Chapter 2: Foundations [5 Hours, Marks: 8/80]

2.1 Soil Exploration ( methods, improving bearing

capacity, load test)
2.2 Foundation and its types (deep, shallow):
2.3 Earthwork excavation of foundations (Soft soil,
hard rock, wet excavation):
2.4 Excavation of Trenches for pipes, cables, etc.
and refilling works:
2.5 Some common problems with existing
foundations:
Soil and its properties:
Soil is a mixture of irregularly shaped mineral particles of various sizes containing
voids between particles.

The particles are a by-product of mechanical and chemical weathering of rock and
described as gravels, sands, silts, and clays.

Soil is the basis of foundation.

Property of soil decides the type of foundation.

Types of Soil:
1. Cohesive Soil
2. Cohesionless Soil
Soil Exploration / Soil Investigation:
Before actual foundation plan is drawn, it is desirable to visit the site of the work so as
to have the first hand knowledge of the soil, and the possible constraints likely to
come across during construction.

The purpose of site or soil investigation, or exploration, can be summarized as follows.

Purpose/Objectives of soil exploration:
To determine the value of safe bearing capacity of soil.
To select economic types of foundation.
To determine the depth of proposed foundation.
To predict likely settlement and make allowance for that in design.
To know underground water level and its problem.
To forecast the difficulties which are likely to be encountered due to nature of the
subsoil during construction and to take advance actions in this regard.
Sub-soil exploration:
Since the foundations have to transfer the load to the subsoil, surface conditions at
any given site must be adequately explored to obtained information required for the
design and construction of foundations.

Therefore:
Very important phase in construction and determines the characteristics of
underlying soil.
Soil investigation is must before undertaking construction works.
Acquires general picture of geology of area.
Sub-soil exploration is done for the following purposes:

For new structures:

•The selection of type and depth of foundation.
•The determination of bearing capacity of the selected foundations
•The prediction of settlement of the selected foundation.
•The determination of the ground water level.
•The evaluation of the earth pressure against walls, basements, abutments etc.
•The provision against construction difficulties.
•The suitability of soil and degree of compaction of soil.

For existing structures:

•The investigation of the safety of the structure.
•The prediction of settlement.
•The determination of remedial measures if the structure is unsafe or will suffer
detrimental (harmful) settlement.
Methods of Soil Exploration:
1. Inspection:
Exposed surface of the ground, behavior of existing structures in the vicinity, Hard, soft,
water logged (marshy land) etc.
Classification of soil such as gravel, sandy, clayey. Drainage condition, landscaping.
Experience of other fellow engineers, conducting constructions in that locality. By all
these measures, it is possible to form fairly correct opinion about the nature of soil and
its likely behavior in future.

2. Trial or Test pits:

• Cheapest method of shallow exploration
• Pits excavated at site to inspect soil strata
in their natural condition and samples
extracted at different strata.
• Suitable upto 3m depth
3. Probing:
• Either, hollow tube of diameter 35 to 50 mm and about 60 cm long slit at bottom
end is driven into ground, 30 cm at a time and withdrawn and inspected.
• Or, steel bar of 25 to 40 mm diameter with pointed end driven in the ground by its
own weight or drop hammer. At interval, soil nature identified by examining soil
sticking to side of the bar. No of blows required to penetrate might give rough idea
of nature of strata of soil

4. Boring: The following are the various boring methods commonly used;
a) Auger boring:
• used in cohesive and other soft soils above water table
• may either be operated manually or mechanically

Augers are of two types: Spiral auger and Post-hole auger

Samples recovered from the soil brought up by the augers
are badly disturbed and are useful for identification
purposes only.
(b) Shell and auger boring:
• Cylindrical auger and shells with cutting
edge at lower end used to make deep borings
• Augurs suitable for soft to stiff clays, shells
with cutting edge or sand pump for sandy soil
• Soil sample collected at regular interval
• Hand operated – 25 m depth
• Mechanical – 50 m depth

(c) Wash boring:

• Fast and simple method of
advancing holes in all types
of soil
• Jetting action
• Soil water slurry
• Color of wash water gives
Change in stratification.
(d) Percussion boring:
• Soil or rocks formation broken by repeated blows from
heavy chisel.
• Material thus pulverized is converted to slurry by pouring
water in the hole and dried for examination.
• Samples disturbed due to impact.

