DIPLOMA OF

HEALTH SCIENCES
HUMAN STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION (HSF1000)

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MODULE 2: HOW DO CELLS DO WHAT THEY DO?
Learning outcomes
1. List the functional characteristics of a cell
2. List the major cellular organelles and briefly describe their functions.
3. Distinguish between the cytoplasm, cytosol, and cytoskeleton.
4. Describe the structure and the role of the cell (plasma) membrane.
5. Define ‘histology’.
6. List the four types of primary tissues and the characteristics of each tissue type.
7. List the main characteristics of epithelial tissue.
8. Ascribe names to the different cell shapes and layers of epithelial tissue.
9. Provide an example of each epithelial tissue type and where each tissue type is found
in the body including an understanding of why (functionally) it is found in this body location.
10. List the main characteristics of connective tissue.
11. Describe the composition of connective tissue.
12. List the classes of connective tissue.
13. Have an understanding of the different classifications of connective tissue.
14. List characteristics of muscle and nervous tissue.
PREPARATION
Read the following pages of your Textbook

• VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J. L. & Russo, A. F. (2017). Seeley’s Anatomy and

Physiology (11th edition). New York, USA: McGraw-Hill. ISBN/ISSN: 9781743769072
✓ Chapter 3: pages 58-62 and 79-88
✓ Chapter 4: pages 103-111 and 115-130

• VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J. L. & Russo, A. F. (2014).Seeley’s Anatomy and

Physiology (10th ED) New York, USA: McGraw-Hill.
✓ Chapter 3: pages 56-61 and 76-86
✓ Chapter 4: pages 101-111 and 113-129

• VanPutte, C. L., Regan, J. L. & Russo, A. F. (2010), Seeley’s Anatomy and

Physiology (9th ED). New York, USA: McGraw- Hill
✓ Chapter 3: pages 56-60 and 76-86
✓ Chapter 4: pages 109-119 and 122-137
THE CELL

• Structural and functional unit of all living things

• Plasma membrane, cytoplasm containing organelles, nucleus.
• Variation in shape, size, function
• Uni/multi cellular

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FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CELLS

1. Cell metabolism and energy use

2. Synthesis of molecules

3. Communication

4. Reproduction and inheritance

A GENERALISED CELL
• Plasma membrane
• Cytoplasm
• Cytoskeleton
• Nucleus
• Ribosomes
• Golgi apparatus
• Lysosomes
• Mitochondria
• Centrioles
• Cilia
• Microvilli

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 PLASMA MEMBRANE
Also known as: Cell membrane, plasma lemma, sarcolemma,
plasmalemma
Glycocalyx – forms the outer surface of the cell
• Glycoproteins (carbohydrates and proteins)
Glycolipids (carbohydrates and lipids)
Carbohydrates

Functions
• Encloses & supports cellular contents
• Controls movement of molecules
• Inter-cellular communication
• Cell recognition
Plasma membrane
Structure:

◼ Lipid bilayer (phospholipid bilayer and cholesterol) (45-50%)

- Provides flexibility to the cell

◼ Carbohydrates (4-8%)

◼ Proteins (45-50%)

◼ Fluid mosaic model

▪ Polar heads facing water in the

interior and exterior of the cell
(hydrophilic);
▪ Nonpolar tails facing each other
on the interior of the membrane
(hydrophobic)
CYTOPLASM

• Cellular fluid material outside the nucleus

but within the boundaries of the plasma
membrane
• Organelles (“little organs”)

• Cytosol
CYTOSOL

• Fluid portion of the cytoplasm (ions and

proteins in water)
• Cytoplasmic inclusions –aggregates of chemicals
• Cytoskeleton –supports the cell and its organelles.
Responsible for changes to the shape of the cell
and movement of its organelles
CYTOSKELETON

• Supports the cell and its organelles

• Provide mechanical strength and structural support to the cell

• Responsible for changes to the shape of the cell and movement of its
organelles Nucleus
Plasma membrane

• Consists of Mitochondrion

Tubulin subunits
• Microtubules Endoplasmic
reticulum
5 nm

• Microfilaments
25 nm

• Intermediate filaments Ribosomes Microtubules are composed

of tubulin protein subunits.
Microtubules are 25 nm in
diameter with walls
5 nm thick.
Protein subunits

