3
Z yy and s yy in BS 5950

4. Member Axes [Cl. 1.6.7, EC 3]

Member axes for commonly used steel members are shown in Fig.1. This system is different from that used in BS
5950.
The X-X axis is along the member.
The Y-Y axis is along the major axis, and the Z-Z axis is along the minor axis.

Fig.1 Member definitions and axes used in EC 3 (NB symbols in parentheses denote symbols used in BS 5950).

1.4 Basis of Design [Cl. 2, EC 3]

EC3 uses limit state principles and for design purposes considers the two principal categories of limit states:
ultimate and serviceability. In addition, there is a separate (third) limit state of durability.
These are three limit states.
i) Ultimate limit sate.
ii) The Serviceability limit state.
iii) Durability.

1. The ultimate limit states.

These consider limit states associated with collapse or with other forms of structural failure which may endanger
the safety of people.
Based on the recommendations given in clauses 3.2 and 3.3 of EN 1990, the ultimate limit states relevant to steel
structures and components are:
(1) static equilibrium of the structure
(2) rupture, excessive deformation of a member, transformation of the structure into a mechanism
(3) instability induced by second order effects, e.g. lack of fit, thermal effects, sway
(4) fatigue
(5) accidental damage, e.g. exposure to fire, explosion and impact.

2. The serviceability limit states

These are limit states beyond which specified service criteria, foe example the functioning of the structure or
member, the comfort of people and appearance of the structure, are no longer met.
The principal serviceability limit states recommended in EC 3 are listed below:

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(1). Deformations, e.g. vertical and horizontal deflections which cause damage to finishes or non-structural
elements such as partitions and cladding, or adversely affect the comfort of people or appearance of the
structure.
(2). Dynamic effects, e.g. vibration, oscillation or sway which causes discomfort to the occupants of a building
or damage to its contents.
3. Durability
A separate (third) category of durability is also mentioned in clause 4 of EC 3 which covers:
(1) the limit states of corrosion
(2) mechanical wear, and
(3) fatigue.
Of these, corrosion is generally viewed as the most critical issue for steel building structures and involves taking
into account the expected exposure conditions, the design working life of the structure, the composition and
properties of the steel, structural detailing and protective measures, amongst other factors (clause 2.4, EN 1990).
In the context of elemental design, the designer is principally concerned with the ultimate limit state of rupture (i.e.
strength) and the serviceability limit state of deflection. EC 3 requirements in respect of these two limit states will
be discussed later for individual element types.
Clauses 1.5.3 and 5.1 of EC 3 distinguishes between three types of frames used for building structures and
associated joint behaviour:
(a) simple frames in which the joint are not required to resist moments, i.e. the joints are pinned and by implication
the structure is fully braced.
(b) continuous frames in which the joints are rigid (for elastic analysis) or full strength (for plastic analysis) and can
transmit all moments and forces.
(c) semi-continuous frames in which the actual strength of the joints is taken into account.
1.5 Actions [Cl. 2.3, EC 3]
‘Actions’ is Eurocode terminology for loads and imposed deformations. Dead and imposed loads are generally
referred to in EC3 as permanent and variable actions respectively.
Permanent action G k includes all fixed loads acting on the structure which can include self weight of the structure,
finishes, immovable partitions and fixtures.
Variable actions, Qk , include the imposed, wind and snow loads.

The codes of practice include:

 BS EN 1991-1:1- Densities, self weight, and variable (imposed) loads.
which has replaced
BS 843-densities and self weight.
BS 6399-imposed loads.
 BS EN 1991-1:3-Snow loads.
 BS EN 1991-1:4- wind loads.
Design value of an action [Cl. 2.4.1, EC 2/ Cl.6, EN 1990]
The design values of actions are obtained by multiplying the characteristic action by the appropriate partial safety
factors for actions.
For buildings, the partial safety factor for permanent actions ( G ) is 1.35 and variable actions ( Q ) is 1.5. The
corresponding values in BS5950 are 1.4 and 1.6 respectively.
For example:
Permanent  variable; 1.35G k  1.5Qk
Permanent  wind; 1.35Gk  1.5Wk
Permanent  variable  wind; 1.35Gk  1.5Qk  1.5Wk
1.6 Materials properties
1. Design strengths [Cl. 2.4.3, EC 3]
The design strengths, X d , are obtained by dividing the characteristic strengths, X k , which can be taken as
nominal values in calculations, by the material partial safety factor,  m , i.e.