(e) Rotary boring:

• When rocks are to be penetrated for examination,
core drilling are done to obtain undisturbed sample.
• Hole is made by rotating hollow steel tube having
cutting bit at its base
• Cutting bit makes an annular cut in the strata and
leaves cylindrical core of the material in hollow tube.
5. Test piles:
• Test piles are nothing but driving of wooden or steel piles into the ground under
hammer blows. Sometimes the test piles are driven into the ground to obtain the
information of the solid strata.
• Material is not available for inspection.
• But the idea of the nature of soil can be obtained from the number of blows
required to drive a pile or rod for specific length into the ground.

6. Sub-surface Soundings:
• The resistance of the soil with depth is measured by means of a tool known as the
penetrometer under static or dynamic loading
• The resistance to penetration is empirically correlated with some of the
engineering properties of the soil, such as density index, consistency, bearing
capacity etc.
• The two commonly used tests are standard penetration test and the cone
penetration test.
7. Geo-physical methods:
This method of soil exploration is the most advanced method.
These methods are used when the exploration depth is substantial (very large) and
the speed of investigation is of primary importance.
These methods are mainly adopted to ascertain the depths at which useful minerals
and oils are available.

The two most commonly adopted methods for civil engineering purposes are as
follows:
1. Seismic refraction method:
In this method, Vibrations are caused in the ground with the help of artificial
explosions. Seismic waves have different velocities in different type of soil. From
the fact that vibrations travel with larger speed in rocks than in the soil, depth of
the rock lying below the ground surface can be estimated.

2. Electrical resistivity method:

In this method, electrodes are inserted into the ground and electric current is
passed through them. Resistance offered by the soil to electric current reveals
the conditions of soil strata such as depth of the rock, depth of water table etc.
Choice of the method:
Mainly be governed by the following three factors:
1. Cost of exploration:
• Deep exploration boring preferred over deep shafts
• Shallow exploration, trial pits or boring, depends.
2. Nature of ground:
• Clayey soils: boring for deep exploration, test pits (trial pits) for shallow
exploration.
• Rocks: The boring and trial pits (test pits) are suitable for hard rocks and soft rocks
respectively.
• Sandy soil: The borings are easy in such soils but special equipment will be
required for taking representative sample below the water table. If the ground
water table is lowered by any suitable method, the trial pits can also be adopted
for the sandy soils.
3. Topography:
• In hilly area, the choice between the vertical openings (i.e. bores and trial pits) and
horizontal openings (i.e. heading) will depend on the geological structure of site.
• For horizontal or gentle slopes, the trial pits or vertical borings are considered
suitable.
• For steeply inclined strata, the inclined borings are desirable.
Bearing Capacity of soils:
The load of the structure is ultimately coming on the soil and hence it is of utmost
importance to know the strength and behavior of the soil.
Soils behave in a complex manner when loaded. Soils when stressed due to loading,
tend to deform.
The resistance to deformation of the soil depends upon factors like water content, bulk
density, angle of internal friction and the manner in which load is applied on the soil.
The maximum load per unit area which the soil or rock can carry without yielding or
displacement is termed as the bearing capacity of soil.

Methods of estimating bearing capacity of soil:

• Analytical methods
• Rankine’s analysis
• Terzaghi’s analysis
• Plate load tests
• Penetration test
• Standard Penetration test
• Dutch cone test
Plate load test
• Field test to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil, and the probable
settlement under a given loading
• In this test, loading a rigid plate at the foundation level, and determining
settlement corresponding to each load increment
• Ultimate bearing capacity is taken as the load at which the plate starts sinking at a
rapid rate
• The test pit width is made five times the width of plate. At the centre of the pit, a
small hole is dug whose size is equal to the size of the plate and bottom level of
which corresponds to the level of actual foundation
• Seating load of 70 g/cm3 is applied to bearing plate. The load is applied to the
centrally placed column with the help of hydraulic jack in convenient increments.
Settlement of the plate observed by 2 dial gauge.
• Same loading until settlement per hour 0.02mm
• The test load is transmitted to column by :
(a) By gravity loading
(b) By loading truss method
(a) By gravity loading
By loading truss method
By loading truss method
Method of improving safe bearing capacity of soil:
Safe bearing capacity of the soil can be improved by adopting the following methods:
1. Increasing depth of foundation:
• In granular soil, the bearing capacity increases with the depth due to the confining
weight of overlying material. However, this is not economical since the cost of
construction increases with the depth. Also, the load on the foundation also
increases with the increase in the depth.
• Useful only when better bearing stratum is encountered at greater depth.
2. Compaction of soil:
Compaction of natural soil deposits (loose) or man-made fills results in the
improvement of bearing capacity and reduction in the resulting settlements.
Compaction increases the shear strength and density
Compaction of soil can be effectively achieved by the following means:
a. Ramming moist soil: By using hand rammers or mechanical frog rammers or
vibratory rollers. The voids of the soil is very much reduced, resulting in the reduction
in settlements.
b. Rubble compaction into the soil: A Layer of 30 to 45 cm thick well graded rubble is
spread over the foundation level and well rammed. If this layer of rubble gets buried in
the soil (specially when it is very loose) another Layer of 15 cm thick rubble is spread
and well rammed manually. This results in an increase in the bearing value of the soil.
Method of improving safe bearing capacity of soil:
b. Rubble compaction into the soil:
c. Vibration: Heavy vibratory rollers and compactors may compact a layer of granular
soils to a depth of 1 to 3 m. Results in increased safe bearing power and decreased
settlements when super-structure loads come on the soil.
d. Vibroflotation: It is a commercial method which combines the effect of vibration
and jetting. A heavy cylinder, known a vibroflot is inserted in the ground (soil) while
the cylinder vibrates due to a rotary eccentric weight. A water jet on the tip of the
vibro flot supplies a large amount of water under pressure. As the vibro flot sinks,
clean sand is added into a crater that develops on the surface. The method is very
useful when foundation is required to support heavy loads spread over a greater area.

e. Compaction by pre-loading: This method is useful when the footing is founded on

clayey soils which result in long term settlements. Pre-loading results in accelerated
consolidation, so that settlements are achieved well before the actual footing is laid.
The load used for this process is removed before the construction of the footing.
f. Using sand piles: This method is very useful in sandy soil or soft soils. Hollow pipes
are driven in the ground, at close interval. This result in the compaction of soil
enclosed between the adjacent pipes. These pipes are then gradually removed, filling
and ramming sand in the hole, resulting in the formation of sand piles.
Vibrofloatation
3. Drainage of soil:
• Presence of water decreases the bearing power of soil, specially when it is
saturated. This is because of low shearing strength of soil in presence of excess
water.
• Drainage results in decrease in the voids ratio (volume of voids/volume of solids),
and improvement of bearing power.
4. Confining the soil (Sheet piles):
• Sometimes the safe bearing pressure of the soil is low because of settlements
resulting due to the lateral movement of loose granular soil. Such a tendency of
lateral movement can be checked by confining the soil, outside the perimeter of
foundation area, by driving sheet piles, thus forming an enclosure and confining
the soil.
5. Grouting:
• This method is useful in loose gravels and fissured rocky strata.
• Bores holes in sufficient numbers are driven in the ground and cement grout is
forced through these under pressure. The cracks, voids and fissures (very fine hair
cracks) of the strata are thus filled with the grout, resulting in the increase in the
bearing value.
• Cement grout (1:1 or 1:2 cement & water) useful if the cracks are upto maximum
width 1.6 mm)
5. Grouting:
6. Chemical treatment:
• In this method, certain chemicals are grouted in the place of cement grout. The
chemical should be such that it can solidify and gain early strength.
• Chemical grouting may be used to fill cracks that are small as 0.1 mm.
• Inorganic chemicals like sodium silicate or organic chemicals like epoxy resin and
other resins are generally used. These chemical are in liquid form.

7. Replacing the poor soil

Others: Cement stabilization: Mixing soil, cement and water, Lime stabilization:
Mixing soil, lime and water, & Bituminous stabilization: Mixing of bitumen with soil.
 2.2 Foundation and its types (deep, shallow):
The substructure or foundations is the lower portion of the building, usually located
below ground level, which transmits the load of the super-structure to the sub-soil.
A foundation is therefore that part of the structure which is in direct contact with the
ground to which the loads are transmitted.

