MODERN INDIA

UPSC Prelims & Mains — Complete Merged Notes

Mughal Decline · European Powers · British Policies · Reform Movements

Revolts · Nationalism · Gandhi Era · Revolutionary Activities · Independence

■ Zero Information Loss · Exam-Ready · Non-Redundant · Fully Integrated ■

TABLE OF CONTENTS

# Topic

1 Mughal Decline & Later Mughals

2 Successor / Regional States

3 Maratha Confederacy

4 European Powers in India

5 Wars Fought by British

6 Socio-Religious Reform Movements

7 Civil Uprisings, Peasant & Tribal Revolts

8 Revolt of 1857

9 Modern Nationalism & INC Formation

10 Moderate Phase (1885–1905)

11 Era of Militant Nationalism (1905–1920)

12 Revolutionary Activities

13 WWI & Nationalist Response

14 Emergence of Gandhi

15 Non-Cooperation & Khilafat Movements

16 Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–34)

17 Congress Rule in Provinces & WWII

18 Quit India & Last Decade of British Rule

19 INA & Subhash Chandra Bose

20 Constitutional & Administrative Developments

21 Economic Impact of British Rule

22 Governor Generals & Key Dates Timeline

# Topic

23 Quick Reference: Quotes, Books & Newspapers

 1. MUGHAL DECLINE & LATER MUGHALS

1.1 Later Mughal Emperors

Ruler (Reign) Key Facts

Bahadur Shah I / Muazzam Son of Aurangzeb; called 'Shah-e-Bekhabar'; abolished Jiziya; released Sahu; recognised Ajit Singh as
(1707–12) ruler of Malwa

Jahandar Shah (1712–13) Weak; 'Lampat Murkh' (lewd moron); aided by Wazir Zulfiqar Ali; killed by Farrukh Siyar

Farrukh Siyar (1713–19) Came to power with Sayyid Brothers; Banda Bahadur executed; granted Magna Carta to EIC (1717) —
duty-free trade; killed by Sayyid Brothers

Muhammad Shah 'Rangeela' Last to sit on Peacock Throne; Sayyid Brothers killed; Nadir Shah invaded 1739 — took Peacock Throne +
(1719–48) Kohinoor + ~70 crore wealth (Battle of Karnal); Bengal independent (Murshid Quli Khan); Sadat Khan
founded Oudh; Asaf Jah founded Hyderabad

Ahmad Shah (1748–54) Also Mirza Ahmad Shah / Mujahid-ud-Din; succeeded at 22; Empire collapsing

Alamgir II (1754–59) Real name Azizuddin; Battle of Plassey fought during reign; Ahmad Shah Abdali attacked Delhi

Shah Alam II (1759–1806) 3rd Battle of Panipat (1761) + Buxar (1764); Allahabad Treaty; prisoner of English after 2nd Anglo-Maratha
War

Akbar II (1806–37) Conferred title 'Raja' on Ram Mohan Roy

Bahadur Shah Zafar (1837–57) Last Mughal; poet; 'Emperor without Empire'; British pensioner; nominal head of 1857 revolt; exiled to
Rangoon

10 Causes of Mughal Decline

• 1. Neglect of North-West frontier → Nadir Shah (1739) & Ahmad Shah Abdali loot
• 2. Ahmad Shah Abdali defeated Marathas — 3rd Battle of Panipat 1761
• 3. Long succession of weak rulers with no administrative acumen
• 4. Zamindars' shift of allegiance → maintained private armies → separatist tendencies
• 5. Regional groups (Jats, Sikhs, Marathas) defied Mughal authority → formed own kingdoms
• 6. Marathas gained Sardeshmukhi and Chauth collection rights
• 7. No significant scientific and technological advancement
• 8. Poor economic management + luxurious lifestyle
• 9. Deterioration of army
• 10. Aurangzeb's religious policy → revolts by Rajputs, Sikhs, Jats, Marathas

2. SUCCESSOR / REGIONAL STATES

State Founder Year Key Rulers & Activities

Hyderabad Nizam-ul-Mulk (Chin Qilich 1724 Battle of Shakr-Kheda (1724) defeated Mubaraiz Khan; Asaf-Jah title; gave
Khan / Asaf Jah) yearly tribute

Awadh Saadat Khan 1722 1-Saadat Khan 2-Safdar Jang; Founded new independent state
(Burhan-ul-Mulk)

Bengal Murshid Quli Khan Early 1-Murshid Quli 2-Shuja-ud-din 3-Sarfaraz Khan 4-Alivardi Khan; Gave yearly
1700s tribute; made independent

Mysore Wodeyars → Hyder Ali ~1761 At junction of Eastern & Western Ghats; Hyder Ali set up armory at Dindigul
usurped 1755 (French help); Tipu Sultan member of Jacobin Club, planted Tree of
Liberty

Kerala (Travancore) Martanda Varma — Extended from Kanyakumari to Cochin; organised army on Western model;
defeated Dutch in Battle of Colachel

Punjab (Sikh Empire) Ranjit Singh (Sukerchakia 1801 Capital: Lahore (political) + Amritsar (religious); Treaty of Amritsar (1809) with
Misl) Metcalfe — Sutlej = boundary; received Kohinoor from Shah Shuja; last Sikh
ruler: Maharaja Duleep Singh
State Founder Year Key Rulers & Activities

Jats Churaman & Badan Singh — Jat state of Bharatpur; Suraj Mal gave efficient admin; declined after 1763

Rohilkhand Mohammad Khan — Kingdom of Bangash Pathans; at Himalayan foothills

Bangash

Marathas Shivaji Maharaj — Most formidable; uprooted Mughal authority from Malwa & Gujarat (see
Section 3)
 3. MARATHA CONFEDERACY

3.1 Shivaji Maharaj (1627/30–1680)

• Born: Shivneri | Coronation: 1674 (performed by Gaga Bhatt)
• Treaty of Purandar (1665): signed with Jai Singh (Mughal) | Imprisoned at Jaipur Bhawan, Agra (1666)
• Killed Afzal Khan (1659) | Sacked Surat (1664, 1670) | Guerilla warfare tactician
• Ashtapradhan = 8-minister council
• Revenue: Chauth = 1/4th of revenue (protection tax); Sardeshmukhi = additional 10%

Ashtapradhan Roles
Minister Function

Peshwa Prime Minister

Amatya Finance

Sumant / Dabir Foreign Affairs

Senapati Military

Sachiv Accounts

Pandit Rao High Priest

Nyayadhish Justice

Waqianavis Intelligence

3.2 Maratha Rulers & Peshwas

Ruler / Period Key Facts

Sambhaji (1680–89) Captured + executed by Aurangzeb

Rajaram (1689–1700) Kept resistance alive

Tarabai (1700–08) Rajaram's widow; regent for Shivaji II; resisted Mughals

Shahu (1708–49) Released by Mughals; Treaty of Sangola (1750) — Peshwa got real power

Balaji Vishwanath Peshwa 1st Peshwa; consolidated Maratha power

(1713–20)

Bajirao I Peshwa (1720–40) Never lost a battle; fought 41 battles; treaty of Bassein 1802 (under Bajirao II)

Balaji Bajirao / Nanasaheb Presided over 3rd Battle of Panipat defeat

(1740–61)

Madhavrao I (1761–72) Revival after Panipat

3rd Battle of Panipat (1761) Ahmad Shah Abdali vs. Marathas (Sadashivrao Bhau); Maratha defeat; eyewitness: Kashiraj Pandit; Modi
script used for Maratha revenue docs

3.3 Anglo-Maratha Wars

War Year Result / Treaty

1st Anglo-Maratha War 1775–82 Treaty of Wadgaon 1779 (humiliating for British); Treaty of Salbai 1782 — peace for 20 yrs;
David Anderson negotiated for British

2nd Anglo-Maratha War 1803–05 Treaty of Bassein (1802): Peshwa Bajirao II accepted Subsidiary Alliance; British gained
significant territories; Scindias, Bhonsles, Holkars vs English

3rd Anglo-Maratha War 1817–19 Lord Hastings; Maratha Confederacy dissolved; Peshwaship abolished; Peshwa sent to
Kanpur; British paramountcy established; Battle of Koregaon fought
 4. EUROPEAN POWERS IN INDIA

4.1 Portuguese
Explorer / Governor Key Acts & Significance

Vasco da Gama (1498) Arrived Calicut; guided by Ahmad ibn Majid (Gujarati); Zamorin = ruler; made 60x profit from pepper. Portugal
wanted to MONOPOLISE India trade

Pedro Alvarez Cabral 1st factory at Calicut 1500; began era of European rule on Indian subcontinent

Francisco de Almeida 1st Governor; Blue Water Policy (CARTAZE system — naval trade licence); sea trade monopoly in Arabian Sea
(1505–09)

Afonso de Albuquerque Captured Goa from Yusuf Adil Shah (Bijapur); captured Malacca 1511, Hormuz 1515; banned Sati; initiated
(1509–15) marrying with natives; 1st Portuguese fort in India 1503 (Cochin); REAL FOUNDER of Portuguese power in
India

