Chapter 2 — Cell: The Building Block of Life

Class 9 Science | Complete Notes with All Activities, Intext Questions & Exercise Answers

1. Introduction — The World of Cells

Life is believed to have originated in water. Some researchers think life began in small water
pools with changing environmental conditions. Hot springs like those of Puga Valley in Ladakh
(which maintain temperatures near the boiling point of water) may have resembled early Earth
conditions from 3.5 billion years ago. The organisms in such hot springs are heat-loving bacteria
called thermophiles, which are unicellular.
Scientists from the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences, Lucknow, studied these hot springs
and found that calcium carbonate formed around them, possibly protecting early organic
molecules and helping form the first protective membrane — the barrier that defines a cell.
All living organisms are made up of cells. The cell represents the basic level at which life exists.
Some organisms (like bacteria, yeast, Amoeba) consist of only ONE cell — these are unicellular.
Others (like plants, fish, birds, humans) are made of millions of cells that work together — these
are multicellular.
A group of similar cells performing similar functions forms tissues. Different tissues form organs,
and organs form organ systems (e.g., nasal pores, nasal cavity, trachea, and lungs form the
respiratory system). Even so, the cell remains the fundamental unit of structure and function.

🔍 Think It Over — Chapter Opening Questions

– Where does a cell come from?
– How have technological interventions helped create new knowledge in
understanding the world beyond the naked eye?
– How is the cell the structural and functional unit of life?
– How does a cell multiply?

2. Section 2.1 — How to Study Cells?

2.1 Limit of Resolution
The limit of resolution of the human eye is 0.1 mm (viewed from about 25 cm). This means two
points closer than 0.1 mm cannot be seen as separate — they appear as one point. Because
most cells are much smaller than 0.1 mm, we need microscopes to see them.

• Light Microscope: Uses visible light and glass lenses (objective lens + eyepiece). Uses
different objective lenses (10X, 40X) to achieve better magnification. Found in school labs.
Can magnify up to about 1000X.
• Electron Microscope: Uses a beam of electrons instead of light to produce highly
magnified images at the nanometre scale (1 nanometre = one-billionth of a metre).
Reveals fine details of cell structure. Used by scientists for research.
• Magnification: Making an object appear larger than its actual size.
• Resolution: The measure of clarity — the ability to see fine details clearly.

🔍 Activity 2.1 — Let us estimate the size of a cell

 Aim: To estimate the actual size of an onion peel cell using a microscope
Steps:
1. Take a transparent ruler with millimetre (mm) markings.
2. Place the ruler on the stage of a microscope. Focus on it using the adjustment
knob.
3. Observe the diameter of the circular field of view through the eyepiece and
measure it in mm.
4. Convert the diameter from mm to micrometre (μm). [1 mm = 1000 μm]. Suppose
the diameter is 5 mm = 5000 μm.
5. Remove the ruler and place an onion peel slide on the stage.
6. Focus on the slide and count the number of cells along the diameter in one
straight line.
7. Use the formula to estimate the size of one cell.
Observation & Conclusion:
– Formula: Estimated size of cell = Diameter of visible field (μm) ÷ Number of
cells along the diameter
– Example: If 25 cells are seen along diameter of 5000 μm → size of one cell =
5000÷25 = 200 μm
– If the cell size is 200 μm, with 100X magnification it will appear 100 × 200 μm
= 20,000 μm (2 cm) large.
– This shows that a microscope can magnify cells hundreds of times, making
them visible and measurable.

3. Section 2.2 — Structure of a Cell

Cells must interact with each other and with their surroundings to function. These interactions
occur at the cell boundary — the cell membrane. Even single-celled organisms exchange
materials and respond to their environment through the cell membrane.

3.1 Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane) — The Universal Feature of a Cell

The cell membrane is a thin boundary that surrounds a cell and protects its contents. It defines
the individuality of a cell. Also called the plasma membrane.

• Selectively permeable: Allows some substances to pass through while blocking others.
• Thickness: Extremely thin — about 7 to 10 nanometres (nm) thick.
• Composition: Made up of lipids (fats) and proteins.
• Structure — Fluid-Mosaic Model (Fig. 2.7):
– The membrane has a lipid bilayer — two layers of special fat molecules with water-
attracting heads pointing outward and water-repelling tails pointing inward.
– Proteins are embedded in this lipid bilayer.
– The molecules can move sideways, flip and rotate within the membrane — hence it is
called FLUID.
– Since molecules are arranged like tiles in a mosaic pattern — it is called MOSAIC.
– Proteins in the membrane act like gatekeepers — they help substances pass through.
• Function: Controls movement of substances in and out of the cell. Helps in
communication between neighbouring cells.
Osmosis and Diffusion — Movement across the Cell Membrane
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a higher concentration to a lower concentration
(occurs even without a membrane). Osmosis is the diffusion of WATER across a selectively
permeable membrane.

• Osmosis: Movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of

MORE water (dilute solution) to an area of LESS water (concentrated solution) until
concentrations become equal.
• Example: Plants absorb water from soil through root cells by osmosis.

Type of Solution Effect on Cell Example

Hypotonic (dilute Cell gains water → SWELLS or may Pure water surrounding a cell
outside) Solute conc. burst
outside < inside

Isotonic (equal conc.) No net movement of water → cell stays 0.9% NaCl for human cells
Solute conc. outside = SAME SIZE
inside

Hypertonic Cell loses water → SHRINKS 20% salt or sugar solution

(concentrated
outside) Solute conc.
outside > inside

🔍 Activity 2.2 — Let us experiment (Osmosis in Potato)

Aim: To demonstrate osmosis using potato pieces in different solutions
Steps:
8. Cut a potato into two pieces of roughly equal size.
9. Measure and record the initial weight of both pieces using a weighing balance.
10. Put one piece in Beaker A with plain water.
11. Put the other piece in Beaker B with 20 per cent salt or sugar solution.
12. Leave them undisturbed for about an hour or until a visible change in size is
seen.
13. Measure and record the final weight of each piece.
14. Calculate the difference between initial and final weights.
Observation & Conclusion:
– Beaker A (plain water): The potato piece SWELLS — it gains weight. Water
moves INTO potato cells by osmosis (hypotonic solution outside).
– Beaker B (salt/sugar solution): The potato piece SHRINKS — it loses weight.
Water moves OUT of potato cells by osmosis (hypertonic solution outside).
– Conclusion: Water moves from dilute solution (more water) to concentrated
solution (less water) across the selectively permeable cell membrane. This
proves osmosis.
– What if mung bean seeds are kept in a concentrated solution after soaking in
water for 12 hours? They would shrink because water would move out by
osmosis.

3.2 Cell Wall — The Outer Covering of Cells

Plants cannot move, so they need a rigid structure to withstand environmental stresses like wind
and rain. Therefore, plant cells have an ADDITIONAL covering outside the cell membrane called
the cell wall.