The basic function of a foundation is to transmit the dead loads, super-imposed

loads (or, live loads) and lateral loads from a building to the soil on which the
building rests, in such a way that
(a) Settlements are within permissible limits, without causing cracks in the super-
structure, and
(b) The soil does not fail. When loads are transmitted to the sub-soil, it settles. If this
settlement is slight and uniform throughout, no damage will be caused to the building.
But if the settlement is excessive or unequal, serious damage may result in the form of
cracked walls, distorted doors and window openings, cracked lintels, walls thrown out
of plumb etc., and sometimes the complete collapse of the building.
The foundation is thus the most important part of a building. Since it remains below
the ground level, the signs of failure of foundation are not noticeable till it has already
affected the building.
A foundation should be sufficiently strong to prevent excessive settlement as well as
unequal settlement. Unequal settlement or differential settlement may be caused
by:
•weak sub-soils, such as made up ground
•shrinkable and expansive soils (such as clay)
•Frost action.
•movement of ground water, and uplift pressure,
•excessive vibrations, due to traffic, machinery etc
•slow consolidation of saturated clays, and
•Slipping of strata on sloping sites.

When designing the foundations, therefore, the above factors must be taken into
account.
Objectives / Functions of foundations:
1. To provide a leveled and hard base for the superstructure.
2. To distribute the load of the structure over a larger area of substratum.
3. To increase stability; prevent tilting or overturning of the structure due to horz force.
4. To prevent unequal settlement of the soil and superstructure.
5. To prevent lateral escape/movement of the supporting material.
6. To provide Safety against undermining. It provides the structural safety against undermining
or scouring due to burrowing animals and flood water.

Essential requirements of a good Foundation:

Foundations should be constructed to satisfy the following requirements:
1. Settlement: The foundations shall be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed loads and
to transmit these to the sub-soil in such a way that pressure on it will not cause settlement
which would damage (impair) the stability of the building or adjoining structures.
2. Stability: Foundation base should be rigid so that differential settlements are minimized,
specially for the case when super-imposed loads are not evenly distributed.
3. Depth of foundation: Foundations should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building
against damage or distress caused by swelling or shrinkage of the sub-soil.
4. Location: Foundations should be so located that its performance may not be affected due to
any unexpected future influence.
Types of Foundations: Foundations maybe broadly classified under two heads:
(a) Shallow Foundations: ([Link] / B < or = 1.0)
(b) Deep Foundations: width ([Link] / B >1.0)

According to Terzaghi (Karl von Terzaghi- the father of soil mechanics);

A foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its width ([Link] / B < or =
1.0) and It is placed immediately below the lowest part of the superstructure. A
shallow foundation is also known as Open foundation, since such foundation is
constructed by open excavation.
The footing is commonly used in conjunction with shallow foundations. A footing is a
foundation unit constructed under the base of a wall or column for the purpose of
distributing the load over a larger area.