Nino de Cunha (1529–38) Capital shifted Cochin→Goa 1530; conquered Diu & Bassein; HQ at Hooghly, Bengal

Significance of Portuguese
• Initiated European era in India
• Introduced cannon on ship
• Introduced European art of warfare
• Silversmith art flourished at Goa
• Introduced pineapple, cashew, potato, tomato, chillies, capsicum
• Introduced printing press to India
• First to arrive (1498) & last to leave (1961) — Operation Vijay; Jose Ferreira Bossa = last Governor of Goa
• Charles II got Bombay as dowry from Portuguese (1661); given to EIC for £10/year rent

Decline of Portuguese
• Rise of powerful dynasties (Marathas); Ottoman Empire rise; Dutch/English commercial rivalry; rampant corruption & piracy;
discovery of Brazil

4.2 European Companies — Chronological Arrival

Power Company Founded Key Facts

Portuguese 1498 (arrival) 1st to arrive; 1st factory at Surat 1668 (French Caron); defeated Dutch at Battle of Swally 1612

Dutch 1602 United East India Company (VOC); HQ: Batavia (Jakarta); Fort Gustavus at Chinsurah; Fort
Williams at Cochin (1663, after defeating Portuguese); Defeated by British at Battle of Bedara 1759
→ ousted from India

English (EIC) Dec 31, 1600 'Governor & Company of Merchants of London trading into East Indies'; monopoly 15 yrs; founded
during Akbar's reign; 1st factory: Masulipatnam (temp 1611), Surat (permanent 1613); Capt.
Thomas Best defeated Portuguese at Battle of Swally 1612; 1st Municipal Corporation: Madras
(1688); Job Charnock founded Calcutta

Danes 1616 Danish EIC; settlements: Tranquebar (Chennai) & Serampur (Bengal); foremost promoters of
Christianity; eventually ceded to English

French 1664 Compagnie Francaise; founded by Colbert (Minister of Louis XIV); 1st factory: Surat (1668,
Francois Caron); Capital: Pondicherry (founded 1674 — nerve centre); Dupleix (1741) = Governor,
1st European to use paid Indian army in Indian politics; defeated at Wandiwash (1760) by Eyre
Coote; French power ends

4.3 Carnatic Wars

War Years Cause Treaty / Result

1st Carnatic War 1746–48 Austrian War of Succession; English Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 1748 — Madras returned
(1740–48) navy captured French ships; Battle of
St. Thome: French (Capt. Paradise)
defeated Nawab Anwaruddin

2nd Carnatic War 1749–54 Battle of Ambur 1749: French+Muzaffar Treaty of Pondicherry 1755 — French undermined;
Jang+Chanda Sahib killed Anwaruddin; Dupleix recalled 1754 in disgrace
Dupleix vs. Clive; dynastic disputes

3rd Carnatic War 1756–63 Seven Years' War (France vs Britain Treaty of Paris 1763 — French confined to Mahe,
(1758–63) globally); Battle of Wandiwash 1760: Karaikal, Pondicherry, Yanam
Eyre Coote vs. Count de Lally

Causes of French Failure

Factor British Advantage French Disadvantage

Control Private enterprise → quick decisions Government-controlled → slow

Naval Power Superior navy Inferior navy

Regional base Calcutta + Bombay + Madras Only Pondicherry

Leadership Clive — brilliant Dupleix — recalled 1754 in disgrace

 5. WARS FOUGHT BY BRITISH
Year War Participants Treaty / Result

1612 Battle of Swally English vs Portuguese Portuguese confined to Daman, Diu, Goa

1757 Battle of Plassey English vs Siraj-ud-Daulah English won — betrayal by Mir Jafar; Revenue of Bengal financed
(Bengal) trade; Mir Jafar → Nawab; Mir Qasim later

1760 Battle of Wandiwash Sir Eyre Coote vs. Count de British win; French power ends in India
Lally

1761 3rd Battle of Panipat Marathas vs Ahmad Shah Marathas lost — English benefited
Durrani + Rohilla Afghans +
Nawab of Oudh

1764 Battle of Buxar English vs Mir Qasim + Nawab Allahabad Treaty 1765 (Clive) — Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa;
of Awadh + Shah Alam II Nawab of Awadh paid 5 million rupees indemnity

1767–69 1st Anglo-Mysore War EIC + Nizam vs Hyder Ali Treaty of Madras 1769 — Hyder Ali wins; British promise mutual
defence

1775–82 1st Anglo-Maratha War Marathas vs EIC Treaty of Wadgaon 1779 (humiliating for British); Treaty of Salbai
1782

1780–84 2nd Anglo-Mysore War English vs Hyder Ali Treaty of Mangalore 1784 — both returned territories; Hyder Ali
(Nizam+Maratha) died 1782; Tipu continued

1781 Battle of Porto Novo Sir Eyre Coote vs Hyder Ali British win

1790–92 3rd Anglo-Mysore War English + Nizam + Maratha vs Treaty of Seringapatam 1792 — Tipu ceded half kingdom
Tipu Sultan (Malabar, Dindigul, Coorg, Baramahal); Cornwallis led British

1799 4th Anglo-Mysore War English + Nizam + Maratha vs Tipu KILLED at Seringapatam; Wellesley wins; Wodeyar dynasty
Tipu Sultan reinstated; Subsidiary Alliance imposed

1803–05 2nd Anglo-Maratha War Scindias, Bhonsles, Holkars vs Treaty of Bassein 1802 — Subsidiary Alliance on Maratha
English

1817–19 3rd Anglo-Maratha War Peshwa Bajirao II, Holkar, Maratha confederacy dissolved; Battle of Koregaon fought
Bhonsle vs English

1824–26 1st Burma War Burmese vs English Treaty of Yandaboo 1826 — British won

1839–42 1st Anglo-Afghan War Afghans vs English British won but couldn't control; given back with conditions

1845–46 1st Anglo-Sikh War Sikh Army vs English Treaty of Lahore 1846; Treaty of Bhairowal; Kashmir sold to Gulab
Singh for Rs 75 lakh

1848–49 2nd Anglo-Sikh War Sikhs vs English Battle of Chillianwala (inconclusive); Punjab annexed 1849;
Koh-i-Noor diamond taken

1852 2nd Burma War Burmese vs English Annexation of Lower Burma (Pegu) Dec 20, 1852

1870–80 2nd Anglo-Afghan War Afghans vs English Treaty of Gandamak 1879 — Afghanistan as buffer state

1885 3rd Burma War Burmese vs English Upper Burma merged in India

1904 Anglo-Tibetan Relations Tibetans vs English Treaty of Lhasa 1904 — Russia and England not to negotiate with
Tibet except through Chinese mediation

BATTLE OF PLASSEY (23 June 1757): Place: Bhagirathi River, north of Calcutta | Cause: Anti-English policies of
Siraj-ud-Daulah | Decisive British victory | Treachery by Mir Jafar — sided with Clive | Result: Mir Jafar → Nawab; paid huge
sums to EIC. BATTLE OF BUXAR (22 Oct 1764): Fought near Buxar, Bihar | British defeated combined medieval feudal forces
| Allahabad Treaty 1765 by Lord Robert Clive with Shah Alam II → DIWANI of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa | Nawab of Awadh paid
war indemnity of 5 million rupees. DOCTRINE OF LAPSE (Lord Dalhousie, 1848–1856): Any princely state under EIC where
ruler had no legal male heir → annexed. Adopted son CANNOT be heir to kingdom. Applied to: Satara (1848, first), Jhansi,
Nagpur, Sambalpur, Baghat, Udaipur, Jaitpur, Berar. Illegal nature → one cause of 1857 revolt.
 6. SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS

Two Streams:
• REFORMIST: Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Aligarh Movement
• REVIVALIST: Arya Samaj, Deoband Movement

Steps for Women:

• Abolition of Sati (1829, William Bentinck — Reg. XVII; supported by Ram Mohan Roy)
• Age of Consent Act 1891 (raised age to 12; pushed by Behramji Malabari, Parsi reformer)
• Female Infanticide Act 1870
• Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act 1856 (pushed by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar + Vishnu Parshuram Pandit)
• Native Marriage / Brahma Vivah Act 1872 — girls 14, boys 18 (pushed by Keshab Chandra Sen)
• Sharda Act (Child Marriage Restraint Act) 1929 — girls 14, boys 18 (Dr. Harbilas Sarda)
• Slavery made illegal — Act V 1843 (Lord Ellenborough); Slavery = crime under IPC 1860

6.1 Key Reformers & Organisations

Reformer Movement / Org Key Works & Significance

Raja Ram Mohan Roy Atmiya Sabha (1815) → Father of Indian Renaissance / Modern India; 'Prophet of Nationalism'; title 'Raja'
(1772–1833) Brahmo Sabha/Samaj (1828) from Akbar II; mausoleum: Bristol, England. Anti-Sati 1818; supported Hindu
→ Calcutta Unitarian Society College 1817; Vedanta College 1825. Books: Gift to Monotheists; Precepts of
Jesus; Brahmanica, Samandh, Kaumudi. Newspapers: Mirat-ul-Akhbar (Persian),
Sambad Kaumudi (Bengali). Brahmo Samaj: condemned Sati, child marriage,
polygamy, casteism, untouchability