• Present in: Plant cells, fungi, and bacteria. NOT present in animal cells.
• Position: Located outside the cell membrane.
• Composition: Plant cell wall is primarily made of cellulose — a complex carbohydrate
formed by many glucose units linked together. Cellulose acts as roughage in our diet,
helping in digestion.
• Permeability: Although rigid, the cell wall is permeable — water and dissolved minerals
can pass through it.
• Functions:
– Helps leaves and flowers remain firm and maintain their shapes.
– Helps plants stay upright.
– When plant cells lose water by osmosis, the rigid cell wall maintains their shape — the
inner content shrinks (cell membrane pulls away from cell wall) but the outer shape
remains.
– Helps roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil.
• Animal cells lack cell wall: So they can change shape easily, supporting the overall
movement and functioning of animal tissues. When placed in a concentrated sugar
solution, animal cells (like cheek cells) shrink considerably.

🔍 Activity 2.3 — Let us investigate (Comparing Plant and Animal Cells)

Aim: To observe plant cells (onion/Rhoeo) and animal cells (cheek cells) and compare
their behaviour in different solutions
Steps:
15. Prepare temporary slides of a thin peel of an onion leaf or a Rhoeo (Cradle lily)
leaf. Mount it with safranin stain using cover slip. Observe plant cells under a
microscope.
16. Prepare a temporary slide of cheek cells by gently scraping the inner side of your
cheek with a cotton swab or the blunt end of a toothpick.
17. Spread the cheek cells on a clean glass slide. Add a drop of water and a few
drops of methylene blue stain. Carefully place a coverslip.
18. Observe both slides under a microscope.
19. Now prepare two slides of Rhoeo leaf peel and human cheek cells again, and put
20 per cent sugar solution on them. Observe after half an hour.
Observation & Conclusion:
– Onion peel/Rhoeo leaf cells: Box-shaped and regularly arranged (because of
rigid cell wall).
– Cheek cells: Irregularly shaped (no cell wall, can change shape).
– After 20% sugar solution — Plant cells: Outer boundary (cell wall) remains
the same, but the inner content (cell membrane + contents) SHRINKS and
pulls away from the cell wall. This is called PLASMOLYSIS.
– After 20% sugar solution — Cheek cells: The entire cell shrinks considerably
because there is no cell wall to maintain the outer shape.
– Conclusion: The cell wall keeps plant cells firm. Animal cells without cell walls
shrink when placed in concentrated solutions.
 🔍 Pause and Ponder — Questions after Cell Wall section
– Q1: What argument would you give for the necessity of a cell wall in plants
usually fixed in one place versus in animals usually moving from one place to
the other? → Ans: Plants are stationary and face constant environmental
stresses like wind and rain. A rigid cell wall provides structural support and
protection without restricting movement (which plants don't need). Animals
move, so flexible cells (without rigid walls) allow tissues like muscles to
function properly and allow cells to change shape as needed.
– Q2: What consequences would you predict for a plant cell if its cell wall were
to become as flexible as a cell membrane? → Ans: The plant would lose
structural support. Stems and leaves would wilt and droop. When placed in
hypotonic solutions, the cells would burst (as animal cells do) because the
wall would not be able to withstand the osmotic pressure. The plant would
lose its rigid shape.
– Q3: Why is it important to cut the two potato pieces in roughly equal size and
measure their initial weight before placing them in different liquids? → Ans:
To make the experiment fair and comparable. If sizes differ, one piece has
more cells, so the amount of osmosis would differ. Recording initial weight
allows us to calculate the actual change in weight — a standard procedure for
valid scientific comparison.

4. Section 2.3 — The Cell Interior: A Coordinated Working

System
Every cell has three basic parts: (1) a selectively permeable plasma membrane, (2) a semi-fluid
jelly-like substance called the cytoplasm, and (3) a prominent nucleus. The cytoplasm contains
several sub-cellular components called organelles, along with other substances. Most organelles
are only visible under an electron microscope.

🔍 Activity 2.4 — Let us study (Comparing Bacterial, Plant, and Animal

Cells)
Aim: To study and compare the structures of a bacterial cell, a plant cell, and an animal
cell using diagrams
Steps:
20. Study the diagrams of a bacterial cell, a plant cell, and an animal cell (Fig. 2.10).
21. Observe the different structures present in each of them.
22. Record your observations in Table 2.1.
Observation & Conclusion:
– Bacterial cell: Has cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, nucleoid
(no membrane around genetic material). Has appendages for locomotion.
LACKS membrane-bound nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
– Plant cell: Has cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, large vacuole,
chloroplasts, mitochondria, ER, Golgi body, ribosomes.
– Animal cell: Has cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, nucleolus,
mitochondria, ER, Golgi body, lysosomes, ribosomes, small vacuoles.
– Conclusion: Bacterial cells are prokaryotic (no well-defined nucleus). Plant
and animal cells are eukaryotic (well-defined nucleus with nuclear
membrane).
4.1 Prokaryotic Cells vs. Eukaryotic Cells
A bacterial cell lacks a well-defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Such cells are
called prokaryotic cells (pro = primitive, karyon = nucleus). In prokaryotic cells, most cellular
activities take place directly in the cytoplasm.
Plant and animal cells have a well-defined nucleus with a nuclear membrane and several
membrane-bound organelles. Such cells are called eukaryotic cells (eu = true, karyon = nucleus).

PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL

No well-defined nucleus (nucleoid region) Well-defined nucleus surrounded by nuclear
membrane
Diameter: 1 to 10 μm (smaller) Diameter: 10 to 100 μm (larger)
Usually unicellular Can be unicellular or multicellular
No membrane-bound organelles Has membrane-bound organelles (ER,
mitochondria, etc.)
No membrane-bound nucleus Has membrane-bound nucleus
Example: Bacteria Example: Plant cells, animal cells, fungi,
protists
DNA is single circular molecule in nucleoid DNA in chromosomes inside nucleus

🔍 Ready to Go Beyond — Viruses, Viroids, Prions

– Viruses, viroids, and prions are acellular (no cells) infectious agents too small
to see under a light microscope.
– Viruses: Composed of some genetic material with a protein coat.
– Viroids: Lack protein coat around their genetic material.
– Prions: Misfolded proteins which lack genetic material.

4.2 Why Do Eukaryotic Cells Need Organelles?

Eukaryotic cells carry out various life processes in different organelles independently at the same
time — like a tiny living factory where each part does a specific job. Organelles help in building
new materials, removing waste, and providing energy to the cell.

4.3 Nucleus — House of Coded Instructions

• Structure: The nucleus has a double-layered covering called the nuclear membrane
(nuclear envelope), which has pores (nuclear pores) that allow transfer of material
between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
• Nucleolus: A dense round body inside the nucleus where synthesis of ribosomal subunits
takes place. These subunits exit to the cytoplasm and assemble into ribosomes.
• Chromosomes: Visible as rod-shaped structures only when the cell is about to divide.
Composed of DNA and specific proteins. Contains information for inheritance of
characters from parents to the next generation.
 • DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid. Contains the genetic information. Functional segments of
DNA are called genes.
• Chromatin material: In a non-dividing cell, DNA is present as part of chromatin material
— an entangled mass of thread-like structures. When the cell is about to divide, chromatin
material gets organised into chromosomes.
• Function: Controls all cellular activities. Plays a central role in cellular reproduction.
Determines cell development.
• Prokaryotes: Do not have a well-defined nucleus. Their DNA is present as a single
circular molecule associated with specific proteins. The region containing this genetic
material is called the nucleoid.