In case of deep foundations, the depth is equal to or greater than its width ([Link] / B
>1.0)
•It is relatively deep and need special precautions.
•The purpose of deep foundation is to attain bearing stratum deep inside the ground
in case of weak soil.
A) Shallow Foundations:
1. Spread Footing:
• Spreads the super-imposed load of wall or column over a larger area.
(i) Spread Footing for Walls: Strip Footings:
(a) Simple Strip Footing:
Suitable when wall carries light structural loadings
Safe bearing capacity is very high
A) Shallow Foundations:
1. Spread Footing:
• Spreads the super-imposed load of wall or column over a larger area.
(i) Spread Footing for Walls: Strip Footings:
(b) Stepped Strip Footing:
Suitable when wall carries heavy structural loadings
Safe bearing capacity is not very high
Masonry offsets are provided, to achieve larger spread
A) Shallow Foundations:
1. Spread Footing:
• Spreads the super-imposed load of wall or column over a larger area.
(ii) Isolated Footing or Pad Footing:
Spread footing for single column
(a) Simple Pad Footing:
Suitable when column carries small structural loadings
Safe bearing capacity is large
A) Shallow Foundations:
1. Spread Footing:
• Spreads the super-imposed load of wall or column over a larger area.
(ii) Isolated Footing or Pad Footing:
Spread footing for single column
(b) Stepped Pad Footing:
- Suitable when column carries large
structural loadings
- Safe bearing capacity is less
- Masonry offsets are provided, to
achieve larger spread
A) Shallow Foundations:
1. Spread Footing:
• Spreads the super-imposed load of wall or column over a larger area.
(ii) Isolated Footing or Pad Footing:
Spread footing for single column
(c) Footing for RCC Columns:
- RCC coulmns are supported on RCC Footings only.
A) Shallow Foundations:
1. Spread Footing:
• Spreads the super-imposed load of wall or column over a larger area.
(iii) Grillage Foundation:
- When heavy loads from columns, piers or stanchions are required to be
transferred to the soil of low bearing capacity, grillage foundation are more
lighter and more economical.
- Avoids deep excavation
A) Shallow Foundations:
2. Combined Footing:
• Footing that supports two columns. (If more than 2 columns – continuous footing)
• When overlaps, less bearing capacity and end column in property line.
• To get uniform pressure distribution, CG of footing area should coincide with CF of
combined loads of two columns.
(i) Combined Rectangular Footing:
- RCC slab designed for both longitudinal and transverse bending.
- If distance between columns very large, provide longitudinal beams
A) Shallow Foundations:
2. Combined Footing:
• Footing that supports two columns. (If more than 2 columns – continuous footing)
• When overlaps, less bearing capacity and end column in property line.
• To get uniform pressure distribution, CG of footing area should coincide with CF of
combined loads of two columns.
(ii) Combined Trapezoidal Footing:
- RCC slab designed for both longitudinal and transverse bending.
- If distance between columns very large, provide longitudinal beams
A) Shallow Foundations:
2. Combined Footing:
• Footing that supports two columns. (If more than 2 columns – continuous footing)
• When overlaps, less bearing capacity and end column in property line.
• To get uniform pressure distribution, CG of footing area should coincide with CF of
combined loads of two columns.
(iii) Continuous Footing:
- Supports more than 2 columns
- Loads transmitted directly or beams are placed, if heavy
A) Shallow Foundations:
3. Strap Footing:
• Comprises of 2 or more footings of individual columns, connected by a beam called
strap beam.
• When column right next to other’s property – trapezoidal combined footing.
However, if distance between column large, it will be narrow with high B.M.
• So, strap beam is provided. Strap beam doesn’t remain in contact with soil
• Strap assumed to be infinitely rigid, transfers column load from heavily loaded
column to another.
• Strap beam should be able to resist B.M. and S.F.
A) Shallow Foundations:
4. Raft or Mat Foundation:
• It is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath the structure and
supports all the walls and columns.
• When allowable soil pressure is low, building loads heavy, and use of spread
footing covers more than half of the area
• Used when soil is susceptible to differential settlement
• Reduces settlement by making wt of structure and raft equal to wt of soil excavated
• If column loads heavy, slab under column thickened, and if column spacing large,
main and secondary beams
B) Deep Foundations (Df/B >1):
Deep Foundations are those in which the depth of the foundation is very large in
comparison to its width. The construction is adopted when the loose soil extends to a
great depth. The purpose of deep foundation is to attain bearing stratum deep inside
the ground in case of weak soil.
1. Pile Foundation:
• Defined as series of columns constructed or inserted into the ground to transmit
the loads of the structure to a lower level of sub-soil.

Pile foundation may be adopted when

I. Load of super structure is heavy and distribution is uneven.
II. Top soil has low bearing capacity
III. Subsoil water level is high so that pumping of water from trenches of shallow
foundation is difficult and uneconomical
IV. Structure is situated on seashore
V. Top soil is of expansive nature
VI. in filling areas
VII. in the areas where the mat or grillage foundations are not possible or very
expensive.
B) Deep Foundations (Df/B >1):
1. Pile Foundation:

(a) Classification based on function:

(i) End bearing pile [Fig. 2.8 (a)]
(ii) Friction pile [Fig. 2.8 (b)]
(iii) Combined end bearing and friction pile [Fig. 2.8 (c)]
(iv) Compaction piles [Fig. 2.8 (d)]
Some other types of pile (based on function):
•Sheet pile: Sheet piles are driven side by side into the ground to form a continuous
vertical wall for retaining soil. It is made out of wood, concrete or steel.
•Batter pile: When piles are driven at an inclination to resist large horizontal or
inclined forces, the piles are termed as batter piles.
•Anchor pile: Provides anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet piling or other
pulling factors.
•Fender pile: When the piles are used to protect concrete deck or other water front
structures (docks, piers etc) from the abrasion or impact that may be caused from the
ships they are called fender piles. The fender piles are ordinarily made up of timber.
Decking

Sheet

Anchor
Bearing
Fender
Batter
B) Deep Foundations (Df/B >1):
1. Pile Foundation:
(b) Classification based on materials and composition:
(i) Concrete piles
- Pre-cast
- Cast in-situ - Driven Piles
- Bored Piles
(ii) Timber piles
(iii) Steel piles
- H-pile
- Pipe pile
- Sheet pile
(iv) Composite piles
- Concrete and timber
- Concrete and steel
B) Deep Foundations (Df/B >1):
1. Pile Foundation:

Selection of types of pile:

• Nature of structure
• Nature of soil strata
• Loading in structure
• Ground water table
• Length of pile required
• Availability of materials and equipments
• Cost of piles
B) Deep Foundations (Df/B >1):
2. Cassions: Well Foundation:
• A cassion may be defined as a watertight structure made up of wood, steel or
reinforced concrete, constructed in connection with excavation for foundation of
bridges, piers, abutments in rivers and lakes, dock structures for shore protection,
etc.
• Cassion remains as integral part of the permanent structure

Types of cassions:
(i) Open cassion (Well foundation):
• Box made of timber, metal, RCC or masonry which is
open at top and bottom, and used for building and
bridge foundation
• In bridges, when foundation are required to be taken
to a depth more than 5 to 7m, open excavation
becomes costly and heavy timbering needs to be provided.
B) Deep Foundations (Df/B >1):
2. Cassions: Well Foundation:
Types of cassions:
(ii) Box cassion:
• Box cassion is open at top and closed at bottom and made of timber, steel or RCC.
• Cassion built on land, launched and then floated to pier site where it is sunk in
position
• Used when bearing strata available at shallow depth and loads are not very heavy
B) Deep Foundations (Df/B >1):
2. Cassions: Well Foundation:
Types of cassions:
(iii) Pneumatic cassion:
• They are closed at top and open at bottom.
• Compressed air is used to exclude or remove water from working chamber at the
bottom, and thus excavation are carried out in dry condition.
• Used for depth of water ranging from 12 to 15m.
 2.3 Earthwork excavation of foundations (Soft soil, hard rock, wet excavation):
Earthwork Excavation : An act of digging out or act of unearthing.
Excavation of foundation trenches can be done either manually with the help of
conventional implements, shown in Fig. 2.29 or with the help of special mechanical
equipment.

Fig. 2.29 Implements for foundation excavation (Conventional Tools)

Fig. 2.30 (a) shows a drag shovel which can excavate the foundation trench upto a
width of 1.7 m.
Fig. 2.30 (b) shows a multi-bucket trencher, which can excavate trenches upto 1.5 m
width and 5 m deep. The boom is raised and lowered as required by the driver moving
a lever and can be locked in any position. The spoil is carried up from the trench by
buckets (having cutting teeth) attached to a continuous steel chain and tipped on to a
belt conveyor at the top the rise, from where it is deposited to either left or right hand
side of the trench.

FIG. 2.30 Excavating equipment

TIMBERING OF TRENCHES - SOILS.
When the depth of trench is large, or when the sub-soil is loose, the sides of the
trench may cave in. The problem can be solved by adopting a suitable method of
timbering.
Timbering of trenches, sometimes also known as shoring consists of providing timber
planks or boards and struts to give temporary support to the sides of the trench.