Debendranath Tagore Tattvabodhini Sabha (1839) → Rational study of India's past; propagation of Roy's ideas; revitalised Samaj;
(1817–1905) Brahmo Samaj 1842 → Adi pushed widow remarriage, women's education, abolition of polygamy
Brahmo Samaj (after 1866
split)

Keshab Chandra Sen Joined Brahmo Samaj 1858; Popularised movement beyond Bengal; dismissed 1865 as acharya; pushed
(1838–1884) Brahmo Samaj of India 1866 Native Marriage Act 1872; married daughter at 13 — contradiction
(split)

Ananda Mohan Bose + Sadharan Brahmo Samaj Formed after Keshab Sen's underage daughter's marriage to King of Cooch
Shivnath Shastri (1878) Behar; reiterated Brahmo doctrines

Atmaram Pandurang Prarthana Samaj More focused on social reforms; 4-point agenda: disapproval of caste, women's
(1867, Bombay) education, widow remarriage, raising age of marriage; M.G. Ranade, R.G.
Bhandarkar, N.G. Chandavarkar, D.K. Karve joined; 'Precursor of cultural
Renaissance of Western India'

Dayanand Saraswati (born Arya Samaj (1875, Bombay; 'Go Back to Vedas'; 'Martin Luther of India'; 1st used 'Swaraj'; advocated Hindi as
Mulshankar) HQ Lahore 1877) national language; book Satyarth Prakash; Gurukul stream (Shraddhanand) vs
DAV stream (Lajpat Rai+Hansraj)

Henry Vivian Derozio Young Bengal Movement, Taught at Hindu College 1826–31; inspired free thinking; Society for Acquisition
(1809–31) 1820s of General Knowledge; failed long-term — no mass support

Ishwar Chandra Movement for widow Book BAHUBIVAH against polygamy; opened Sanskrit College to non-Brahmins;
Vidyasagar (1820–91) remarriage 35 girls' schools; pioneer of higher education for women; broke priestly monopoly;
Newspaper: Som Prakash (Bengali)

Swami Vivekananda / Ramakrishna Mission 1897 Emerged as preacher of neo-Hinduism; 'Practical Vedanta'; Parliament of World
Narendranath Datta (HQ: Belur, WB) Religions Chicago 1893; 'jiva is worship of Siva'; 'Spiritual father of modern
(1862–1902) nationalist movement' (Subhash Bose); advocated doctrine of service

Jyotiba Phule Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Leadership from backward classes; opened 1st girls' school at Poona with wife
(1827–1890) Seekers' Society) 1873, Pune Savitribai Phule (1st female teacher); pioneer of widow remarriage in
Maharashtra; book Gulamgiri; aimed at complete abolition of caste

Gopal Krishna Gokhale Servants of India Society 1905 Gandhi's political mentor; train national missionaries; constitutional means;
(1866–1915) (Pune); newspaper The President after Gokhale's death: Srinivasa Shastri; Helped draft Sarvajanik Sabha
Hitavada (1911) journal (with Ranade)
Reformer Movement / Org Key Works & Significance

B.R. Ambedkar Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha Motto: 'Educate, Agitate, Organise'; Mahad Satyagraha 1927 for water from
(1924); All India Scheduled public pond; temple entry movements; signed Poona Pact; Newspaper: Bahishkrit
Castes Federation Bharat (Marathi)

E.V. Ramasamy Naicker Self-Respect Movement Anti-Brahmin; rationalist; extremely influential in Tamil Nadu, Malaysia, Singapore
(Periyar) (mid-1920s)

Sri Narayana Guru SNDP Movement (Sree Born out of conflict between Ezhavas and upper castes; Aruvippuram Movement
(1856–1928) Narayana Guru Dharma 1888 — installed Shivlinga; SNDP registered 1903; opened temples in South
Paripalana) India

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Aligarh Movement; Loyalist; member Imperial Legislative Council 1878; religion must adapt with time;
Mohammed Anglo-Oriental opposed purdah and polygamy; preached Hindu-Muslim commonality; opposed
College (Aligarh Muslim Congress — feared Hindu political monopoly; Aligarh Movement = liberal modern
University); magazine trend among Muslim intelligentsia
Tahdhib-ul-Akhlaq

Behramji M. Malabari SevaSadan 1908; edited Worked against child marriage; efforts led to Age of Consent Act; SevaSadan
(1853–1912) Indian Spectator cared for exploited women of all castes

Madame Blavatsky + Col. Theosophical Society 1875 Annie Besant became chairman 1907; founded Central Hindu College, Banaras
Olcott (New York); Int. HQ: Adyar, → later BHU; joined 1889
Madras 1882 (moved 1886)

6.2 Islamic Reform Movements

Movement / Reformer Type Key Facts

Wahabi / Walliullah Movement Revivalist Return to true spirit of Islam; India = dar-ul-Harb → conversion to dar-ul-Islam; initially vs
(Shah Walliullah 1702–1763; Sikhs, later vs British; played role in 1857 revolt; Syed Ahmed died at Balakot 1831; HQ
popularised by Shah Abdul Aziz shifted to Patna
and Syed Ahmed Barelvi)

Titu Mir's Movement (Mir Nithar Ali) Revivalist Disciple of Syed Ahmed Barelvi; advocated Sharia; organised Muslim peasants of Bengal
against Hindu landlords and British indigo planters

Fara'idi Movement (Haji Revivalist Eastern Bengal; emphasis on Islamic pillars; eradication of un-Islamic practices;
Shariatullah, 1818) DuduMian leadership from 1840 — paramilitary force against zamindars; survived as
religious movement

Ahmadiyya Movement (Mirza Reformist Standard-bearer of Mohammedan Renaissance; opposing jihad; Western liberal
Ghulam Ahmad, 1889) education; unique belief: Messiah came as Mirza Ghulam Ahmad

Aligarh Movement (Sir Syed Reformist See above (Reformers table)

Ahmed Khan)

Deoband School / Dar-ul-Ulum Revivalist Founders: Maulana Mohammad Qasim Nanotavi (1832–80) + Rashid Ahmad Gangohi;
(1866, Saharanpur) twin objectives: propagate Quran/Hadis, keep spirit of jihad vs foreign rulers; supported
INC; issued fatwa against Sir Syed Khan 1888; Abul Kalam Azad belonged to this
movement; Shibli Numani favoured English + Western science; founded Nadwat-ul-Ulama
1898 (Lucknow)

Nadwah-ul-Ulama (1898, Lucknow) Reform Maulana Shibli Numani; Islamic reform + modern education

6.3 Other Reform Movements

Movement Leader(s) Key Facts

Parsi Reform — Rahnumai Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Newspaper Rast Goftar (Truth-Teller); Parsi creed redefined; removal of purdah;
Mazdayasnan Sabha (1851) Naoroji, K.R. Cama, S.S. raising age of marriage
Bengalee

Sikh Reform — Singh Sabhas With British support Khalsa College at Amritsar 1892; Akali Movement (post-1920) — improve
(1870) management of Gurudwaras; 1925 law gave Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak
Committee right to manage; based on Gandhian non-violence

Temple Entry Movement K.P. Kesava, Gandhi 1924: Vaikom Satyagraha (Kerala) — opening temple roads to untouchables;
1936: Maharaja of Travancore opened all govt-controlled temples
Movement Leader(s) Key Facts

Justice Party (Madras C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair, Sought jobs and representation for non-Brahmins; won 1st direct elections 1920
Presidency, 1917) P. Tyagaraja in presidency; Madras Presidency Association demanded separate
representation for lower castes

Dev Samaj (1887, Lahore) Shiv Narayan Agnihotri DevSadan — religious/social reform; eternity of soul, supremacy of guru;
teachings in Deva Shastra; no bribes, avoid intoxicants, non-vegetarian food,
violent actions

Radhaswami Movement Tulsi Ram / Shivdayal One supreme being; supremacy of guru; no belief in temples/shrines; community
(1861) Sahab living important
 7. CIVIL UPRISINGS, PEASANT & TRIBAL REVOLTS

Major Causes:
• Rapid changes in economy, admin, land revenue under Company rule went against people
• Zamindars/poligars lost control over land/revenues → personal scores with new rulers
• Ruin of Indian handicraft industries → impoverished millions of artisans
• New administrative setup resisted; priestly classes instigated hatred against alien rule

7.1 Peasant Movements

Movement Year Key Facts

Sanyasi Revolt 1763–1800 Disastrous famine 1770 + harsh economic order → sanyasis in Eastern India fought British;
Anandamath by Bankim Chandra based on this revolt