🔍 Threads of Curiosity — Red Blood Cells (RBCs)

– Mature Red Blood Cells (RBCs) in humans do NOT have a nucleus (they are
enucleate).
– The absence of a nucleus provides more space for haemoglobin, allowing
transport of a larger amount of oxygen.
– Since RBCs lack a nucleus, they cannot repair or divide themselves.
– As a result, their lifespan is short — they survive approximately for 120 days.

4.4 Ribosomes — The Protein Factories

• Structure: Tiny structures made of protein and RNA. Present either freely in the
cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
• Function: Site of protein synthesis — they manufacture all proteins needed by the cell.
• Present in: ALL cells — both prokaryotic and eukaryotic.

4.5 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) — Manufacturing Factory

• Structure: A large organelle that spreads like a network (reticulum) within the cytoplasm.
Continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope.
• Two types:
– Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): Has ribosomes attached to its surface — looks
rough under electron microscope. Mainly involved in protein synthesis and protein
secretion (e.g., in gland cells like pancreatic cells).
– Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Does NOT have ribosomes — looks smooth.
Involved in synthesis and storage of fats (lipids) and hormones.
• Functions: Synthesis and transport of proteins, lipids, and some hormones. Provides a
framework for many biochemical reactions. In liver cells of vertebrates, SER detoxifies
many poisons and drugs.

4.6 Golgi Apparatus — Packaging and Shipping Centre

• Discovery: First observed in 1898 by Italian scientist Camillo Golgi in the nerve cells of a
barn owl using special staining techniques. Named in his honour.
• Structure: Stacks of flattened, sac-like structures. Functionally linked to the ER, the cell
membrane, and other organelles.
• Function: Acts like the cell's POST OFFICE — modifies, sorts, and packages proteins
and/or lipids into vesicles for transport, secretion, or lysosome formation.
4.7 Lysosomes — The Clean-Up System
• Structure: Single membrane-bound sacs filled with powerful digestive enzymes.
• Function: Break down unwanted proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and even damaged parts
of the cell, keeping it clean and healthy. Products of breakdown are released into the
cytoplasm for reuse.
• Also called: 'Suicide bags' — when a cell is severely damaged, lysosomes burst and
their enzymes digest the cell itself, removing it.

🔍 Threads of Curiosity — Lysosomes and Fertilisation

– Human sperm cells contain lysosomal enzymes.
– When a sperm meets an egg, these enzymes help break down the outer
layer of the egg, allowing fertilisation to take place.

4.8 Mitochondria — The Powerhouse of the Cell

• Structure: Surrounded by TWO membranes:
– Outer membrane: Smooth and porous.
– Inner membrane: Deeply folded into finger-like projections called cristae. These cristae
increase the surface area for chemical reactions and facilitate energy production.
• Function: Supply energy needed for most cellular activities. Glucose and other molecules
are broken down inside mitochondria during cellular respiration. The energy released is
stored in the form of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) — the energy currency of the cell.
• Own DNA and Ribosomes: Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes, meaning
they can make some of their own proteins. This is similar to certain bacteria, suggesting
mitochondria share an evolutionary history with single-celled organisms.

4.9 Plastids — Centre for Food Synthesis in Plant Cells

Plants synthesise their food using special organelles called plastids for food synthesis and
storage. Plastids are found ONLY in plant cells. Like mitochondria, plastids also have their own
DNA and ribosomes.

• Chloroplasts: Type of plastid containing the green pigment chlorophyll. Double-

membrane-bound organelles. Inside the chloroplast is a semi-fluid substance called the
stroma, which contains disc-shaped membrane structures that hold chlorophyll. Light
energy is absorbed by chlorophyll during photosynthesis. Sugars synthesised are stored
in stroma along with starch granules.
• Chromoplasts: Plastids containing pigments other than chlorophyll (yellow, orange, or
red). Found in flower petals and fruits — give them their bright colours. These bright
colours attract pollinators for pollination and fruit-eating animals for seed dispersal.
• Leucoplasts: Colourless plastids (leukos = white). Store food materials such as starch,
oils, or proteins. Example: leucoplasts in potato and taro (Colocasia) cells store starch.

Type of Plastid Colour Function

Chloroplast Green (chlorophyll) Photosynthesis — makes food using
sunlight

Chromoplast Yellow / Orange / Red Gives colour to flowers and fruits;

attracts pollinators

Leucoplast Colourless (white) Storage of starch, oils, or proteins

4.10 Vacuoles — Organelles for Storage and Support

• In mature plant cells: Usually one LARGE central vacuole surrounded by a single
selectively permeable membrane. The vacuole is filled with a watery fluid called cell sap.
Stores water, minerals, sugars, and waste materials. By storing large amounts of water,
the vacuole helps maintain pressure inside the cell, which keeps the plant cell firm. When
a plant lacks water → vacuole loses water → cells become less firm → plant wilts.
• In animal cells: Vacuoles are sometimes present but are NOT as large as plant vacuoles.
They help in the temporary storage of materials.

🔍 Pause and Ponder — Questions about Organelles

– Q4: Do white flowers contain any pigment? Give reasons. → Ans: White
flowers do NOT contain colour pigments like chromoplasts. They appear
white because they reflect all wavelengths of visible light (they do not absorb
any specific colour). The cells may still contain leucoplasts (colourless
plastids for storage) and chloroplasts in some tissues, but NO chromoplasts.
Scientifically, white is the absence of colour absorption, not a separate
pigment.
– Q5: Draw a well-labelled schematic diagram of a plant or animal cell using
clues: (i) Nucleus appears as a dark and round body inside the cell. (ii) ER
spreads like a network of extended nuclear envelope. (iii) Mitochondria and
chloroplasts are rod shaped. → Ans: Use Fig. 2.10 from the textbook as a
reference. For plant cell: include cell wall, large vacuole, chloroplasts,
nucleus, ER (connected to nuclear envelope), mitochondria, Golgi body,
ribosomes. Label clearly.