Timbering of deep trenches can be done with the help of the following methods:
1. Stay bracing:
• Used for supporting sides or bench excavated in fairly firm soil conditions.
• When depth of excavation does not exceed 2m.
• Sheets (40x200mm): 2 to 4 m interval
TIMBERING OF TRENCHES - SOILS.
2. Box Sheeting:
• Adopted in Loose soil (Dry or Wet) conditions.
• When depth of excavation does not exceed 4m.
• Sheets very near to each other, with provision of wales
TIMBERING OF TRENCHES - SOILS.
3. Vertical Sheeting:
• Adopted in Soft ground for deep trenches (upto 10m)
• When depth of excavation does not exceed 10m.
• Excavation carried out in stages with provision of offsets
• Each stage limited to 3m in height

4. Runner System:
• Adopted in extremely loose and soft ground which
needs immediate support as excavation progresses
• Runners made of long thick wooden sheets or planks
with iron shoe at end
• Runners driven 30cm in advance by hammering
TIMBERING OF TRENCHES - SOILS.
5. Sheet piling:
• Adopted in Soft or loose soil, deep excavation, large width of trench and presence
of sub-soil water
• Designed to resist lateral earth pressure
• Driven by mechanical means (pile driving equipments)
Discuss the factors to be considered in Construction stage of Trench Excavation:
(or precautions to be taken in trench excavation)
• Type of Trench
•Soil Condition
•B.C of soil
•Depth of Trench
•Width of Trench
•GWT
•Possibility of slip of Earth
•Slope Stability
•Adjacent Strs.
•Future Expansion of Pipes, Cables, sewer lines etc
•Temporary Supports
•Safety of Adjacent Strs
•Traffic in the surroundings
•Provision of ladders
•Fencing and Lights
•First aid Box
• Refilling works.
Excavations in soft soil:
• In firm soil, side of trench shall be kept vertical upto depth of 2m from the bottom
• Proper shoring techniques shall be provided for greater depth
• Excavation can also be done by providing slopes 1H:4V or beyond

Excavations in hard rock:

• In hard rock, if blasting operations are considered necessary, contractor shall obtain
the approval
• Chiseling shall be done to obtain correct level, shape, slope and pattern of
excavation
• If blasting is prohibited, chiseling should be done

Excavation in ordinary soil:

• Excavation shall be carried out by crowbars, picks, axes, or pneumatic drills
• If blasting to be done, contractor shall obtain the approval
Excavations in wet soil (Ground with sub-soil water):
Excavations of foundation trenches in ground having high water table, or in water-
logged area pose great problems because of water oozing in the trench from sides,
bringing with it the soil from the sides.
The timbering, if provided, would become loose and collapse. Excavations can be
carried out by dewatering the sub-soil water.
Foundation dewatering can be done by the following methods:
(i) Ditches and sumps
(ii) Well point system
(iii) Shallow well system
(iv) Deep well system
(v) Vacuum method and
(vi) Electro-osmosis method.
Excavations in ground with sub-soil water:
(i) Ditches and sumps
• This is the simplest form of dewatering used in shallow excavations in coarse
grained soils.
• Shallow pits called sumps are dug in the periphery of the area-drainage ditches
• Gravity flow
Excavations in ground with sub-soil water:
(ii) Well point system
• This is the method of keeping an excavated area dry by intercepting the flow of
ground water with pipe wells driven into the ground
• This method can be adopted up to depth of excavation 1.8m
• Gravity flow
• Used to lower ground water table
• Well point is a perforated pipe
Excavations in ground with sub-soil water:
(iii) Deep well system
• Used when depth of excavation more than 16m below the water table
• Used when artesian water present
• 15 to 60 cm dia hole bored with provision of casing
• Each well has submersible pump placed at bottom of the well
• Provision of well points at the toe
Excavations in ground with sub-soil water:
(iv) Vacuum method
• Used for fine grained soil
• Dewatering done by suction
• Can be used in both well point system and deep well system
Excavations in ground with sub-soil water:
(v) Electro-osmosis method
• Used for fine grained cohesive soil (like clay)
• Dewatering done using electric current
• If direct current is passed between two electrodes driven in natural soil mass, the
soil water will travel from positive electrode (anode) to the negative electrode
(cathode)
• Cathode is made in the form of well point for pumping water
 2.4 Excavation of Trenches for pipes, cables, etc. and refilling works:
Trenches are carried out principally to allow installation and repair of public utilities,
drains, and sewer pipes such as RCC Hume pipes. The pipe or conduit should be
positioned in the center of the trench.
The width of trench:
Up to depth one meter, the authorized width of trench for excavation shall be
arrived at by adding 25-30 cm to the external diameter of pipe (without socket or
collar), cable, conduit etc. Where a pipe is laid on concrete bed, the authorized width
shall be the external diameter of pipe (without socket or collar) plus 25-30 cm or the
width of concrete bed whichever is more.