Indigo Revolt 1859–60 Against fraudulent contracts forcing peasants to grow Indigo; leaders: Digambar Biswas & Bishnu
Biswas (Nadia); play Neel Darpan by Dinabandhu Mitra; Hindoo Patriot (Harish Chandra
Mukherjee) supported; by 1860 planters closed factories; 1st Satyagraha movement in Modern
India

Pabna Agrarian Leagues 1870s Zamindar enhanced rent under Act X of 1859; forcible evictions; peasants formed agrarian league;
Bengal Tenancy Act 1885 passed

Deccan Riots 1875 During Deccan famine — riots in Ahmednagar and Pune against Gujarati moneylenders; armed
rebellion under Vasudev Balwant Phadke ('Father of modern Indian revolutionary terrorism');
ended with Deccan Peasants Relief Act

Mappila (Moplah) Revolt 1836–54; Muslim cultivators of south Malabar vs Namboodri landlords; 1836–54: 22 uprisings; 1921:
1921 Malabar, Kerala — offshoot of Khilafat

United Provinces Kisan Post-1857 Taluqdars got back lands after 1857; AwadhKisan Sabha — Gauri Shankar Mishra + Indra
Sabha Narayan Dwivedi (Oct 1920)

Eka Movement End of 1921 Northern UP — Hardoi, Bahraich, Sitapur; Meetings of Eka (Unity); vowed to pay only recorded
rent; leadership by Madari Pasi

Bardoli Satyagraha 1928 Govt decided to increase land revenue 30%; Vallabhbhai Patel led; Bardoli Satyagraha Patrika
published; Govt settled at 6.03%; women of Bardoli gave Patel the title 'Sardar'

Tebhaga Movement 1946–47 North Bengal; Flood Commission recommended 2/3 share to sharecroppers; main participants:
Rajhasis community + Muslim peasant; Bargardari Bill passed

Telangana Movement 1946–48 Biggest peasant guerrilla war; forced labour (Vethi) by Deshmukh/Jagirdars/Doras; Andhra
Mahasabha led; suppressed by Nizam's Razakars

Bijolia Movement (1st 1897–1941 Mewar/Rajasthan; Vijay Singh Pathik; against excessive taxes on peasants
peasant movement)

7.2 Tribal Revolts

Revolt Year Leader / Key Facts

Chuars, West Bengal 1769 1st to revolt against British Land Revenue Policy in West Bengal

Khasis, Assam 1828 Tiruthsingh; against army presence + revenue policy

Kol Revolt, Chota Nagpur 1831–32 Buddho Bhagat; against British expansionism + land alienation

Santhal Rebellion 1854–56 Sido + Kanhu + Chand + Bhairav (four brothers); Rajmahal Hills, Bihar; against 'Dikus' (outsiders);
British Commander defeated: Major Burrough; Santhal Parganas territory created; exploded myth
of European invincibility; influenced 1857 revolt

Khond (Khonds-Orissa) 1846–48 Chakra Bisoi; Lord Hardinge I banned custom sacrifice + new taxes

Munda Rebellion (Ulgulan) 1899–1900 Birsa Munda ('Dharti Aaba'); against erosion of Khuntkatti system (collective farming); against
Christian missionary activities; 'Adivasi' first used by Thakkar Bapa

Moplah/Mappila Rebellion 1921 Malabar, Kerala; Muslim tenants vs Hindu landlords + British; offshoot of Khilafat
Revolt Year Leader / Key Facts

Koya, Godavari, AP 1922–23 Alluri Sitarama Raju; against British forest laws; also known as Rampa Rebellion

Chenchu, Nallamala Hills, 1922–23 K. Hanumanthu; against British forest laws

AP

Bhils, Khandesh 1913 (also Govind Guru; against British revenue policy
1818–31)

Naikdas, Gujarat 1858–68 Roop Singh + Jaria Bhagat; declared formation of tribal kingdom

Tana Bhagat Movement 1914 Jatra Bhagat (Oraon tribe); Chhotanagpur; refused forced labour + tributes

Ahom Revolt, Assam 1828 Gomdhar Kunwar; against British annexation

 8. REVOLT OF 1857

8.1 Causes
Type Causes

Economic EIC destroyed traditional economy; heavy taxation; annexation → loss of patronage; destruction of traditional industry;
discriminatory tariff; summary evictions

Political Doctrine of Lapse + Subsidiary Alliance; interference in socio-religious affairs; absentee sovereignty; denial of rights to
Mughal rulers

Administrative Widespread corruption in Company's administration

Socio-Religious Racial arrogance; Christian missionaries; abolition of Sati; widow remarriage; women's education; Religious Disabilities
Act 1856

Immediate (Trigger) Rumour about mixing of bone dust in atta + Enfield rifle greased cartridges (cow+pig fat) — required biting; hurt
Hindu+Muslim sentiments

Outside Events British reverses — 1st Afghan War (1838–42), Punjab Wars (1845–49), Crimean Wars (1854–56), Santhal Rebellion
(1855–57)

8.2 Key Facts & Storm Centres

• Began: 10 May 1857 — mutiny of sepoys in Meerut garrison
• Mangal Pandey: Barrackpore (29 March 1857); 34th Bengal Native Infantry; British CO: General John Bennet Hearsey;
arrested & executed April 9, 1857
• Symbols: Lotus + Chapatis (Bread)
Place Leader / Key Details

Delhi Nominal: Bahadur Shah Zafar | Real military: Bakht Khan (title: Saheb-e-Alam Bahadur)

Kanpur Nana Sahib (Nana Dhondho Pant) | Commander: Tatya Tope (Ramchandra Pandurang)

Lucknow (Oudh) Begum Hazrat Mahal

Jhansi Rani Lakshmibai | Died at Gwalior | Sir Hugh Rose: 'She was the only man among the rebels'

Arrah, Bihar Kunwar Singh; brother Amar Singh continued

Faizabad Maulavi Ahmadullah Shah

Bareilly Khan Bahadur Khan

Allahabad Maulvi Liyaqat Ali

Assam Diwan Maniram Dutta

8.3 Views on 1857

Historian View

V.D. Savarkar 'First War of Independence'

Tara Chand 'War of Nation's Independence'

R.C. Majumdar '1857 war of independence is neither the first, nor national, nor a war of independence'

Surendranath Sen (Official 'What began as fight for religion ended as war of independence'
Govt Historian)

Sir James Outram + W. Taylor 'Hindu-Muslim Conspiracy'

T.R. Holmes 'Barbarism vs Civilization'

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Book: Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind (Causes of Indian Revolt)

Mirza Ghalib Famous Urdu poet eyewitness

8.4 Causes of Failure
• Limited territorial base — concentrated only in North India; South India, Punjab, Chittor largely unaffected
• All classes did not join — Big Zamindars, Taluqdars, Merchants, Moneylenders preferred British rule; Educated Indians
looked down on revolt
• Scindias of Gwalior, Holkars, Nizam, Patiala, Kashmir — supported British
• Poor Arms & Equipment — Europeans equipped with latest weaponry
• Uncoordinated — no unified and able leadership; no national consciousness
• Centripetal tendency around Mughal — Once Delhi captured → main force gone
• Man Singh betrayed Tatya Tope

AFTERMATH: Queen's Proclamation 1858 (Nov 1, Allahabad Durbar by Lord Canning) | GOI Act 1858 → Crown rule; Lord
Canning = First Viceroy | Peel Commission → Army reorganised | 'Martial race' theory → recruited Gurkhas, Sikhs, Punjabis |
Doctrine of Lapse ended | Brigade Nicholson died recapturing Delhi | Colin Campbell regained Lucknow (Mar 1858) with
Gurkha Regiment
 9. MODERN NATIONALISM & INC FORMATION

Factors in Growth of Modern Nationalism

• Understanding contradictions: colonial rule = major cause of economic backwardness
• Political, Administrative & Economic Unification by British — professional civil service, unified judiciary, modern
transport/communication
• Western Thought & Education — liberal, rational, secular, democratic, nationalist ideas; English language enabled leader
communication
• Role of Press & Literature — dissemination of modern ideas; criticised government
• Rediscovery of India's Past — common ancestry burst myth of racial superiority
• Socio-Religious Reform Movements — progressive; helped unify society
• Middle Class Intelligentsia — provided leaders to INC; sense of Unity of Purpose
• Impact of Contemporary World Movements — liberation movements in Greece, Italy, Ireland, South America influenced
Indian leaders
• Reactionary Policies of Lytton: reduced ICS age to 19; Grand Delhi Durbar 1877 (despite famine); Vernacular Press Act
1878; Arms Act 1878

Political Associations Before INC

Organisation Founded By Year Significance

Zamindari Association / Landlords of Bengal 1838 (1st Safeguard landlord interests; marked beginning of organised political
Landholders' Society political org) activity

Bengal British India — 1843 Dissemination of information for welfare of people

Society

British Indian Association Landholders' Society + 1851 Demands: separate legislature, separation of executive & judiciary,
Bengal British India salary reduction; demands accepted in Charter Act 1853
Society