5. Important Comparison Tables

5.1 Table 2.1 — Comparison of Cell Structures (Bacterial, Plant, Animal)
[Link]. Cell Structure Bacterial Cell Plant Cell Animal Cell
1. Cell membrane Present Present Present

2. Cell wall Present (non- Present (cellulose) Absent

cellulose)

3. Cytoplasm Present Present Present

4. Well-defined nucleus Absent Present Present

(membrane-bound)

5. Primitive nucleus Present Absent Absent

(nucleoid)

6. Membrane-bound Absent Present Present

organelles

7. Chloroplasts / Plastids Absent Present Absent

8. Large central vacuole Absent Present Absent (small
vacuoles)

9. Mitochondria Absent Present Present

10. Lysosomes Absent Rarely Present

5.2 Table 2.2 — Comparison between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Characteristic Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell

Primitive nucleus Present Absent

Diameter of typical cell 1 to 10 μm 10 to 100 μm

Number of cells in organism Usually unicellular Can be unicellular or

multicellular

Membrane-bound organelles Absent Present

Membrane-bound nucleus Absent Present

5.3 All Cell Organelles — Summary Table

Organelle Nickname Present In Structure Main Function
Nucleus House of All eukaryotes Double nuclear Controls all cell activities;
instructions membrane, stores genetic info (DNA)
chromosomes,
nucleolus

Ribosomes Protein ALL cells Tiny particles of Protein synthesis

factories (prokaryotes protein + RNA; free
too) or on RER
ER (RER) Manufacturing Eukaryotes Tubes with Protein synthesis and
factory ribosomes attached transport

ER (SER) Smooth factory Eukaryotes Tubes without Lipid and hormone

ribosomes synthesis; detoxification

Golgi Apparatus Post office Eukaryotes Stacks of flattened Modifies, packages, ships
sacs proteins and lipids

Lysosomes Clean-up Animal cells Membrane sacs filled Digests waste, foreign
system / mainly with enzymes material, old organelles
Suicide bags

Mitochondria Powerhouse All eukaryotes Double membrane; Cellular respiration;

inner has cristae; produces ATP (energy)
has own DNA
Chloroplasts Food factory Plant cells only Double membrane; Photosynthesis — makes
stroma + chlorophyll; food using sunlight
has own DNA

Vacuoles Storage tank All cells (large Membrane-bound Stores water, minerals,
in plants) sac food, waste; maintains
cell pressure

Cell wall Protective Plants, fungi, Rigid (cellulose in Structural support,

armour bacteria plants) protection, shape
maintenance
6. Section 2.4 — How Do Normal Cells Grow and Divide?
When you get a cut on your skin, it heals after a few days. Hair that falls out grows back. This
happens because cells in our body can grow and divide to replace old, dead, or damaged cells.
Growth happens not because cells get bigger, but because cells DIVIDE to form new cells.

🔍 Activity 2.5 — Let us enhance our skills (Observing Cell Division in

Onion Root Tips)
Aim: To observe actively dividing cells in onion root tips and different stages of cell
division under a microscope
Steps:
23. Take a jar and fill it with plain water.
24. Place an onion bulb over the jar so that its base (bearing roots) is immersed in
the water.
25. Leave the setup for 5–6 days and observe the roots growing. Cut 2–3 cm of the
freshly grown roots and transfer them to freshly prepared aceto-alcohol (glacial
acetic acid:ethanol :: 1:3). Keep the root tips in aceto-alcohol for 24 hours, then
transfer them to 70% ethanol (for preservation).
26. Take one or two preserved roots, wash them in water, and place them on a clean
slide.
27. Put one drop of dilute Hydrochloric acid (HCl) on the root tips to soften the tissue.
Rinse after 10–15 minutes. Add 2–3 drops of aceto-carmine stain.
28. Leave the slide for 5–10 minutes and then gently warm it (with caution) over a
spirit lamp.
29. Cut the tip portion of the root on the slide and put a coverslip. Gently squash the
coverslip with your thumb to spread the cells on the slide.
30. Observe the slide under a microscope.
Observation & Conclusion:
– You will observe cells of the onion root tip at different stages of cell division.
– Cells look structurally different because they are at different stages of the cell
cycle.
– Some cells will show chromosomes visible as rod-shaped structures (dividing
cells).
– Other cells will show a round nucleus (non-dividing cells with chromatin).
– Conclusion: Root tips are zones of active cell division. Every day, hundreds of
billions of cells in our body are replaced (approximately 1% of total body cells
daily).

6.1 Cell Division

Cell division is the process by which new cells are formed from pre-existing cells. It allows living
organisms to grow, repair damaged tissues, and reproduce. There are two major types: MITOSIS
and MEIOSIS.

Mitosis
• Definition: The most common type of cell division. Every human begins life as a single
fertilised egg which divides repeatedly to form trillions of cells by mitosis.
• Outcome: Produces TWO genetically identical daughter cells from one parent cell.
 • Each new cell gets: The same DNA and the same number of chromosomes as the
parent cell.
• Importance: Normal growth, repair and maintenance of tissues, and asexual
reproduction.
• Example: Skin cells divide continuously to replace cells that are lost regularly.

Meiosis
• Definition: A type of cell division that produces gametes (sex cells — sperm and eggs)
and occurs ONLY in the cells of reproductive organs.
• Process: The parent cell divides TWICE (two consecutive divisions) to form FOUR
daughter cells.
• Key feature: Each gamete has HALF the number of chromosomes compared to the
parent cell (chromosome number is halved).
• During fertilisation: When gametes from two individuals combine, the original
chromosome number is restored.
• In animals: Meiosis occurs in the testes (to produce sperm) and ovaries (to produce
eggs).
• In plants: Meiosis occurs in the anthers (male parts — to form pollen grains/sperm cells)
and ovaries (female parts — to produce egg cells).
• Importance: Sexual reproduction and creation of genetic diversity. Gametes produced
have variations — so children resemble their parents but are not exactly the same.

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Produces 2 daughter cells Produces 4 daughter cells
Daughter cells are genetically IDENTICAL to Daughter cells have HALF the chromosomes
parent of parent
Same number of chromosomes as parent Half the number of chromosomes (haploid
(diploid) gametes)
Occurs in all body cells (somatic cells) Occurs only in reproductive organs (testes,
ovaries, anthers)
For growth, repair, maintenance For sexual reproduction, genetic diversity
One division Two consecutive divisions

🔍 Pause and Ponder — Questions about Cell Division

– Q6: Instead of many small ones, why does a cell not have a single giant
mitochondrion? How does this relate to the concept of surface area? → Ans:
Having many small mitochondria provides a much larger TOTAL surface area
compared to one giant mitochondrion of the same total volume. Since
chemical reactions (especially the ATP-producing reactions on the inner
membrane) occur on surfaces, a greater surface area means more reactions
can occur simultaneously — giving the cell more energy more efficiently. This
is the same principle as cristae (folds inside mitochondria) increasing surface
area.
– Q7: If skin cells start dividing by meiosis instead of mitosis, what do you think
will happen to a cut on the skin? → Ans: The cut would NOT heal properly.
Meiosis produces cells with HALF the number of chromosomes. New skin
 cells with half the chromosomes would be abnormal and unable to function
normally. They would not be identical to the original skin cells. The wound
could not be repaired correctly, and the skin tissue structure would be
disrupted. Normal body repair requires mitosis (which produces genetically
identical cells).