10 nm
Actin subunits
Intermediate filaments are
8 nm protein fibers 10 nm in diameter.
INTRACELLULAR COMPONENTS
The Nucleus and Cytoplasmic
Organelles
• Small specialized structures with particular functions

• Most have membranes that separate interior of organelles from

cytoplasm

• Abundance of each organelle is related to specific structure and

function of the cell
NUCLEUS
Structure:
• Nuclear envelope - a bilayer membrane surrounding the nucleus

• Nuclear pores – holes in the nuclear membrane

• Nucleoplasm - fluid inside nucleus

• Nucleolus– primarily produces ribosomes

Function: Nucleoplasm

• “Control centre” of the cell Nucleolus

• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in the nucleus determines the structural and

functional characteristics of the cell
RIBOSOMES

Structure:
• Composed of 2 subunits: large and small

• Free ribosomes and membrane-bound ribosomes

• Can be found in nucleus, nucleolus or cytoplasm

• Can be free or membrane bound

Function:
• Sites of protein synthesis
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Structure and Function:
• Fattened, interconnecting sacs and tubules

• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) – with ribosomes

• Synthesis and modification of proteins

• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) – without ribosomes

Outer membrane
Ribosomesof nuclear envelope
• Site of lipid, steroid and carbohydrate synthesis

• Detoxification of harmful substances (e.g. drugs) Nucleus

Nuclear pore

• Breakdown of glycogen to glucose

Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum

Cisternae

Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
GOLGI APPARATUS

Structure:
• Flattened membranous sacs, with cisternae

• Secretory vesicles

Function: Cisternae
Transport vesicle

• “Traffic director” for cellular proteins

Secretory
vesicles
• Modifies, packages and distributes proteins
and lipids that are made in the rough
endoplasmic reticulum
LYSOSOMES
Structure: Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or
display.

• Membrane-bound vesicles that forms at Plasma membrane

1
the Golgi apparatus
Vesicle forming
• Contain enzymes within them 2 by endocytosis

Function: Golgi
Vesicle taken
into the cell
apparatus Cytoplasm
• Cell’s “demolition crew”
3 4
• Digestion of molecules (nucleic acids, Fusion of vesicle
proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, etc.) that with lysosome

are no longer needed by the cell Lysosome

5
MITOCHONDRIA
Outer membrane

Structure: Inter membrane space

Inner membrane

• Outer membrane Matrix

• Intermembrane space
• Inner membrane
• Matrix (inside of folds)
• Change shape continuously DNA

• Has its own genetic material ➔ reproduce itself Crista

Function:
Enzymes
• “Power plants of a cell”
• ATP (adenosine triphosphate) production and
(a) supply

✓ ATP is the unit of currency for energy

• Increase in number when cell energy requirements increase
• High in cardiac muscle and neurons, increase in skeletal muscle in response to
exercise
CENTRIOLES (AND THE CENTROSOME)
Structure:
• Barrel-shaped organelles oriented at right angles to each other

• Wall of centrioles is composed of microtubules

• Two centrioles can be found in the centrosome (cell’s centre)

Function:
• Cell division - produce spindle fibers
CILIA
Structure:
• Whip-like, motile cellular extensions which
project from the outer surfaces of certain cells

Function:
• Movement of substances across the surface of
cells
• e.g. cilia lining the respiratory tract which move
mucus out of the lungs
• e.g. cilia in the fallopian tubes of the female
reproductive system which moves the egg from the
ovary to the uterus

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FLAGELLA
Structure:
• Similar to cilia but longer
• Found in humans on sperm cells only (one flagellum per sperm)

• Unlike cilia which moves substances across the cell surface, flagella move the
actual cell itself i.e. sperm cell

Function:
• Motility
MICROVILLI

Structure:
• Extensions of the plasma membrane

• Each cell has many microvilli usually

• 1/10-1/20 size of cilia, hence micro

• Non-motile

Function:
• Increases the cell’s surface area
– e.g. absorptive cells of intestine or kidney tubules
LET US TRY☺

1. Plasma membrane Fluid portion of the cytoplasm

2. Cytoskeleton Site of steroid, carbohydrate and lipid
synthesis
3. Nucleus Cell’s demolition crew
4. Ribosomes Encloses and supports cellular contents
5. Golgi apparatus Control centre of the cell
6. Lysosomes Supports the cell and its organelles
7. Mitochondria Cell’s centre where centrioles can be found
8. Centrosome Modifies, packages and distributes proteins
9. Flagella Increases the cell’s surface area
10. Microvilli Power plant of a cell
11. Cytosol Site of protein production
12. Endoplasmic reticulum Action of this structure moves the actual cell
itself
PART ONE REVISION

So Far:
• Define: Intracellular, Extracellular, Intercellular,
Intravascular
• Plasma Membrane Structure?
• Site protein synthesis? Site production of ATP?

