Basic Electronics
Module 3
Electronic components- Passive and active components
ACTIVE COMPONENTS PASSIVE COMPONENT
Active components deliver power or energy to Passive elements utilizes power or energy
the circuit. from the circuit.
Diodes, Transistors, SCR, Integrated circuits Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor etc.
etc.
Devices which produce energy in the form of Devices which stores energy in the form of
voltage or current. voltage or current.
They are capable of providing power gain. They are incapable of providing power gain.
Active components can control the flow of Passive components cannot control the flow
current. of the current.
They require an external source for the They do not require any external source for
operations. the operations.
Active components are energy donor. Passive components are energy acceptor.
Resistors
A resistor is an electrical component that restricts the flow of electrical current in a circuit. The
property of a resistor to oppose current flow is called resistance.
Types:
1. Fixed Value Resistors
These are the predominant type of resistor configuration, and as the name suggests, they have a
fixed resistance value.
2. Variable Resistors
Variable resistors are resistors that can have their value changed either by turning a shaft or in
pre-set pots by a screwdriver.
Eg: potentiometers,rheostat etc
Resistor colour code
Resistors: Key Specifications
1. Resistance Value:
The primary characteristic, indicating the resistance in ohms (Ω) offered by the resistor.
2. Tolerance:
The allowable deviation from the nominal resistance value, expressed as a percentage.
3. Power Rating:
The maximum power the resistor can safely dissipate as heat, usually in watts (W).
4. Operating Temperature:
The temperature range within which the resistor can function without significant
performance degradation or damage.
5. Operating Voltage:
The maximum voltage the resistor can withstand continuously without arcing or failure. 6
6. Temperature Coefficient:
A measure of how much the resistance changes with temperature variations, often expressed
in parts per million per degree Celsius (ppm/°C).
Capacitors:
A capacitor is a passive, electrical component that has the property of storing electrical charge.
In basics, the capacitor consists of two electrodes, which are separated by a dielectric.
Capacitor key specifications
1. Capacitance (C):
● The nominal capacitance value is typically marked on the capacitor.
● Measured in farads (F), with common units being microfarads (µF), nanofarads (nF),
and picofarads (pF).
2. Voltage Rating (WVDC or Working Voltage):
● The maximum DC voltage the capacitor can withstand continuously.
● Also indicated as WV or Working Voltage, which is the continuous voltage (AC or DC)
that can be applied without failure.
● Surge voltage is the maximum voltage it can handle in short bursts.
3. Tolerance:
● The permissible deviation of the actual capacitance value from the nominal value.
● Usually expressed as a percentage.
4. Ripple Current Rating:
● The maximum amount of AC current the capacitor can handle without overheating.
● Overheating can damage the capacitor and shorten its lifespan.
5. Temperature Coefficient (TCC):
● The change in capacitance value with temperature.
● Important for applications where temperature variations occur.
Insulators
PN junction diode
A PN junction diode is a semiconductor device that allows current to flow in one
direction only. It is made by joining two pieces of semiconductor material with opposite
types of doping.
The P-type material has a majority of holes, while the N-type material has a majority of
electrons.
Applns: Rectifiers, Clippers, clampers etc
When the two materials are joined, the electrons from the N-type material diffuse into the
P-type material and form immobile ions. Similarly the holes from the P-type material
diffuse into the N-type material and form immobile ions. These immobile ions create a
barrier also called depletion region , or space charge region.
This depletion region prevents further recombination of electrons and holes.
The potential developed across this region is called barrier potential or depletion
potential , or space charge potential or cut in voltage.
barrier potential = 0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge.
Working of PN Junction Diode
For the working of PN junction diodes, an external voltage is applied to the diode
terminals.
Biasing Conditions of PN Junction Diode
Connecting an external voltage source to the circuit is called [Link] biasing
conditions of a PN junction diode refer to the different ways .There are main biasing
conditions are:
● Forward bias: In forward bias, the positive terminal of the voltage source is
connected to the P-type material, and the negative terminal is connected to the
N-type material. This causes the depletion region to narrow, and current flows
easily through the [Link] applied voltage should be greater than barrier
potential
● Reverse bias: In reverse bias, the positive terminal of the voltage source is
connected to the N-type material, and the negative terminal is connected to the
P-type material. This causes the depletion region to widen, and current does not
flow through the diode ideally. But practically a small amount of current is
generated due to thermally generated minority carriers. This current is called
leakage current or reverse saturation [Link] leakage current is typically very
small, usually in the microampere range, and increases with temperature.
If the reverse voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage, the diode can conduct significantly,
leading to [Link] breakdown is called avalanche breakdown. Avalanche
breakdown: If the reverse biased voltage increases the thermally generated minority
carriers gets accelerated and collide with the valance electrons in other orbits. These
valance electrons are also set free and get accelerated and dislodge more electrons. This
process is cumulative. So when breakdown voltage is reached, the reverse current
increase sharply.
Rectifiers and power supplies
Working of a full wave bridge rectifier
Voltage regulator
Line and load regulation of zener voltage regulator:
Line and load regulation in a Zener diode voltage regulator refer to the ability of the
circuit to maintain a stable output voltage despite changes in input voltage (line
regulation) or changes in the load connected to the output (load regulation).
Line Regulation:
Line regulation measures the change in output voltage when the input voltage to the
regulator changes. Ideally, a Zener diode regulator should maintain a constant
output voltage even when the input voltage fluctuates, resulting in perfect line
regulation (0% change).
Line regulation is typically calculated as the percentage change in output voltage
divided by the change in input voltage.