7. Section 2.5 — Cell Theory: The Unifying Principle of

Biology
The Cell Theory is one of the most important principles in biology. It unifies all biology, from
bacteria to humans, and explains life's continuity through cell division.

• 1838: German botanist Matthias Schleiden reported that all PLANTS are made up of cells.
• 1839: German zoologist Theodor Schwann found that all ANIMALS are also made up of
cells.
• 1855: German scientist Rudolf Virchow further expanded the Cell Theory by stating that
new cells are formed ONLY from pre-existing cells.

🔍 Classical Cell Theory — Three Principles

– 1. All living organisms are made up of one or more cells.
– 2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living beings.
– 3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

7.1 Do Cells Grow and Reproduce Forever?

Cells grow and divide in a controlled way, stay in the right place, carry out their functions, and
eventually die when no longer needed. Dead cells are replaced by new cells that carry out the
same function. Every cell has a definite lifespan.

• Contact Inhibition: In many animal cells, cell division usually stops when cells come in
contact with neighbouring cells. This controlled process is called contact inhibition.
• Cancer cells: Lose this control and keep dividing uncontrollably, leading to the formation
of tumours. Cancer cells can invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body
(metastasis) to form new tumours — which may be benign (non-spreading) or malignant
(spreading).
• Plant cells: Due to their rigid cell walls, plant cells do NOT show contact inhibition and
follow a different pattern of growth.
• Programmed Cell Death (PCD): Cells also have natural ways of dying to maintain a
balance. PCD is a genetically regulated and organised process of selective cell
destruction. Essential for normal development — for example, when an embryo develops,
PCD helps form fingers by eliminating cells between digits. Without PCD, we would have
webbed hands.

🔍 Meet a Scientist — Gottlieb Haberlandt

 – In 1902, Austrian botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt proposed that any living plant
cell, even a fully mature cell from a permanent tissue, can develop into a
complete plant if provided with suitable nutrients and favourable conditions.
– He suggested plant cells have the ability to form different types of cells and
change them — this special ability is called TOTIPOTENCY.
– Haberlandt's idea laid the foundation for a new branch of biology: Plant
Tissue Culture Technology.

🔍 Threads of Curiosity — Synthetic Biology (J. Craig Venter, 2010)

– In 2010, scientist J. Craig Venter and his team studied the complete DNA
sequence of a simple bacterium called Mycoplasma mycoides using
computer programming.
– They chemically synthesised (in the laboratory) an exact copy of this DNA.
– They then removed the DNA from another closely related bacterium but kept
the rest of the cell (cytoplasm and cell membrane) intact.
– They inserted the synthetic DNA into this cell. The cell started to grow and
divide following the instructions from the newly inserted synthetic DNA.
– This experiment showed that DNA controls the structure and activities of a
cell.
– However, scientists did NOT create a completely new cell from scratch —
only the DNA was synthetic. Other cell parts were from an already existing
living cell.

🔍 Bridging Science and Society — Cell Culture

– Scientists have developed methods to grow plant and animal cells OUTSIDE
the body in special conditions — this is called cell culture.
– Cells are taken from an organism and placed in a nutrient-rich medium that
allows them to grow and multiply.
– Right temperature, acidic/alkaline conditions, and moisture under sterile
conditions are maintained.
– Cell culture is crucial for: studying how cells work, production of biochemicals,
food, medicines, vaccines, and more.
– It also forms the basis of Plant Tissue Culture Technology (inspired by
Haberlandt's concept of totipotency).
8. Revise, Reflect, Refine — Exercise Questions with
Complete Answers

Q: Q1. Differentiate between the following pairs of terms based on the clues
given in parentheses: (i) Cell membrane and cell wall (permeability) (ii) RER
and SER (structure) (iii) Chloroplasts and chromoplasts (pigments)
Ans:
– (i) Cell membrane vs Cell wall (permeability): Cell membrane is
SELECTIVELY permeable — it allows only certain substances to pass
through while blocking others. Cell wall is PERMEABLE — water and
dissolved minerals can pass through it freely. The cell membrane controls
what enters/exits the cell. The cell wall mainly provides structural support and
does not control substance movement as selectively.
– (ii) RER vs SER (structure): Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) has
RIBOSOMES attached to its surface — this makes it look rough under an
electron microscope. It is involved in protein synthesis. Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum (SER) does NOT have ribosomes on its surface — it looks smooth.
It is involved in synthesis and storage of lipids (fats) and hormones.
– (iii) Chloroplasts vs Chromoplasts (pigments): Chloroplasts contain the
GREEN pigment CHLOROPHYLL and are involved in photosynthesis.
Chromoplasts contain pigments OTHER than chlorophyll — yellow, orange,
or red pigments. They give bright colours to flowers and fruits and do NOT
carry out photosynthesis.

Q: Q2. Two similar animal cells are placed in two different solutions. Cell X is
placed in pure water. Cell Y is placed in a concentrated salt solution. Cells are
observed after some time. Cell X swells, and Cell Y shrinks. Which statement
provides the correct explanation for the above observations?
Ans: Answer: (iii) Water moved into Cell X and moved out of Cell Y through the cell
membrane.
– Explanation: This is due to OSMOSIS. Cell X in pure water: Pure water is a
hypotonic solution (less solute outside than inside). So water moves INTO the
cell by osmosis → the cell SWELLS.
– Cell Y in concentrated salt solution: Concentrated salt solution is a hypertonic
solution (more solute outside than inside). So water moves OUT of the cell by
osmosis → the cell SHRINKS.
– Statement (iii) is correct because osmosis involves movement of WATER (not
salt molecules) through the selectively permeable cell membrane, from dilute
solution (pure water, more water molecules) to concentrated solution (less
water molecules).
– Why not (i)? Salt molecules cannot move through the selectively permeable
cell membrane easily. Why not (ii)? Water moved MORE into Cell X than
moved out of Cell Y (the question says X swelled and Y shrank — both are
correct in direction). Why not (iv)? Osmosis involves water movement, not
solute movement.

Q: Q3. Look at the diagram of a cell in Fig. 2.20. Identify the parts labelled (a)
to (g) and correctly match them with their functions: (i) Controlling all activities
of a cell. (ii) Site of cellular respiration. (iii) Storage organelle that also
provides rigidity to the cell. (iv) Separates the cell contents from surroundings.
(v) Provides structural rigidity to the cell. (vi) Packs and stores materials
received from ER. (vii) Helps in manufacturing food.
Ans: The diagram shows a plant cell. Matching parts and functions:
– (a) = Nucleus → (i) Controlling all activities of a cell. The nucleus is the
control centre directing all cellular activities.
– (b) = Cell membrane → (iv) Separates the cell contents from surroundings. It
is the outermost boundary of the animal cell.
– (c) = Chloroplast → (vii) Helps in manufacturing food. Chloroplasts carry out
photosynthesis to produce food.
– (d) = Mitochondria → (ii) Site of cellular respiration. Mitochondria produce
ATP through cellular respiration.
– (e) = Vacuole → (iii) Storage organelle that also provides rigidity to the cell.
The large central vacuole stores cell sap and maintains turgor pressure.
– (f) = Golgi apparatus → (vi) Packs and stores materials received from ER.
The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages materials.
– (g) = Cell wall → (v) Provides structural rigidity to the cell. The cell wall gives
the plant cell its rigid shape.