East India Association Dadabhai Naoroji 1866 1st such nationalist organisation in England; influenced public men in
(London) England

The Indian League Sisir Kumar Ghosh 1875 Spreading political education; stimulated nationalism

Indian National Surendranath Banerjee + 1876 Create public opinion; unify Indians; 1st All-India conference 1883
Association of Calcutta Ananda Mohan Bose (100 delegates); merged in INC 1886

Poona Sarvajanik Sabha M.G. Ranade + S.H. 1870 Bridge between government and people; popularise peasant rights
Chiplunkar + Ganesh
Vasudeo Joshi

Bombay Presidency Badruddin Tyabji, 1885 —

Association (Trimurti) Pherozeshah Mehta, K.T.
Telang

Madras Mahajan Sabha M. Viraraghavachari, B. 1884 —

Subramaniya Aiyer, P.
Anandacharlu

Formation of Indian National Congress

• Idea: A.O. Hume, retired English Civil Servant; called 'Father of Congress' at 27th Session, Bankipur (Patna) 1912
• 1st Session: Bombay, December 1885; Presided by W.C. Bonnerjee; Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College; 72 delegates
• Viceroy: Lord Dufferin (called INC 'microscopic minority')
• Safety Valve Theory: Lala Lajpat Rai (in Young India) — Hume formed Congress to protect British Empire; early Congress
leaders hoped to use Hume as 'lightning conductor'
• Aims: Found democratic nationalistic movement; promote friendly relations among nationalists; develop anti-colonial
ideology; promote Indian nationhood
• Drain Theory accepted: INC at 1896 Calcutta Session | Swaraj first demanded: Dadabhai Naoroji (INC 1906 Calcutta
Session + Int. Socialist Congress 1904)
Firsts in INC Presidency:
• 1st Muslim President: Badruddin Tyabji (1887, Madras)
• 1st European President: George Yule (1888, Allahabad)
• 1st Woman President: Annie Besant (1917, Calcutta)
• 1st Indian Woman President: Sarojini Naidu (1925, Kanpur)
• Youngest President: Abul Kalam Azad (1923, Delhi, age 35)
• Longest Serving President: Abul Kalam Azad (1940–46, consecutively)
• President at Independence (1947): J.B. Kripalani (Meerut Session, Nov 1946)
• Only session Gandhi presided: Belgaum 1924
 10. MODERATE PHASE (1885–1905)
Leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji, M.G. Ranade, G.K. Gokhale, W.C. Banerjee, S.N. Banerjee, Pherozeshah Mehta

Economic Critique of British Imperialism (Three Main Arguments)

Theme Proponent Key Work & Contribution

Drain Theory Dadabhai Naoroji ('Grand Book: Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901); Papers: English Debt to India, The Wants
Old Man of India'; Gokhale and Means of India (1870), On the Commerce of India (1871); Newspaper: Voice of India
called him 'Gladstone of
India')

Critique of Justice M.G. Ranade Taught value of modern industrial development; 'if India is poor today it is because of
Railways economic policies of British'; Essays on Indian Economics (1900); stressed role of state in
economic activities; Newspaper: Sudharak (Marathi)

Deindustrialisatio R.C. Dutt (Retired ICS) The Economic History of India — examined colonial economic record since 1757 in minute
n of India detail

General Critique G.K. Gokhale Criticised free trade policy, high rates of land revenues; not in favour of surplus budgets;
expressed views in The Hitavada

Economic G. Subramaniya Aiyar Book: Some Economic Aspects of British Rule in India; founded The Hindu newspaper
Aspects

Method & Achievements:

• Method: Prayer, petition, representation, deputation, persuasion — criticised as 'political mendicancy' (3 Ps)
• Achievements: Economic critique of British imperialism; Indian Councils Act 1892 (increased size of legislative councils,
increased non-official proportion); sowed seeds of nationalism; popularised ideals of democracy, liberty, equality
• Limitations: Excluded masses; did not believe India needed complete independence; strong faith in British government;
equated liberty with class privileges; complained only about 'un-British rule'
 11. ERA OF MILITANT NATIONALISM (1905–1920)

Moderates vs. Extremists (Lal-Bal-Pal)

Feature Moderates Extremists (Lal-Bal-Pal)

Key Leaders Dadabhai Naoroji, S.N. Banerjee, G.K. Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab / 'Punjab Kesari' / 'Sher-e-Punjab'), Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta (Maharashtra), Bipin Chandra Pal (Bengal)

Methods 3 Ps: Petition, Prayer, Protest | Passive resistance, mass movement, self-sacrifice, swadeshi, boycott
Constitutional agitation

Goal Self-government within British Empire Swaraj (complete self-rule) — 'Swaraj is my birthright, I shall have it' (Tilak,
Lucknow 1916)

View on INC Vehicle for reform 'Begging Institute' (Bipin Chandra Pal)

Surat Split (1907) Dominated by Moderates; Rash Behari Extremists wanted Lala Lajpat Rai as president
Ghosh presided

Tilak: 'Father of Indian Unrest' (Valentine Chirol) | Last session attended: Amritsar 1919 | Died: 1 Aug 1920 (same day NCM
launched) | Newspapers: Kesari (Marathi) + Mahratta (English) + 1st Indian journalist imprisoned Lala Lajpat Rai: Political guru
— Mazzini | Book: Unhappy India | Died of baton blows during Simon Commission protest (Lahore)

Partition of Bengal & Swadeshi Movement

• Announced: 20 July 1905 (Viceroy Curzon, Lt. Governor Sir Andrew Fraser) | Effective: 16 October 1905
• Reason claimed: Administrative (Bengal = 78 million too large) | Real motive: Divide Bengal on religious/linguistic lines to
weaken nationalism
• Division: Western Bengal (Bihar & Orissa — Hindu majority) | Eastern Bengal & Assam (42 of 54 million — Muslim majority)
• Rakhi Diwas: 16 Oct 1905 — suggested by Rabindranath Tagore; people tied Rakhi across religious lines
• Boycott first suggested: Krishna Kumar Mitra (editor: Sanjibani), 13 July 1905
• Swadeshi proclaimed: 7 August 1905, Town Hall Calcutta (Boycott resolution); theme song: Vande Mataram
• October 16, 1905: Day of mourning; Bande Mataram + Amar Sonar Bangla (Rabindranath Tagore, now national anthem of
Bangladesh) were sung
• Annulment: 12 December 1911 | Delhi Durbar | Bihar became separate province: 1 April 1912

Forms of Struggle Under Extremist Leadership:

• Boycott of foreign goods & public processions; swadeshi enterprises
• Corps of volunteers ('samitis') — political consciousness through lectures, songs, social work during famines/epidemics
• Imaginative use of Traditional Festivals & Melas — Tilak's Ganapati & Shivaji festivals; traditional folk theatre (Bengal)
• Emphasis on Self-Reliance (Atma Shakti) — Rabindranath Tagore mooted idea
• National Education — Bengal National College (Aurobindo as Principal); 15 Aug 1906 National Council of Education; Indian
Society of Oriental Art founded (Abanindranath + Gaganendranath Tagore); Nandlal Bose 1st to receive scholarship
• Swadeshi Enterprises — V.O. Chidambaram Pillai set up Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company at Tuticorin
• Cultural Impact — Tagore wrote Amar Sonar Bangla; Subramania Bharati wrote Swadesha Geetham; Bengali folk music
(Palligeet and Jari Gan)

Hardinge Bomb Case 1912:

• Delhi Conspiracy Case; Ras Behari Bose + Sachindra Sanyal masterminded bomb attack on Viceroy's elephant procession
through Chandni Chowk

Surat Split (1907):

• 1905 INC (Benares) — Extremists wanted to extend Boycott/Swadeshi all-India; Moderates opposed
• 1906 INC (Calcutta) — Dadabhai Naoroji presided (compromise); Swarajya as goal declared; Boycott + Swadeshi +
National Education resolutions
• 1907 INC (Surat) — Split; dominated by Moderates (Rash Behari Ghosh presided)
Morley-Minto Reforms (Indian Councils Act 1909)
• Principle of elections introduced for 1st time; Indians allowed in elections of legislative councils
• Separate electorate introduced for Muslims (for elections to central council) — 1st time; 'Father of Pakistan' = Lord Minto
(per Rajendra Prasad)
• Number of elected members in Imperial Legislative Council (16→60) and Provincial Legislative Councils (50→60) increased
• Elected members could discuss budget, move resolutions, ask supplementary questions
• One Indian appointed to Viceroy's executive council — Satyendra Sinha, 1st appointed 1909
• GG retained veto power
• Shimla Deputation (1906): Led by Aga Khan — 35 Muslim elites met Lord Minto, demanded separate electorates &
representation in excess of numerical strength
 12. REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES (1897–1930s)

12.1 Early Revolutionaries

Year Revolutionary(ies) Activity

1879 Vasudev Balwant Phadke, Ramosi Peasant Force → disrupted communication lines; raised funds through dacoities;
Maharashtra ('Father of modern suppressed prematurely
Indian revolutionary terrorism')