NOW = TISSUES ☺
Recap from compendium 1

Smooth muscle tissue

Wall of urinary bladder

Epithelium

Connective tissue
Urinary bladder
Smooth muscle tissue

Connective tissue
 HISTOLOGY
Preparation of tissue
1. Removal of tissue from the body via a biopsy or autopsy
2. Fixation of tissue – stops tissue from degrading
3. Embedding of the tissue
4. Slicing of the tissue and mounting tissue on a slide
5. Staining and viewing using a microscope
` Taking a photo = photomicrograph
STAINS

Haematoxylin and Eosin

Abbreviated to H & E
• Nuclei are stained purple (from haematoxylin) whereas other cell
structures, including the cytoplasm, are stained pink (eosin)

Nuclei
MAGNIFICATION

Points to consider when viewing histological images:

1. The plane the tissue has been cut in
2. The magnification of the image

2x 10 x 20 x 100 x
Points to consider when viewing histological images:

1. The plane the tissue has been cut in

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Points to consider when viewing histological images: the brain

1. The plane the tissue has been cut in

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Frontal or coronal Transverse or horizontal Sagittal or median [Link]

MAGNIFICATION

Points to consider when viewing histological images:

1. The plane the tissue has been cut in
2. The magnification of the image

2x 10 x 20 x 100 x
PRIMARY TISSUES

Types of Primary Tissues

All organs in the body contain four primary tissue types:

• Epithelial tissue covers

• Connective tissue support

• Muscle tissue movement

• Nervous tissue control

MUSCLE TISSUE
Highly cellular, well vascularised and responsible for most body movement
Types of muscle
Skeletal
- Muscles attached to the bones of the skeleton
- Muscle cells are called muscle fibres
- Striated muscle with multiple peripheral nuclei/cell
- Mostly under voluntary control but involuntary
movements can occur with skeletal muscle e.g. twitching
Cardiac
- Only found in the walls of the heart,
- Striated muscle with intercalated disks, branched shape
- Under involuntary control
Smooth
- Found mainly in the walls of hollow organs e.g. stomach,
bladder, uterus, blood vessels.
- No striations and single nucleus per muscle cell
- Under involuntary control
Skeletal muscle

• Muscles attached to the bones of

the skeleton, hence the name.

• Heat regulation, metabolism,

posture, breathing.

• Can regenerate after injury.

• Can hypertrophy in response to

exercise, or waste with disuse.
Skeletal muscle
• Muscle cells are called muscle fibers or myofibres

• Striated muscle

• Multinucleated

• Peripheral nuclei (on the edges of the tube)

• Mostly under voluntary control, but involuntary movements can

• occur with skeletal muscle e.g. twitching
Cardiac muscle

• Found only in the heart

(wall).
• Involuntary control

• Cardiac muscle contractions: 1)

generate pressure which moves
blood through the vessels.
• 2) change the rate and the force
of contractions to meet the
metabolic needs of the body –
exercise, rest and position.

The heart is located in the mediastinum –

the central partition of the thoracic cavity.
Cardiac Muscle
The heart wall consists of:
1) epicardium
(visceral pericardium):
Serous membrane
Underlying fatty connective
tissue - contains blood vessels &
nerves.

2) myocardium:
Middle muscular layer
Cardiomyocytes.
Majority.

3) endocardium:
Inner layer
Endothelial lining (simple
squamous epithelium)
Cardiac muscle

• Cardiac muscle cells are called cardiomyocytes

• Striated muscle with intercalated disks

• Cells are branched with central nuclei

• Lots of mitochondria

• Under involuntary control

Smooth muscle
◼ Found mainly in the walls of hollow organs and tubes e.g.
stomach, bladder, intestines, uterus, blood vessels.

◼ Regulates the size of the organ/tube, moves contents along.