Q: Q4. Which of the following option(s) of pairs of cell organelles are correctly
placed under the given categories? Options: (i) Leucoplast — Cell wall (ii)
Mitochondria — Ribosome (iii) Cell wall — Golgi apparatus (iv) Lysosome —
Endoplasmic reticulum
Ans: Answer: (i) Leucoplast present in plant cells and Cell wall absent in animal cells
— this is CORRECT.
– (i) Leucoplast is present in plant cells AND Cell wall is absent in animal cells
→ CORRECT. Both statements are true.
– (ii) Mitochondria present in plant cells — TRUE. Ribosome absent in animal
cells — FALSE (ribosomes ARE present in all cells). So (ii) is INCORRECT.
– (iii) Cell wall present in plant cells — TRUE. Golgi apparatus absent in animal
cells — FALSE (Golgi apparatus IS present in animal cells). So (iii) is
INCORRECT.
– (iv) Lysosome present in plant cells — FALSE (lysosomes are mainly in
animal cells; rarely in plant cells). Endoplasmic reticulum absent in animal
cells — FALSE (ER is present in animal cells). So (iv) is INCORRECT.

Q: Q5. Two students, Renu and Rohit, were having a discussion on plastids.
Renu emphasised that all parts of the plants, even roots, contain plastids.
However, Rohit did not agree and told her that plastids are absent in plant
roots since the roots are underground and do not need to perform
photosynthesis. Who is correct? Justify your answer.
Ans: Renu is CORRECT — all parts of plants, including roots, contain plastids.
– Plastids are not just chloroplasts. There are THREE types of plastids: (1)
Chloroplasts (for photosynthesis — green), (2) Chromoplasts (for colour — in
flowers/fruits), and (3) Leucoplasts (for storage — colourless).
– Roots, being underground and not exposed to sunlight, do NOT contain
chloroplasts (as they do not need to carry out photosynthesis). However,
roots DO contain LEUCOPLASTS — colourless plastids that store food
materials like starch (e.g., in potato, which is a modified root/stem).
 – Therefore, it is INCORRECT to say plastids are completely absent in roots.
Roots have leucoplasts even if they lack chloroplasts.
– Rohit is partially correct in saying roots don't perform photosynthesis, but he
is wrong in concluding that NO plastids are present.

Q: Q6. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are two important organelles in a plant

cell. Discuss how these two organelles are structurally and functionally similar
to each other, and different from each other.
Ans: Similarities between Mitochondria and Chloroplasts:
– SIMILAR — Structure: Both are double-membrane-bound organelles
(surrounded by two membranes — inner and outer).
– SIMILAR — Own DNA: Both have their OWN DNA and ribosomes, meaning
they can make some of their own proteins.
– SIMILAR — Size and shape: Both are roughly rod-shaped organelles visible
under light microscope.
– SIMILAR — Energy: Both are directly involved in energy conversion
processes in the cell.
– SIMILAR — Evolutionary origin: Both are believed to have evolved from free-
living bacteria (endosymbiotic theory) — they share evolutionary history with
single-celled organisms.
– DIFFERENT — Function: Mitochondria perform CELLULAR RESPIRATION
— they break down glucose to release energy and store it as ATP.
Chloroplasts perform PHOTOSYNTHESIS — they use sunlight, CO₂ , and
water to MAKE glucose (food).
– DIFFERENT — Present in: Mitochondria are present in ALL eukaryotic cells
(plant AND animal). Chloroplasts are present ONLY in plant cells (not in
animal cells).
– DIFFERENT — Pigment: Chloroplasts contain the green pigment
CHLOROPHYLL. Mitochondria have no photosynthetic pigment.
– DIFFERENT — Internal structure: Mitochondria have inner membrane folded
into CRISTAE. Chloroplasts have STROMA and disc-shaped membrane
structures containing chlorophyll.

Q: Q7. Which of the following pairs of cell organelles contains DNA? (i)
Chloroplasts, Ribosomes (ii) Mitochondria, Nucleus (iii) Golgi bodies,
Ribosomes (iv) Nucleus, Lysosomes
Ans: Answer: (ii) Mitochondria and Nucleus.
– The Nucleus contains DNA in the form of chromosomes (Deoxyribonucleic
acid) — it is the main store of genetic information in eukaryotic cells.
– Mitochondria also contain their own DNA (called mitochondrial DNA or
mtDNA). This is why mitochondria can produce some of their own proteins.
– Chloroplasts also contain DNA, but chloroplasts are not paired with
ribosomes in the question options. Ribosomes are made of RNA and protein,
NOT DNA. Golgi bodies and Lysosomes do NOT contain DNA.
– Therefore, the correct answer is (ii) Mitochondria and Nucleus.

Q: Q8. A researcher carried out an experiment in which she took two carrots
of similar size. She placed one carrot in plain water and the other carrot in
concentrated salt solution (Fig. 2.21). After 24 hours she recorded her
observations. (i) What hypothesis does she want to test through this
experiment? (ii) What would you suggest for the improvement of this
experiment? (iii) Why does the carrot in plain water stay stiff and crunchy, but
the carrot in concentrated salt solution become rubbery and limp?
Ans:
– (i) Hypothesis: The researcher wants to test whether the concentration of the
external solution affects the movement of water across the cell membrane by
osmosis, and thereby affects the turgidity (stiffness) of plant cells.
Specifically: Does a hypertonic solution cause plant cells to lose water and
become flaccid, while a hypotonic solution helps maintain turgidity?
– (ii) Improvement suggestions: (a) Use more carrots (at least 3 in each
condition) to ensure reliability — one carrot alone may not be representative.
(b) Record the initial and final weights of each carrot to get quantitative data,
not just qualitative observations. (c) Control the temperature, time, and
volume of solutions to ensure a fair test. (d) Use a control carrot in isotonic
solution (e.g., 0.9% NaCl equivalent) to compare all three conditions.
– (iii) Explanation: Carrot in plain water — Plain water is a HYPOTONIC
solution (less solute outside than inside the carrot cells). Water moves INTO
the carrot cells by osmosis. The cells fill up with water and build up turgor
pressure against the cell wall. This makes the cells firm and the carrot stays
stiff and crunchy (turgid).
– Carrot in concentrated salt solution — The salt solution is HYPERTONIC
(more solute outside than inside). Water moves OUT of the carrot cells by
osmosis. The cells lose water, the cell membrane pulls away from the cell
wall (plasmolysis), and the cells become flaccid (limp). Without water
pressure, the cells cannot maintain rigidity, so the carrot becomes rubbery
and limp.