1890s Tilak, Maharashtra Propagated militant nationalism through Kesari (1881), Mahratta (1881) and Shivaji (1894)
and Ganapati (1893) festivals

1897 Chapekar Brothers (Damodar & Murdered Plague Commissioner of Poona — Rand, and Lt. Ayerst; 1st revolutionary act
Balkrishna), Maharashtra

1899 V.D. Savarkar + brother Organised Mitra Mela (1899) → merged with Abhinav Bharat Society (1904) after Mazzini's
'Young Italy'; London branch 1906; Nasik, Poona, Bombay = centres

1902 P. Mitra (Pramathanath Mitra), Anushilan Samiti founded in Calcutta; Hemchandra Kanoongo: bomb expert; Yugantar
Barindra Ghosh et al. Party: Jatindranath Mukherjee (Bagha Jatin)

1905 Shyamji Krishna Verma (London) India House / Indian Home Rule Society (1905, London); journal: Indian Sociologist;
scholarship scheme for Indian students

1906 Barindra Ghosh + Bhupendranath 'Yugantar' weekly — 'The remedy lies with the people'
Dutta

1908 Khudiram Bose + Prafulla Chaki Threw bomb at carriage in Muzaffarpur (meant for judge Kingsford, wrong carriage); Chaki
committed suicide; Khudiram hanged

1908 Barindra + Aurobindo Ghosh Alipore/Manicktolla bomb conspiracy (Muraripukur); Aurobindo defended by C.R. Das;
Aurobindo acquitted; Barindra found guilty; Aurobindo's newspapers: Vande Mataram +
Karmayogin

1909 Madan Lal Dhingra (London) Assassinated Curzon-Wyllie (political sec, India) in London 1909

1909 Anant Laxman Kanhere Member of Abhinav Bharat — killed Collector A.M.T. Jackson of Nashik (Nasik Conspiracy)
(Maharashtra)

12.2 Ghadr Movement

• Founded: 21 April 1913; HQ: San Francisco (Yugantar Ashram); Newspaper: Ghadar (Urdu/Punjabi)
• Founders: Lala Hardayal + Sohan Singh Bhakna (1st Chairman); other members: Kartar Singh Sarabha, Ras Behari Bose,
Barkatullah
• Membership: ex-soldiers & peasants who had migrated from Punjab to USA/Canada
• Komagata Maru Incident: Japanese ship chartered by Gurdit Singh from Singapore carrying Sikh & Punjabi Muslims —
denied entry into Canada; fired upon at Budge Budge (20 killed); Ghadr leaders planned violent attack on British
• Feb 21, 1915: Fixed date of attack; British got to know → preemptive arrests; Defence of India Act 1915 to counter Ghadr
movement
• Berlin Committee for Indian Independence (1915): Virendranath Chattopadhyay, Bhupendranath Dutta, Lala Hardayal
under 'Zimmerman Plan'
• Provisional Govt (Kabul, 1915): Raja Mahendra Pratap (President) + Barkatullah (PM); recognised by Germany + Russia

12.3 Revolutionary Activities in the 1920s

Event / Group Year Key Facts

Hindustan Republic Oct 1924 Founders: Sachindra Nath Sanyal, Ram Prasad Bismil, Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, Chandra
Association (HRA) — Shekhar Azad; goal: overthrow colonial govt, establish Federal Republic of United States of India
founded Kanpur

Kakori Train Robbery 9 Aug 1925 HRA looted official railway cash; 4 hanged: Ram Prasad Bismil (Gorakhpur Jail), Ashfaqullah Khan
(1st Muslim hanged for independence, Faizabad Jail), Roshan Singh (Allahabad Jail), Rajendra
Lahiri (Gonda Jail); Azad evaded arrest
Event / Group Year Key Facts

HSRA — Feroz Shah 1928 HRA reorganised as Hindustan Socialist Republic Association; leaders: Bhagat Singh,
Kotla, Delhi Chandrashekhar Azad, Sukhdev, Rajguru, Bhagwati Charan Vohra; adopted socialism as official
goal

Saunders Murder, Lahore 17 Dec 1928 Bhagat Singh + Azad + Rajguru killed Asst SP John Saunders (mistakenly for Superintendent
Scott, responsible for lathi charge on Lala Lajpat Rai during anti-Simon protest)

Bomb in Central 8 Apr 1929 Bhagat Singh + Batukeshwar Dutt; to protest Public Safety Bill & Trade Disputes Bill restricting civil
Legislative Assembly, liberties; bombs deliberately harmless — 'to make the deaf hear'; surrendered deliberately to use
Delhi trial as propaganda forum

Lahore Conspiracy Case 1929–31 Bhagat Singh + Rajguru + Sukhdev HANGED: 23 March 1931; Bhagavati Charan Vohra wrote
'Philosophy of Bomb'

Chittagong Armoury Raid 18 Apr 1930 Surya Sen ('Master Da') led; seized 2 armouries; national flag hoisted; proclaimed provisional
(Indian Republican Army revolutionary government; Pritilata Waddedar led 1932 attack on Pahartali European Club —
— Chittagong branch) consumed cyanide to avoid arrest; Kalpana Datta was also member; Jatin Das: died after 63-day
hunger strike (1929) demanding jail reforms; Shanti Ghosh + Suniti Chaudhary: killed District
Magistrate Dec 1931

Notable Women Revolutionaries:

• Bina Das: fired at English Governor during convocation 1932
• Shanti Ghosh + Suniti Chaudhary: killed District Magistrate Dec 1931 (school girls of Comilla)
• Madam Bhikaji Cama: 'Mother of Indian Revolution'; hoisted Indian flag at Stuttgart Germany 1907 (Int. Socialist Congress);
Dadabhai Naoroji's private secretary; operated from Paris
• Pritilata Waddedar: led attack on Pahartali European Club 1932; consumed cyanide to avoid arrest

Bhagat Singh: Born 1907, Punjab; father & uncles were Ghadar Party members; founded Naujawan Bharat Sabha (March
1926); ideology: vision of classless society; against caste & class discrimination; 'Why I am an Atheist' — criticised religious
beliefs; concept of Universal Brotherhood. 'Inquilab Zindabad' slogan coined by Hasrat Mohani; popularised by Bhagat Singh.
Chandrashekhar Azad: Reorganised HRA as HSRA; Kakori Train Robbery (1925); attempt to blow up Viceroy's train 1926;
shooting of J.P. Saunders at Lahore 1928; died at Alfred Park, Allahabad — shot himself with last bullet (true to his pledge).
Udham Singh (1940): Killed Michael O'Dwyer in London — revenge for Jallianwala Bagh; called himself 'Ram Muhammad
Singh Azad'
 13. WWI & NATIONALIST RESPONSE

Indian Response to WWI:

• Two strands: (1) Revolutionaries; (2) Nationalist leaders supported British hoping for self-rule in return
• Political Effect: Return of Punjabi soldiers aroused political activity; surge of nationalism; rise of mass civil disobedience
when Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms failed to deliver home rule
• Economic Effect: ↑ demand for Indian goods; opportunities for Indian capital; inflation; drain on Indian economy (~367
million pounds in cash, kind, loans); domestic manufacturing (cotton) benefited

Home Rule League Movement

Feature Tilak's League (April 1916) Annie Besant's League (September 1916)

HQ Poona Adyar (Madras)

Area Maharashtra (excl. Bombay city), Rest of India (incl. Bombay city); 200 branches; loosely organised
Karnataka, Central Provinces, Berar

Newspapers Mahratta + Kesari Commonweal + New India (proposed HRL in Commonweal, 1914)

Demands Swarajya, linguistic states, education in Home Rule, later merged into Swarajya Sabha (1920); Gandhi elected
vernacular president

• Leaders who joined HRL: Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, C.R. Das, Madan Mohan Malaviya,
Muhammad Ali Jinnah
• Govt Response: June 1917 — Annie Besant + B.P. Wadia arrested (severe repression)
• Gains: Shifted from educated elite to masses; created generation of ardent nationalists; prepared masses for Gandhian
politics; August 1917 Montague Declaration; Lucknow reunion (1916) between moderates and extremists

Lucknow Pact (1916)

• Extremists readmitted to Congress
• Coming together of Muslim League & Congress — joint demands; Congress accepted separate electorates
• Architects: Tilak + M.A. Jinnah | Jinnah called 'Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity' by Sarojini Naidu
• Why Muslim League changed: Britain's refusal to help Turkey in WWI; annulment of Bengal's partition; British refusal to
set up university at Aligarh; rise of younger anti-imperialistic League members — Maulana Azad, Mohammad Ali
 14. EMERGENCE OF GANDHI