Tunica media: smooth

muscle cells arranged
circularly around the blood
vessel.

Vasoconstriction: smooth
muscles contract, decrease in
blood flow

Vasodilation: smooth
muscles relax, increase in
blood flow
Smooth muscle
• No striations

• Single nucleus per muscle cell

• Under involuntary control

• Can regenerate
NERVOUS SYSTEM AND TISSUE

Nervous system consists of :

• Brain
• Spinal cord
• Nerves

Nervous tissue is the main component of the nervous system

• Nerve cells (also known as neurons)
• Supporting cells (also known as neuroglia) A neuron

Neurons
• Cell body (also known as ‘soma’)
• Dendrites –input of information
• Axon –conducting or transmitting information
CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Most abundant and widely distributed primary tissue in the body

• Cells separated by abundance of extracellular matrix
• Diverse in structure and function

Location:
• Found in all organs and parts of the body but its amount varies
Function:
• Connects and binds together, supports, strengthens, protects, insulates,
compartmentalise, transports, provides energy, stores compounds
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Classes of connective tissue
[Link] tissue (CT) proper
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Composition of connective tissue

1. Cells - produce the ECM
2. Ground substance
3. Fibres Extracellular matrix (ECM)
4. Fluid
CELLS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

1. Adipose cells (adipocytes) -energy source and cushioning

2. Fibroblasts –secrete fibres and ground substance

3. Mast cells -immunity

4. White blood cells (also known as leucocytes) -repair injury and fight off

infection e.g. neutrophils

5. Macrophages -phagocytose foreign molecules

e.g. dust particles, phagocytose injured cells and foreign bacteria

EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX

Ground substance of connective tissue

Fills the spaces between the cells of the connective tissue, and the space where the fibres
(fibrous proteins) are suspended. Consists of non-fibrous proteins (eg Hyaluronic acid,
proteoglycans)

Fibres of connective tissue Fig. Collagen Fibres

1. Collagen fibres
2. Elastic fibres
3. Reticular fibres

Fig. Elastic Fibres

CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
Tissue Connective tissue proper

Regular CT
• Dense – regular, Locations: Tendons (muscles to bones), Most ligaments (bones to bones)
Irregular, Elastic Functions: Attachment
Irregular CT
Location: Skin’s dermis, Fibrous coverings surrounding bones, cartilages, muscles and
nerves
Functions: Provides strength and stretching capabilities
Elastic CT
Locations: Walls of arteries, Ligaments between spinal vertebrate
Functions: Has high recoil and strength
• Loose – Areolar, Areolar CT
Adipose, Reticular Locations: Widely distributed throughout the body, The connective tissue that epithelia of
skin rests on
Functions: Loose packing, support and binding other tissues
Adipose CT
Locations: Fat beneath the skin, surrounding kidneys
Functions: Nutrient-storing ability, Shock absorption and protection, Insulation
breasts, abdomen and hips

Reticular CT
Location: Lymph nodes, Spleen, Bone marrow
Function: Forms a framework to support free blood cells (white blood cells, mast and
macrophage cells)
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Tissue
Cartilage • Hyaline cartilage: most abundant and Made of cartilage cells within a
found in the rib cage, trachea, rigid matrix
• Hyaline cartilage articulating surfaces of bones and nose •Avascular and not innervated
• Fibrocartilage Function:
• Fibrocartilage: found in intervertebral •Provides protection, flexibility,
• Elastic cartilage discs and pubic symphysis rigidity and capable of
• Elastic cartilage: found in the ear and withstanding pressure
epiglottis

Bone • Spongy bone: found at ends of long Supports and protects body
bone, sternum, vertebrate and pelvis structures
• Spongy bone • Compact bone: found in the shaft of •Composed of cells and matrix
• Compact bone long bone and makes up the outer •Osteocytes (bone cells) reside in
portions of all bones lacunae

Blood • Red blood cells (erythrocytes) Transport for nutrients, wastes

• White blood cells (leucocytes) and respiratory gases around the
• Platelets (blood clotting) body
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Also known as epithelium (plural epithelia)

Characteristics of epithelial tissue:

• Covers and protects
•Covering and lining epithelium
•Glandular epithelium
• Distinct cell surfaces
• Free surface
• Lateral surface
• Basal surface or
basement membrane or
basal lamina
• Avascular but innervated
• Ability to regenerate
EPITHELIAL TISSUE CLASSIFICATION