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Xd  Xk /m
But this is in fact not used in EC 3. Instead, EC 3 divides the cross-section resistance, Rk , by a partial safety factor
to give the design resistance, Rd for the member, i.e.
Rd  Rk /  M
where R k is the characteristic value of partial resistance determined with characteristic values for material
properties and dimensions,  M is the partial safety factor for the resistance. Thus,  M in EC 3 is not the same as
 m in BS 5950. Here  m is applied to material strength;  M is applied to members or structures and takes account
of both material and modelling/geometric uncertainties.
2. Yield and ultimate strength [Cl. 3.2, EC 3]
The important mechanical properties of most structural steels under static load are indicated in the idealised tensile
stress–strain diagram shown in Figure 2.
Initially the steel has a linear stress–strain curve whose slope is the Young’s modulus of elasticity E. The values of
E vary in the range 200 000–210 000 N/mm2, and the approximate value of 205 000 N/mm2 is often assumed (EC3
uses 210 000 N/mm2). The steel remains elastic while in this linear range, and recovers perfectly on unloading. The
limit of the linear elastic behaviour is often closely approximated by the yield stress f y and the corresponding
yield strain  y  f y / E . Beyond this limit the steel flows plastically without any increase in stress until the strain-
hardening strain  st is reached. This plastic range is usually considerable, and accounts for the ductility of the steel.
The stress increases above the yield stress f y when the strain-hardening strain  st is exceeded, and this continues
until the ultimate tensile stress f u is reached. After this, large local reductions in the cross-section occur, and the
load capacity decreases until tensile fracture takes place.
The yield stress f y is perhaps the most important strength characteristic of a structural steel.

The strain-stress curve for steel is as follows.

Fig.2 Idealised stress-strain relationship for structural steel

It shows the position of yield strength f y and ultimate strength f u .
The yield and ultimate strengths are given in table 3.1 of EC3. They are the same as those in BS5950 except for
grade S235 used mainly in Europe.

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Table 1.1 Nominal values of yield strength, f y , and ultimate tensile
strength, f u , for structural steel to EN 10025-2 (Table 3.1, EC3)
Nominal thickness of the element t (mm)
Nominal steel t  16mm 16mm  t  40mm
grade
f y ( N / mm 2 ) f u ( N / mm2 ) f y ( N / mm 2 ) f u ( N / mm2 )
EN 10025-2
S235 235 360 235 360
S275 275 410 265 410
S355 355 470 345 470
S450 440 550 430 550

3. Partial safety factors,  M [Cl. 6.1, EC 3]

Values of the partial factor  M applied to characteristic values of resistance to obtain design resistances are given
in clause 6.1 of EC 3. The factor  M assumes different values depending on the type of resistance being verified as
indicated below:
– resistance of cross-sections whatever the class is:  M 0
– resistance of members to instability assessed by member checks:  M 1
– resistance of cross-sections in tension to fracture:  M 2
– resistance of joints: see (Cl. 2.2, EC 3–8) CHAPTER IV
Partial factors  Mi for buildings may be defined in the National Annex. The following numerical values are
recommended for buildings:
 M 0  1.0
 M 1  1.0
 M 2  1.25
4. Design values of material coefficients [Cl. 3.2.5, EC 3]
The material coefficients to be adopted in calculations for the structural steels covered by this Eurocode Part should
be taken as follows:
 Modulus of elasticity, E  210000N / mm 2
E
 Shear modulus, G   81000 N / mm 2
2(1   )
 Poisson’s ratio,   0.3
 Coefficient of linear thermal expansion,   12  10 6 per C
 Density,   7850Kg / m 3
5. Classification of cross-sections [Cl. 5.5, EC 3]
Typical cross-sections are shown in Fig.3 and Fig.4 shows the defining dimensions of Universal Beam (UB) and
Universal Column(UC) sections. Many useful section properties can be calculated from the dimensions of the
section and these are given in published tables.

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z
z z
Flange

y y
y y
Web
y y
Parallel
Universal Flange
Beam (UB)
z Universal
Column (UC) Channel
z
(PFC)
Flange
z
z
z z
v u
y y

Structural y y y y
Tee
z
z u v
z Asymmetric
Equal Angle
Beam (ASB)
z z z
v u

y y
y y y y

z
v
u z z
Rectangular Hollow Circular Hollow
Unequal Angle
Section (RHS) Section (CHS)

Note that in all cases the x-x axis is along the length of the beam
Fig. 3. Rolled steel sections: typical profiles and axis

z z
b b
c c
Flange Flange
tf tf
r r tw
tw
h hw y y d
h hw y y d Web

Web
Flange
z

Flange
z
(a) (b)
Fig. 4. Universal Beam(a) and Universal Column (b) sections: dimensions

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Local buckling and the classification of cross-sections

The web and flange of rolled steel sections are comparatively slender in relation to their length and breadth.
Consequently the compressive force induced in a beam by bending or compression could cause local buckling of
the web or flange before the full plastic stress is developed as illustrated in Figure 5. This is to be distinguished
from:
 Lateral torsional buckling (LTB) of the whole beam
 Web shear buckling
 Web buckling at supports

Fig.5 Flange and Web buckling

Local buckling may be avoid by reducing the stress capacity of the section, and hence its bending moment capacity,
if the slenderness of the web or the flange exceeds certain limits. For this purpose sections are divided into four
classes, with Class 1 being least susceptible to local buckling and Class 4 most susceptible.
Section classification serves to identify the extent to which the resistance and rotation capacity of the cross-section
is limited by its local buckling resistance. Four classes of cross-section are defined;