Gandhi — Early Life & Africa

• Born: 2 October 1869, Porbandar, Gujarat | Father: Karamchand Gandhi (Kaba Gandhi), Diwan of
Porbandar/Wankaner/Rajkot
• Studied law in England; returned to India 1891; practicing lawyer at Rajkot and Bombay
• South Africa (21 years, 1893–1914): Natal; witnessed apartheid; Pietermaritzburg railway station — thrown out of 1st class
compartment; founded Natal Indian Congress 1894; newspaper: Indian Opinion (English, Gujarati, Hindi, Tamil); 1st Ashram:
Phoenix Ashram, Durban (1904)
• Two Phases in SA: (I) Moderate (1894–1906) — petitions; supported British in Boer War (1899), Zulu Wars (1906) —
received medal. (II) Passive Resistance/Satyagraha (1906–1914) — against Registration Certificates; Indian migration
restrictions; poll tax; invalidation of Indian marriages
• Lessons learnt: Led millions of poor; built faith in capacity of Indian masses; multi-regional/multi-religious movement
experience

Gandhi's Philosophy:
• Satyagraha: Based on truth and non-violence; moral power NOT passive resistance; only the brave could practice —
violence preferred to cowardice; coined by Maganlal Gandhi as 'Sadagraha'; Gandhi improvised to 'Satyagraha'
• Title 'Mahatma': Given by Rabindranath Tagore (during Champaran) | 'Father of Nation': first used by Subhash Chandra
Bose (1944, Azad Hind Radio) | 'One Man Boundary Force': Lord Mountbatten
• Philosophical anarchist: Ram Rajya = Truth + Non-Violence | 'Cruelest violence = persistence of poverty'
• Authors influencing Gandhi: Henry David Thoreau (civil disobedience + tax ban); John Ruskin ('Unto This Last' — good of
all, community living); Ralph Waldo Emerson (individualism); Tolstoy (non-violence, Kingdom of God is Within You)
• Political mentor: Gokhale ('ears open, mouth shut' for 1 year)
• Secretary: Pyarelal Nayyar | 'Fifth son': Jamnalal Bajaj | 'Dinbandhu': C.F. Andrews
• 1st public speech in India: BHU inauguration, February 1916
• Resigned from Congress: 1934 | Assassinated: 30 January 1948 by Nathuram Godse

Initial Movements in India

Movement Year Key Facts

Champaran Satyagraha 1917 Persuaded by Rajkumar Shukla; Tinkathia System — peasants forced to grow indigo on 3/20th of land;
(1st Civil Disobedience in European planters demanded high rents/illegal dues; Inquiry Committee (F.G. Slay presided; Gandhi
India) member); Tinkathia system abolished + 25% compensation; Gandhi called 'Mahatma' by Tagore here;
other leaders: Rajendra Prasad, Mazhar-ul-Haq, Mahadeo Desai, Narhari Parekh, J.B. Kripalani

Ahmedabad Mill Strike 1918 Dispute over discontinuation of plague bonus; workers demanded 50% rise; Gandhi demanded 35% +
(1st Hunger Strike) fasted; Anusuya Sarabhai = social worker who invited Gandhi; Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association
founded (Gandhi, 1918)

Kheda Satyagraha (1st 1918 Crops failed in Kheda district, Gujarat; farmers entitled to remission if yield < 1/4th normal; Govt
Non-Cooperation) adamant; Gandhi asked farmers not to pay taxes; other leaders: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Narhari
Parekh, Shankarlal Parikh, Mohanlal Pandya

Rowlatt Act Satyagraha 1919 Officially: Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act; 'No appeal, no vakil, no dalil'; recommended by
(1st All-India Mass Strike) Rowlatt Committee; Viceroy: Chelmsford; Gandhi organised Satyagraha Sabha; form of protest:
nationwide hartal + fasting + prayer + civil disobedience
15. NON-COOPERATION & KHILAFAT MOVEMENTS (1919–22)

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

• Date: 13 April 1919 (Baisakhi) | Location: Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, Punjab
• Crowd gathered to protest arrest of Dr. Satyapal and Saifuddin Kitchlew; fired upon by Acting Brig-Gen Reginald Dyer
• Rabindranath Tagore (First Asian Nobel Laureate) returned knighthood: 'such mass murderers aren't worthy of giving any
title'
• Gandhi called it 'Preventive Murder'
• Hunter Committee: Oct 14, 1919 (Disorders Inquiry Committee); Indian members: Sir Chimanlal Harilal Setalvad, Pandit
Jagat Narayan, Sardar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmad Khan; Report: firing = grave error; but NO penal/disciplinary action on Dyer
• Michael O'Dwyer (Lt. Gov Punjab) killed by Udham Singh in London (1940)

Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (GOI Act 1919)

• Dyarchy at provincial level: Reserved list (by Governor) + Transferred list (by popular ministers)
• Legislative Councils: 70% elected; communal & class electorates consolidated; women given right to vote
• Central Govt: No responsible government at all-India level; Viceroy's executive council of 8 — 3 were Indians; bicameral
arrangement at centre
• Principle of communal representation extended — separate electorates for Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-Indians besides
Muslims
• Indian members now allowed in Viceroy's Executive Council
• Congress Reaction: August 1918 Bombay (Hasan Imam's presidency) — declared reforms 'disappointing and
unsatisfactory'

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22)

• Launched: 1 August 1920 (Tilak died same day) | Endorsed at: Nagpur Session (moved by C.R. Das)
• Causes: GOI Act 1919 dissatisfactory + Rowlatt Act; Home Rule Movement set stage; Extremists+Moderates united;
economic hardships; Jallianwala Bagh Massacre broke faith in British justice
• Demands: People to resign from govt jobs; withdraw children from govt schools; boycott foreign goods, elections, British
army service; INC also demanded Swarajya
• 1920 Nagpur session: NCM endorsed; attainment of Swaraj through peaceful means; CWC of 15 members; Congress
membership open to all men & women 21+ (4 annas); by 1921 age limit reduced to 18
• Gandhi promised Swaraj in 1 year | Gandhi returned Kaiser-e-Hind medal | Jamnalal Bajaj returned 'Raj Bahadur'
• Educational institutions set up: Kashi Vidyapith, Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapith, Bihar Vidyapith, Jamia Millia Islamia
• Vote of censure against Gandhi: Hasrat Mohani

Chauri-Chaura Incident (5 Feb 1922): Chauri Chaura, UP — police allegedly beat volunteers protesting against liquor sale &
high food prices. Violent mob set fire to police station killing 22 policemen. Gandhi called off NCM at Bardoli CWC meeting —
'people not ready for revolt through Ahimsa'. 1922: Gandhi arrested; sentenced to jail for 6 years.

Khilafat Movement (1919–24)

• Turkey (German ally in WWI) fought against British; after Turkey's defeat — Ottoman caliphate proposed to be dissolved
• Leaders: Ali Brothers (Shaukat & Muhammad Ali), Maulana Ajmal Khan; Gandhi headed All India Khilafat Committee
• Nov 1919: All-India Khilafat Conference at Delhi — decided to withdraw all cooperation if demands not met
• Elected President (Delhi Conf): Abdul Bari
• Muslim League gave full support to Congress
• Why Congress supported: Viewed Khilafat as golden opportunity to cement Hindu-Muslim unity and bring Muslim masses
into national movement
• Tilak warned against it | Ended: Turkey abolished Caliphate 1924
 16. CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT (1930–34)

Lead Up to CDM
Event Year Key Details

Simon Commission 1927–30 Indian Statutory Commission — 7 British MPs; Chairman Sir John Simon; arrived India 1928;
boycotted by INC, Hindu Mahasabha, ML (Jinnah faction); Unionists (Punjab) & Justice Party
supported; 'Simon Go Back'; Report submitted 1930: abolish dyarchy, extend responsible govt in
provinces

Nehru Report 1928 Committee headed by Motilal Nehru; members: Tej Bahadur Sapru, Subhash Bose, M.S. Aney,
Mangal Singh, Ali Imam; Recommendations: Dominion status; rejection of separate electorates; 19
fundamental rights; complete dissociation of State from religion

Madras Congress 1927 J.L. Nehru succeeded in getting snap resolution declaring complete independence as goal

Calcutta Congress 1928 Nehru report approved; younger leaders expressed dissatisfaction at dominion status; govt given 1
year

Jinnah's 14 Points 1929 Federal constitution; provincial autonomy; no constitutional amendment without state concurrence;
1/3rd representation in central legislature; separate electorates; 3 Muslim majority provinces

Irwin's Declaration (Deepavali Oct 31, Restated goal of dominion status; no timeframe given; promised RTC after Simon Commission
Declaration) 1929 report

Lahore Congress & Purna 1929 J.L. Nehru nominated president; RTC boycotted; complete independence declared aim; CWC
Swaraj authorised to launch CDM; Jan 26, 1930 = 1st Independence Day; Dec 31, 1929 midnight on
banks of River Ravi — tricolour hoisted by Nehru with slogans of Inquilab Zindabad

Gandhi's 11 Demands to Irwin Jan 31, Included: abolition of salt tax, reduce land revenue, abolish CID, release political prisoners, prohibit
1930 intoxicants, reduce military expenditure, impose custom duty on foreign cloth, accept Postal
Reservation Bill; no positive response → CDM launched