Load Regulation:
Load regulation measures the change in output voltage when the load resistance
connected to the regulator changes.A good Zener diode regulator should
maintain a constant output voltage regardless of changes in the load, resulting in
perfect load regulation (0% change).
Load regulation is typically calculated as the percentage change in output voltage
divided by the change in load current.
Digital Electronics: -Binary number system, Boolean algebra and Logic Gates, Universal gates
There are generally various types of number systems, and among them, the four major
ones are,
● Binary Number System (Number system with Base 2)
● Octal Number System (Number system with Base 8)
● Decimal Number System (Number system with Base 10)
● Hexadecimal Number System (Number system with Base 16)
The Binary Number System uses two digits, ‘0′ and ‘1’, and is the foundation for all
modern computing.
In the Binary Number System, we have a base of 2. The base of the Binary Number
System is also called the radix of the number system.
Conversion of Decimal to Binary for Mixed Number
To convert a decimal mixed number into the binary number, the same approach is used, as was
done in integer and fractional parts of the number. Consider the decimal number 13.40.
The binary equivalent of 13 is 1101, and the binary equivalent of 0.40 is. 011001. Therefore
1101.011001 is the required binary number.
Logic gates:
The logic gate is the most basic building block of any digital system, including computers. Each
one of the basic logic gates is a piece of hardware or an electronic circuit that can be used to
implement some basic logic expression.
While laws of Boolean algebra could be used to do manipulation with binary variables and
simplify logic expressions, these are actually implemented in a digital system with the help of
electronic circuits called logic gates.
The three basic logic gates are the OR gate, the AND gate and the NOT gate.
Universal gates:
NOR gates and NAND gates are called universal gates because they can be used to construct
all other – logic gates like AND, OR & NOT.
LOGIC GATES
\
Realization of boolean expression
Amplifiers: - Transistor as an amplifier, Block diagram of Public
Address system
Transistor as an amplifier
● Amplification is a process of increasing the signal strength by increasing the
amplitude of a given signal with out changing its characteristics.
● The input signal may be a current signal, voltage signal or a power signal;
amplifier will amplify the signal without changing its characteristics.
● Applications of amplifier are of wide range, they are mainly used in
communications, controllers, audio and video instruments etc.
● If transistor wants to works as an amplifier we should make the transistor to work
in active region which lies between the saturation and cutoff region.
● Transistor can be used as amplifier in the following three configurations.
1. Common Base configuration (CB): in the CB configuration we will connect base
of the transistor to ground, which has very low input impedance which will give
very low output impedance with very low amplification. Gain for this
configuration will be very low.
2. Common Collector configuration (CC): in this configuration collector is
connected to ground, we have low output impedance for high input impedance
and gain for this configuration is very good when compared to CB configuration.
3. Common Emitter configuration (CE): in this configuration emitter is connected
to ground and we will have input impedance will be high, output impedance will
be medium and gain will be high.
Note: Most of amplification circuits uses CE configuration because it has high
gain and high input impedance
In transistor as an amplifier circuit, the common emitter configuration usually used. The
first half of BJT means Emitter-Base is forward biased and next halt of BJT means
Collector emitter is reverse biased. Vs is the ac signal which is amplified. The resistor RB
is used to limit the base current. The resistor Rc is connected to collector terminal which
is acting as a load.
Why biasing?
The process of connecting external DC voltage source to the transistor thereby making it
operate in active mode.
Thus biasing is done to establish and stabilize the operating point (Q-point ie;output
voltage and current) of the transistor.
Since CE amplifier is used, VCE and Ic are the Q point or quiescent point.
Coupling Capacitors (C1, C2): These capacitors block DC voltage while allowing AC
signals to pass through, effectively coupling the signal to the input and output stages.
Block diagram of Public Address system
A Public Address System (PA system) is a collection of equipment designed to enhance
sound for a large or dispersed audience. It often consists of microphones, amplifiers,
loudspeakers, and other related equipment. Public areas with PA systems include
stadiums, airports, train stations, shopping malls, schools, and offices. They are used to
make announcements, broadcast music, provide emergency messages, and facilitate
communication among big groups of people. PA systems can be wired or wireless, and
their size and complexity vary according to the needs of the venue or event.
● Microphone: The microphone is an input device that converts sound waves to
electrical signals. It records the voice or other audio sources and transmits the
electrical signals to the mixer.
● Mixer: The mixer integrates audio signals from microphones, instruments, and
other sources. It lets you to change the volume, equalization, and mixing of
several audio sources before sending the combined signal to the amplifier.
● Voltage Amplifier: After the mixer combines the audio signal, the voltage
amplifier raises the voltage level of the signal. The weak electrical signals are
amplified in this stage so they can be processed further.
● Processing Circuit: A variety of parts, including equalizers, compressors, limiters,
and effects processors, may be a part of the processing circuit. Depending on the
needs, these parts modify the audio signal to improve its quality, change its tone,
or add special effects.
● Driver Amplifier: The processed audio signal is received by the driver amplifier,
which then amplifies it even more. It gets ready the signal so that enough power
can be applied to the loudspeakers.
● Power Amplifier: The audio signal must be amplified by the power amplifier to a
sufficient level for the loudspeakers to be powered. It increases the signal
strength to a point where it can generate sound at the targeted loudness.
● Loudspeaker: The output device that transforms the electrical signal into sound
waves once it has been amplified is the loudspeaker. When an electrical signal is
received, a diaphragm vibrates, producing audible sound waves that travel
through the atmosphere and are perceived by the audience.
**—----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------**