Q: Q9. Indicate the presence (✓) or absence (✗) of the following structures in
bacterial and animal cells: Chromosome, Nucleus, Mitochondria, Golgi
complex, Chromoplasts
Ans: Completed table:
– Chromosome: Bacterial cell ✓ (present — single circular DNA molecule in
nucleoid, not a true chromosome) | Animal cell ✓ (present — true
chromosomes in nucleus)
– Nucleus: Bacterial cell ✗ (absent — has nucleoid region, not a membrane-
bound nucleus) | Animal cell ✓ (present — well-defined membrane-bound
nucleus)
– Mitochondria: Bacterial cell ✗ (absent — no membrane-bound organelles) |
Animal cell ✓ (present)
– Golgi complex: Bacterial cell ✗ (absent) | Animal cell ✓ (present)
– Chromoplasts: Bacterial cell ✗ (absent) | Animal cell ✗ (absent —
chromoplasts are found ONLY in plant cells)

Q: Q10. Carry out the following experiment: Take four peeled potato halves
and scoop each one out to make potato cups. One should be from a boiled
potato. Place each cup in a beaker of water. (a) Cup A empty, (b) Cup B with
one teaspoon sugar, (c) Cup C with one teaspoon salt, (d) Cup D with one
teaspoon sugar in the boiled potato. Observe for at least two hours and
answer: (i) Explain why water gathers in the hollowed portion of Cup B and
Cup C. (ii) Why is Cup A necessary for this experiment? (iii) Explain why water
does not gather in the hollowed portions of Cups A and D.
Ans:
– (i) Water gathers in Cup B and Cup C: The sugar/salt inside the potato cup
creates a CONCENTRATED (hypertonic) solution. The surrounding water in
the beaker is a DILUTE (hypotonic) solution. By osmosis, water moves from
the region of HIGH water concentration (beaker — dilute) to the region of
LOW water concentration (inside the cup — concentrated solution of
sugar/salt) through the selectively permeable cell membrane of the potato
cells. This net inward movement of water causes water to collect inside the
hollowed portion of Cups B and C.
– (ii) Cup A (empty control) is necessary: Cup A serves as the CONTROL for
this experiment. It allows us to compare what happens to a potato cup without
any sugar or salt with one that has these substances. Since Cup A is empty,
there is no concentration difference between inside the cup and the beaker
water — so no osmosis should occur. If somehow water does appear in Cup
A, it would suggest the experiment has a flaw. The control helps confirm that
the observed results in B and C are specifically due to the sugar/salt, not any
other factor.
– (iii) Why water does NOT gather in Cups A and D: Cup A — is empty. There
is no solute inside, so the concentration inside and outside is equal (isotonic).
There is no concentration gradient to drive osmosis. No net movement of
water occurs.
– Cup D — uses a BOILED potato. Boiling KILLS the cells and DENATURES
the proteins in the cell membrane. A dead cell membrane is no longer
selectively permeable — it is broken and cannot carry out osmosis. Even
though sugar is added inside, water cannot move through the dead/damaged
membrane by osmosis. Therefore, no water gathers in Cup D. This also
demonstrates that osmosis is a property of LIVING cells with intact selectively
permeable membranes.

Q: Q11. Identify the pair that INCORRECTLY matches the cell organelle with
its function: (i) Ribosome — Protein synthesis (ii) SER — Lipid and cellulose
synthesis (iii) Lysosome — Digestion of foreign agents
Ans: Answer: (ii) SER — Lipid and cellulose synthesis is INCORRECT.
– (i) Ribosome — Protein synthesis: CORRECT. Ribosomes are the sites
where proteins are manufactured. They are found freely in cytoplasm or
attached to RER.
– (ii) SER — Lipid and cellulose synthesis: INCORRECT. SER (Smooth
Endoplasmic Reticulum) is involved in LIPID synthesis and HORMONE
synthesis. It is NOT involved in cellulose synthesis. Cellulose is a component
of the CELL WALL in plants and is synthesised by a different cellular process
involving the Golgi apparatus — not the SER.
– (iii) Lysosome — Digestion of foreign agents: CORRECT. Lysosomes contain
powerful digestive enzymes that break down foreign material (like bacteria or
viruses) that enters the cell, keeping the cell clean and protected.

Q: Q12. What outcome do you expect if all the mitochondria are removed from
a eukaryotic cell?
Ans: If all mitochondria are removed from a eukaryotic cell, the cell would be unable
to produce energy efficiently and would eventually die.
– Mitochondria are the sites of CELLULAR RESPIRATION — the process that
breaks down glucose to produce ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), the energy
currency of the cell.
– Without mitochondria: (1) No ATP would be produced through aerobic
respiration. (2) The cell would have no energy for active transport, protein
synthesis, cell division, muscle contraction, or any other energy-requiring
process. (3) The cell might briefly survive using anaerobic respiration
(glycolysis in cytoplasm), but this produces much less ATP and leads to build-
up of lactic acid or other byproducts.
– For the whole organism: Removal of mitochondria from all cells would mean
complete energy failure → the organism would die very quickly.
– Special cases: Mature RBCs naturally lack mitochondria — they use
glycolysis only. However, most other cells cannot survive long without
mitochondria.
– Also, since mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes, their removal
also means loss of some protein-making ability within the organelle itself.

Q: Q13. Which phenomenon inhibits the formation of tumours in the human

body? Can plants also develop tumours? Explain.
Ans: Contact inhibition inhibits the formation of tumours in the human body.
– Contact Inhibition: In normal animal cells, cell division stops when cells come
in physical contact with neighbouring cells. This process is called CONTACT
INHIBITION. It prevents cells from dividing uncontrollably, thereby inhibiting
tumour formation.
– Cancer cells LOSE contact inhibition: They keep dividing even when they are
in contact with other cells, forming uncontrolled masses called tumours.
Errors in mitosis can lead to uncontrolled cell divisions and formation of
tumours with abnormal chromosomes.
– Can plants develop tumours? YES, plants CAN develop tumours, but the
mechanism is different. Because plant cells have RIGID CELL WALLS, plant
cells do NOT show contact inhibition (the mechanism that normally prevents
animal cell over-division). Therefore, plants follow a different pattern of cell
growth control.
– In plants, tumours can be caused by: (1) Infection by bacteria like
Agrobacterium tumefaciens which transfers DNA into plant cells causing
crown gall disease (a tumour-like growth). (2) Genetic mutations. However,
plant tumours are generally not as dangerous as animal cancers because
plant cells are compartmentalised by cell walls and do not spread through
blood or lymph.