A. Cell layers
EPITHELIAL TISSUE CLASSIFICATION

B. Cell shapes
EPITHELIAL TISSUE CLASSIFICATION

C. Special features

• Keratin
• Keratinised (eg Keratinised Stratified Squamous)

• Non-keratinised (eg Non-keratinised Stratified Squamous)

• Cilia
• Ciliated
SIMPLE EPITHELIUM

Name Characteristics Locations Functions

Simple squamous Single layer of flattened Air sacs of lungs, Diffusion, filtration
epithelium cells with sparse kidney glomeruli, and some
cytoplasm serous membranes of secretion
pleura, pericardium
and peritoneum

Simple cuboidal Single layer of cubed- Kidney tubules and Absorption,

epithelium shaped cells. Some of terminal bronchioles secretion and
these cells have movement
microvilli or cilia

Simple columnar Single layer of column-

epithelium shaped or tall cells with Intestines, stomach, Absorption,
round to oval nuclei. fallopian tubes and secretion and
Some cells have cilia lungs movement
LET US TRY ☺
STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM

Name Characteristics Location Function

Stratified Several layers of cells. • Keratinized: sole Protection
squamous Basal cells are cuboidal of feet, palm of against
epithelium or columnar and hands, skin abrasion
become progressively • Non-keratinized: and loss of
flatter (i.e. squamous) mouth, water
as you move to the oesophagus, anus
surface. and vagina
Stratified
cuboidal Rare tissue. Several Ducts of sweat glands, Absorption,
epithelium layers of cubed-shaped ducts of salivary secretion
cells. glands and developing and
ovum protection

Stratified Also a rare tissue. Ducts of mammary Secretion

columnar Several layers of glands, larynx and part and
epithelium column-shaped cells. of the male urethra protection
LET US TRY ☺
SPECIAL CASES

Name Characteristics Location Functions

Pseudostratified Single layer of column- Pharynx, trachea, Secretion and

ciliated shaped cells with male’s sperm movement
columnar differing heights where carrying ducts
epithelium some cells may not
extend all the way to
the surface. Nuclei are
all over the place and
cells are ciliated

Transitional Resembles stratified Urinary bladder, Accommodate

epithelium squamous and stratified ureter and upper changes in
cuboidal cells part of urethra fluid volume
depending on its state of the organs
LET US TRY ☺
EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE

These tissues do not exist….

•Simple transitional
•Stratified transitional
•Pseudostratified squamous
•Pseudostratified cuboidal
•Pseudostratified transitional
FEED FORWARD QUESTION:

1. QUESTION: A laboratory scientist is looking in the microscope and observes tissue where
the cells are densely packed, striated and contain a single nucleus. Which tissue type is the
scientist most likely viewing?

OPTIONS:
A. Cardiac muscle
B. Cartilage
C. Brain
D. Simple squamous epithelia
E. Simple cuboidal epithelia
 KEY TERMS
By the end of this session, you should be able to recognise and define
these terms

Intracellular, extracellular, interstitial, intercellular, intravascular,

plasma membrane, nucleus, ribosome, rough endoplasmic
reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosome, mitochondria, centrioles, organelles, cytoplasm, cytosol,
primary tissue, epithelium, connective tissue, stratified,
pseudostratified, squamous, cuboidal, columnar, transitional,
photomicrograph, cilia, microvilli, cytoskeleton
 QUESTIONS
After completion of this session you should be able to answer the following questions
1. What makes up the environment of a cell?
2. What are the main organelles inside a cell and what is their function?
3. What happens to a cell if an organelle stops working?
4. Are all cells in the body the same?
5. What are the four primary tissue types?
6. What are the general characteristics and functions of epithelia?

7. Where are epithelial tissues found?

8. What are the types of cell surface modifications found in epithelia and what functions do these have?
9. What are the 3 types of simple epithelia? Give an example of where they are found and how are they adapted for their

specific functions?
10. What are the two main types of stratified squamous epithelia? Give an example of where they are found and how are they adapted for their
specific functions?

11. What are the general characteristics of connective tissue?

12. How do the general characteristics of connective tissues compare with those for epithelia?
13. Name the 3 types of muscle found in the body and briefly describe their functions?
14. What are the general characteristics of nervous tissue?