For depth exceeding one meter: An allowance of 5cm per meter of depth for each
side of the trench shall be added to the authorized width (that is external diameter of
pipe plus 25cm) for excavation. This allowance shall apply to the entire depth of the
trench. In firm soils the side of the trenches shall be kept vertical up to depth 2 meters
from the bottom.
 In the case of more than one pipe, one cable, and one conduit etc, the diameter
shall be calculated as the horizontal distance from outside to outside of the outermost
pipes, cables, conduit etc.
 If the soil is soft, loose or slushy (liquid mud, watery), shoring to be done for
excavation in soft, loose or slushy soils.
Refilling Works:
• It is the process of arranging the backfill of the trench, compacting of the material,
leveling and reinstating the surface materials and to remove any surplus material.
Layers of backfill material must be rammed manually or by using machine if required.

• The backfill and reinstatement requirements include restoration of the trench and
any associated surfaces, such as driveways, paths, lawns, flowerbeds and tiling, etc
2.5 Some common problems with existing foundations:
Foundations are in regular contact with the ground which usually is in extreme
conditions. Therefore the physical conditions of the surrounding affect the foundation
in a great extent. There are several such problems which deteriorate the condition of
foundation some of which are to be followed:
Causes of foundation failure:
•Unequal settlement of the sub-soil.
•Unequal settlement of masonry.
•Unequal load distribution.
•Sub-soil moisture movement.
•Lateral pressure tending to tilt or over-turn the structure.
•Lateral movement of sub-soil.
•Shrinkage due to withdrawal of moisture from the soil below the foundations.
•Atmospheric action (i.e: sun, wind, rain, frost action)
Causes of failure of foundations:
1. Unequal settlement of sub soil
- May lead to cracks in structural components
- Causes:
(a) Non uniform nature of sub soil
(b) Unequal load distribution
(c) eccentric loading
- Remendial Measures:
(a) resting foundation in rigid strata
(b) proper design of base of footing
(c) limiting the pressure in the soil
(d) avoiding eccentric loading

2. Unequal settlement of masonry

- Causes:
(a) Masonry in between ground level and concrete footing has mortar joint which may shrink or
compress; lead to unequal settlement in masonry and thus forms cracks in superstructure
- Remendial Measures:
(a) using mortar of proper strength
(b) using thin mortar joints
(c) limiting height of masonry (1m per day if lime mortar and 1.5m per day if cement mortar)
(d) properly watering the masonry
Causes of failure of foundations:
3. Sub-soil moisture movement
- Causes:
(a) Especially in cohesive soil where water table fluctuates; Shrinkage leads to high settlement
and Swelling leads to major cracks in super structure
(b) Suction of sub-soil moisture by roots
- Remedy:
(a) Maintain distance between trees and foundation
(b) Use of pile or raft foundation
(c) For expansive and compressive soil, bed of foundation firm, removal of such soil, minimum
contact area between such soil and foundation
4. Lateral pressure on the walls
- Causes:
(a) Walls are subjected to lateral forces like wind and earthquake due to which foundation are
subjected to moment and may cause overturning or generation of tensile stresses
- Remedy:
(a) Foundation should be designed for lateral forces
5. Lateral movement of sub-soil
- Causes:
(a) In very soft soil where soil mass may squeeze out laterally under vertical loads (especially in
sloping ground or pit excavated in vicinity of foundation) leading to excessive settlement
- Remedy:
(a) Provision of sheet pile
Causes of failure of foundations:
6. Weathering of sub-soil due to trees and shrubs
- Causes:
(a) Absorption of moisture from foundation soil resulting in voids and settlement
- Remedy:
(a) Maintain distance between trees and foundation

7. Atmospheric actions
- Causes:
(a) Atmospheric agents such as sun, wind, rain causing moisture penetration and drying
- Remedy:
(a) Plinth protection with filling foundation trenches with good soil and compaction, providing
gentle slope away from the wall, providing strip of impervious material like lime, cement, etc
along exterior walls
End of Chapter 2.0