Q: Q14. The cell membrane is made up of proteins and lipids. Which cell
organelles help in the synthesis of these compounds from their site of
synthesis to the cell membrane? Write the path of these compounds and show
this through a labelled diagram.
Ans: Cell membrane components — Synthesis pathway:
– PROTEINS are synthesised by RIBOSOMES (attached to the Rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum — RER). Path: Ribosomes (on RER) → RER lumen
 (proteins enter) → Golgi Apparatus (modified, sorted, packaged into vesicles)
→ Cell membrane (vesicles fuse with cell membrane, adding new proteins).
– LIPIDS are synthesised by the SMOOTH Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER).
Path: SER (lipid synthesis) → Golgi Apparatus (modified, sorted, packaged
into vesicles) → Cell membrane (vesicles fuse with cell membrane, adding
new lipids).
– Summary path for both: Ribosomes/SER → ER → Golgi Apparatus → Cell
Membrane (via vesicles).
– This process of building the cell membrane using proteins and lipids from the
ER is called MEMBRANE BIOGENESIS.
– Note: The diagram should show: RER with ribosomes → arrows to Golgi
apparatus showing vesicle movement → arrows from Golgi to cell membrane
→ cell membrane with embedded proteins and lipid bilayer. Refer to Fig. 2.13
in your textbook.

Q: Q15. What would happen if gametes are formed by mitotic divisions?

Ans: If gametes were formed by MITOTIC divisions instead of meiosis, the following
problems would occur:
– Chromosome number problem: Mitosis produces cells with the SAME number
of chromosomes as the parent cell (diploid — 2n). If gametes were formed by
mitosis, they would contain the full (diploid) set of chromosomes instead of
half (haploid — n).
– When such diploid gametes fused during fertilisation, the resulting zygote
would have DOUBLE the normal number of chromosomes (4n instead of 2n).
After each generation, the chromosome number would keep DOUBLING.
– This would lead to: Chromosomal abnormalities, abnormal development,
failure of normal cell division (too many chromosomes cannot be properly
distributed to daughter cells), and likely infertility or death of the organism.
– It would eliminate genetic diversity: Mitosis produces genetically identical
cells. Gametes formed by mitosis would all be identical. After fertilisation, all
offspring would be genetically identical to parents — no variation for evolution
or adaptation.
– This confirms WHY meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction: it halves the
chromosome number so that fertilisation restores the correct number and
creates genetic variation.

Q: Q16 (Case Study — Deepa the farmer): (i) Which scientific concept has the
farmer applied in the preservation of the farm produce? (ii) How does the
addition of high concentrations of salt and sugar create an environment that
prevents the growth of spoilage-causing bacteria and fungi? (iii) Suggest a
healthy recipe of this kind for food preservation. (iv) What are the scientific
values addressed in this case?
Ans: Deepa made pickles, sharbat, and murabbas from amla and lemons using salt,
sugar, and jaggery to preserve them.
– (i) Scientific concept applied: OSMOSIS. Deepa used high concentrations of
salt and sugar, which create a hypertonic environment outside the food-
spoiling microorganisms (bacteria and fungi). Water moves out of the
microbial cells by osmosis → the microorganisms become dehydrated and
cannot grow or reproduce. This is the scientific principle behind preserving
food with salt (salting) and sugar (jamming/syruping).
– (ii) How salt/sugar prevents microbial growth: High concentrations of salt or
sugar create a HYPERTONIC solution outside the microbial cells. By
osmosis, water moves from inside the microbial cells (where water
concentration is higher) to the outside (where water concentration is lower
due to high solute). The microorganisms lose water rapidly, become
plasmolysed (shrunken), and cannot grow, reproduce, or survive. Without
water, their metabolic processes stop, preventing food spoilage.
– (iii) Healthy preservation recipe suggestion: Amla (Indian Gooseberry) pickle
— Wash amla, dry them, mix with salt (2 tsp per 100g), add mustard seeds,
turmeric powder, and a small amount of oil. Store in a clean, dry glass jar.
The salt preserves the amla by osmosis. Amla is rich in Vitamin C, making
this both a tasty and nutritious preserved food.
– (iv) Scientific values addressed: (a) Application of scientific knowledge
(osmosis) to solve practical daily-life problems. (b) Sustainable farming —
reducing post-harvest wastage. (c) Agro-processing to increase income and
food security. (d) Traditional knowledge validated by science — indigenous
preservation methods have a scientific basis. (e) Reducing food waste
contributes to environmental sustainability.
9. Quick Revision — All Important Points at a Glance

🔍 Key Definitions — Must Know for Exam

– Cell: Basic structural and functional unit of life.
– Unicellular: Organism made of single cell (Amoeba, bacteria, yeast).
– Multicellular: Organism made of many cells (plants, animals).
– Limit of Resolution: 0.1 mm — minimum distance between two points seen
separately by unaided eye.
– Plasma Membrane: Thin, selectively permeable membrane surrounding
every cell. Made of lipids and proteins.
– Fluid-Mosaic Model: Explains the structure of plasma membrane — lipid
bilayer with embedded proteins that can move.
– Osmosis: Net diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
from dilute (low solute) to concentrated (high solute) solution.
– Diffusion: Net movement of particles from high to low concentration (no
membrane needed).
– Hypotonic solution: Dilute outside → cell swells (gains water).
– Isotonic solution: Equal concentration → no net water movement.
– Hypertonic solution: Concentrated outside → cell shrinks (loses water).
– Cell Wall: Rigid layer outside cell membrane in plants (cellulose), fungi,
bacteria. Provides structure.
– Plasmolysis: Shrinkage of cell contents (membrane + cytoplasm) away from
cell wall in hypertonic solution.
– Cytoplasm: Semi-fluid substance inside cell membrane; contains organelles.
– Prokaryotic cell: No membrane-bound nucleus (has nucleoid). Example:
bacteria.
– Eukaryotic cell: Has membrane-bound nucleus and organelles. Example:
plant/animal cells.
– Nucleoid: Region in prokaryotic cells containing DNA (no membrane around
it).
– Chromatin: Entangled thread-like form of DNA in non-dividing cells.
– Chromosome: Organised, compact form of DNA visible during cell division.
– Gene: Functional segment of DNA that carries hereditary information.
– Cristae: Finger-like folds of inner mitochondrial membrane — increase
surface area for ATP production.
– ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): Energy currency of the cell; produced by
mitochondria.
– Stroma: Semi-fluid substance inside chloroplast where sugars are stored.
– Chlorophyll: Green pigment in chloroplasts that absorbs sunlight for
photosynthesis.
– Totipotency: Ability of a single plant cell to develop into a complete plant.
– Cell Theory: All organisms made of cells; cell is basic unit of life; cells arise
from pre-existing cells.
– Contact Inhibition: Normal animal cells stop dividing when they touch
neighbouring cells.
– Mitosis: Cell division producing 2 genetically identical daughter cells with
same chromosome number. For growth and repair.
 – Meiosis: Cell division producing 4 daughter cells each with HALF the
chromosome number. For sexual reproduction.
– PCD (Programmed Cell Death): Genetically controlled cell death essential for
normal development.

🔍 Meet a Scientist — Arun Kumar Sharma

– Arun Kumar Sharma was a famous Indian scientist known for his work on
chromosomes.
– As a botanist, he worked in plant taxonomy, evolution, and development.
– He invented many useful lab methods to study chromosomes in plants.
– For his contributions to botany, he received many honours, including the
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar award and Padma Bhushan.