1) Class 1 cross-sections: (Plastic in BS 5950)

Class 1 cross-sections are those which can form a plastic hinge with the rotation capacity required from plastic
analysis without reduction of the resistance.
2) Class 2 cross-sections: (Compact in BS5950)
Class 2 cross-sections are those which can develop their plastic moment resistance, but have limited rotation
capacity because of local buckling.
3) Class 3 cross-sections: (Semi compact in BS5950)
Class 3 cross-sections are those in which the stress in the extreme compression fibre of the steel member
assuming an elastic distribution of stresses can reach the yield strength, but local buckling is liable to prevent
development of the plastic moment resistance.
4) Class 4 cross-sections: (Slender in BS5950)
Class 4 cross-sections are those in which local buckling will occur before the attainment of yield stress in one or
more parts of the cross-section.

If a high-strength steel is used then the stress needed to develop the full plastic strength is higher so local buckling failure is
more likely to occur before plastic failure. For this reason, the limits between the classes depend on f y , the yield
strength of the steel, and are determined using the  factor which is defined as
235

fy
The slenderness limits for the four classes are in table 1.2, which also indicates stress distributions at maximum
bending moment. The bending and compression limits for flanges are the same because in both cases the whole of a
flange is in compression. When the section is subject to bending only part of the web is in compression, while when

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the section is subject to compression the whole of the web is in compression. For this reason, the bending limits for
webs are higher than the compression limits for webs.

Table 1.2 Classification of cross-sections for bending and compression

Stress distribution at
Class Definition and limits
maximum bending moment
Class 1: Plastic. Sections which can form a plastic hinge with
Design bending resistance the rotation capacity required from plastic
M c , Rd  M pl , Rd  W pl f y /  m analysis without reduction of the resistance. fy
Flange outstand c / t f  9
fy
Web in bending d / t w  72
Web in compression d / t w  33
Class 2: Compact. Sections which can develop their plastic
Design bending resistance moment resistance, but have limited rotation
M c , Rd  M pl , Rd  W pl f y /  m capacity because of local buckling. fy
Flange outstand c / t f  10
fy
Web in bending d / t w  83
Web in compression d / t w  38
Class 3: Semi-Compact. Sections in which the extreme compression
Design bending resistance fibre can reach the yield strength, but local fy
M c ,Rd  M el ,Rd  Wel ,min f y /  m buckling may prevent development of the
plastic moment of resistance.
Flange outstand c / t f  14
Web in bending d / tw  124 fy
Web in compression d / t w  42
Class 4: Slender. Sections in which local buckling will occur
Design bending resistance before the yield stress is attained. less
than
M c,Rd  Weff ,min f y /  m Flange outstand c / t f  14 fy
Web in bending d / tw  124 less

d / t w  42
than
Web in compression fy

235 fy 255 265 275 335 345 355


fy  0.96 0.94 0.92 0.84 0.83 0.81
Example
Determine the section classifications for the following steel section:
(a) 553  210  138kg/m UB in grade S275 steel.
(b) 356  171  45 kg/m UB in grade S355 steel.

Solution (a): 553  210  138kg/m UB in grade S275 steel

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c =86.9mm

tf =23.6mm

t w =14.7mm

d =476.5mm

Fig.6-1 (a) of example

t f  40mm so, from table 1.1 and 1.2 f y  265 N / mm 2 and   0.94
Bending
 Flange check
c / t f  86.9 / 23.6  3.68
9  9  0.94  8.46
So c / t f  9 and flange class is Class 1 plastic.
 Web check
d / t w  476.5 / 14.7  32.4
72  72  0.94  67.7
So d / t w  72 and web class is Class 1 plastic.
Overall section class for bending is Class 1 plastic.
Compression
 Flange is Class 1 plastic (as above)
 Web check
d / t w  476.5 / 14.7  32.4 (as above)
33  33  0.94  31.0
38  38  0.94  35.7
So 33  d / t w  38 and web class is Class 2 compact.
Overall section class for compression is Class 2 compact.

Solution (b): 356  171  45 kg/m UB in grade S355 steel

c =71..9mm

tf =9.7mm

t w =7.0mm

d =311.6mm

Fig.6-2 (b) of example

t f  16mm so, from table 1.1 and 1.2 f y  355 N / mm 2 and   0.81
Bending

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 Flange check
c / t f  71.9 / 9.7  7.41
9  9  0.81  7.29, 10  10  0.81  8.1
So 9  c / t f  10 and flange class is Class 2 compact.
 Web check
d / t w  311.6 / 7.0  44.5
72  72  0.81  58.3
So d / t w  72 and web class is Class 1 plastic.
Overall section class for bending is Class 2 compact.
Compression
 Flange is Class 2 compact (as above)
 Web check
d / t w  311.6 / 7.0  44.5 (as above)
42  42  0.81  34.0
So 42  d / t w and web class is Class 4 slender.
Overall section class for compression is Class 4 slender.

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