Dandi March (12 March – 6 April 1930)

• Gandhi with 78 members of Sabarmati Ashram marched from Ahmedabad through villages of Gujarat for 240 miles to Dandi
coast — salt law violated by collecting salt from beach
• Why Salt? Small but psychologically important income for poor; no divisive element; tax affected ALL Indians; world
traditionally linked salt with loyalty & nationalism

Satyagraha at Different Places:

• Tamil Nadu — C. Rajagopalachari
• Malabar — Kelappan (organised salt marches)
• Andhra — Sibirams organised
• Orissa — Gopal Bandhu Chaudhuri (non-chowkidari tax)
• Peshawar — Badshah Khan/Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan organised Khudai Khidmatgars (Red Shirts)
• Sholapur — Sarojini Naidu led
• Karnataka, Maharashtra, Central Provinces — defiance of forest laws
• Manipur & Nagaland — Rani Gaidinliu at age 13 raised banner against British

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (14 Feb 1931) — Delhi Pact

• Placed Congress on equal footing with government; Irwin agreed to immediate release of prisoners, remission of fines,
return of land, right to make salt
• Viceroy turned down Gandhi's 2 demands: (1) Public inquiry into police excesses (2) Commutation of Bhagat Singh's death
sentence
• Gandhi agreed: suspend CDM + participate in next Round Table Conference

Round Table Conferences

RTC Participants Key Outcomes

1st (Nov 1930 – Jan British (Labour, Conservative, Liberal) + ML All India Federation accepted; Responsible Govt at provinces; INC did
1931) (Jinnah, Aga Khan) + Princely states + NOT participate
British India reps (Ambedkar, Sapru)

2nd (Sep–Dec 1931) Gandhi as INC representative + Sarojini Gandhi: Congress alone represents political India; no separate
Naidu (women); Ramsay MacDonald electorates for minorities; deadlocked
headed national govt in Britain

3rd (Nov–Dec 1932) Labour party and INC refused; Ambedkar Decisions reflected in GOI Act 1935
attended; Jinnah NOT attended

Communal Award & Poona Pact

• Communal Award (16 Aug 1932): British PM Ramsay MacDonald based on Indian Franchise Committee (Lothian
Committee); separate electorates + reserved seats for minorities (Muslims, Europeans, Sikhs, Indian Christians,
Anglo-Indians) + depressed classes (78 reserved seats)
• Gandhi: saw Communal Award as attack on Indian unity; went on indefinite fast (20 Sept 1932 in Yeravada jail — called it
'Mandir/Temple')
• Poona Pact (compromise): B.R. Ambedkar signed for depressed classes; Madan Mohan Malviya for Upper Caste Hindus;
abandoned idea of separate electorate but seats INCREASED from 71 to 147 in provincial legislatures and to 18% of total in
Central Legislature
 17. CONGRESS RULE IN PROVINCES & WWII RESPONSE

Congress Ministries Formed in:

• Bombay, Madras, Central Provinces, Orissa, United Provinces, Bihar and later in NWFP and Assam

Achievement of Congress Ministries

Area Achievements Failures

Civil Liberty Emergency powers laws repealed; Yusuf Meherally and S.S. Batliwala arrested for inflammatory speeches; K.M.
restrictions on press, certain books, Munshi used CID against communists
newspapers lifted

Agrarian Reforms Laws relating to land reforms, debt relief, Most benefits went to statutory/occupancy tenants; sub-tenants and
forest grazing fee, arrears of rent, land agricultural labourers did not gain much
tenure

Social Welfare Measures for Harijans: temple entry, —

education; encouragement to Khadi; 1938
National Planning Committee (Subhash
Bose as Congress president); reforms in
education, public health, prisons

Labour Mediation efforts; wage improvements Failed as mediator in Bombay; leftists unsatisfied; ministries used Section
sought 144

Tripuri Crisis (1939)

• Subhash announced candidature vs Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya (Gandhi's candidate) for INC president
• Result (Jan 29, 1939): Subhash secured 1580 votes; Sitaramayya got 1377 — Subhash won
• Gandhi called defeat a personal blow; CWC controlled by Gandhi's followers
• March 1939 Congress at Tripuri near Jabalpur: Govind Ballabh Pant resolution asking Bose to nominate CWC per Gandhi's
wishes — Bose refused
• Bose resigned April 1939; Rajendra Prasad became president; May 1939 — Bose formed Forward Bloc within Congress

WWII & Nationalist Response

Leader Position on WWII

Gandhi Total dislike of Fascism; advocated unconditional support to Allied powers; said not willing to embarrass British during war

Bose Along with socialists (Narendra Dev, Jayaprakash Narayan) — war fought by imperialists on both sides; neither side should
be supported; ideal time to launch CDM

Nehru Justice on side of Britain/France/Poland but also imperialist powers; no Indian participation till India is free; no advantage to
be taken of Britain's difficulty; Gandhi eventually sided with Nehru's position (adopted by CWC Wardha)

Key WWII-Era Events:

Event Year Key Details

CWC Wardha Oct 1939 Condemned Fascist aggression but said India cannot be party to war fought for democratic freedom when
Resolution that freedom denied to India; Congress ministries asked to resign; League celebrated as 'Day of
Deliverance'

Pakistan Resolution Mar 1940 Muslim League called for 'independent states' in areas where Muslims are in majority (North-West, East);
(Lahore) autonomous and sovereign constituent units

August Offer 1940 British offered: Dominion status as objective; expansion of Viceroy's executive council (Indian majority);
constituent assembly after war; veto for minorities. Nehru: 'Dominion status concept is dead as a doornail'.
ML happy with veto assurance. July 1941: Viceroy's council expanded to 8 of 12 Indians

Individual Satyagraha 1940 Aims: show patience ≠ weakness; express anti-war feeling; show no distinction between Nazism and
double autocracy ruling India. Vinoba Bhave = 1st; Nehru = 2nd; Brahma = 3rd
Event Year Key Details

Cripps Mission Mar 1942 Headed by Stafford Cripps; sent due to Japanese invasion threat + Allied pressure (USA, USSR) + Indian
nationalists' demands. Main clauses: Dominion status; province could opt out; constituent assembly after
war. Gandhi called it 'Post-dated Cheque'. Congress objected to: Dominion status; provincial secession
right; GG supremacy. ML objected to: single Indian union. Churchill/Amery/Linlithgow consistently
torpedoed Cripps' effort
 18. QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT & LAST DECADE (1942–47)

Quit India Resolution (8 Aug 1942)

• Venue: AICC, Gowalia Tank, Bombay (ratified from CWC Wardha July 1942)
• Causes: Failure of Cripps Mission; popular discontent (prices, salt/rice shortage); British reverses in South-East Asia;
leadership wanted to condition masses for possible Japanese invasion
• Resolution: Demand immediate end to British rule; free India would defend against Fascism; form provisional Government;
sanction CDM
• 'Do or Die' — Gandhi's call | All leaders arrested immediately

Gandhi's Instructions:
• Government servants: don't resign but declare allegiance to Congress
• Soldiers: don't leave Army but do not fire on compatriots
• Students: if confident, leave studies
• Peasants: if zamindars are anti-government, pay mutually agreed rent
• Princes: support the masses

Spread of QIM:
• Public Rampage: Bridges blown up; railway tracks removed; telegraph lines cut; most intense in eastern UP and Bihar;
workers on strike in Ahmedabad, Bombay, Jamshedpur
• Underground Activity: Ram Manohar Lohia, Jayaprakash Narayan (escaped Hazaribagh jail), Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha Mehta
(underground radio, Bombay), Biju Patnaik, Achyut Patwardhan, Sucheta Kripalani, R.P. Goenka
• Parallel Governments: Ballia (Chittu Pandey); Tamluk/Midnapore (Jatiya Sarkar — cyclone relief); Satara ('Prati Sarkar' —
Y.B. Chavan, Nana Patil)
• Notable: Communists did NOT join (after Nazi Germany attacked Russia → 'People's War'); Muslim League opposed; No
communal clashes; Women at forefront

Post-QIM Developments
Plan / Event Year Key Details

Rajagopalachari (CR) 1944 ML to endorse Congress demand for Independence; plebiscite in Muslim-majority areas; partition
Formula possible with agreement on defence/commerce/communications; Jinnah wanted Congress to
accept two-nation theory

Wavell Plan (Shimla 1945 All executive council members (except GG + C-in-C) to be Indians; Caste Hindus and Muslims to
Conference) have equal representation; reconstructed council to function as interim government

Elections 1945–46 Congress: 91% of non-Muslim votes; 57 of 102 seats in Central Assembly; majority in most
provinces. ML: 86.6% of Muslim votes; 30 reserved seats; majority in Bengal and Sindh

Cabinet Mission Plan 1946 Attlee govt; Secretary of State Pethick-Lawrence led 3-man deputation; rejected full-fledged
Pakistan; provinces to have full autonomy; 3-tier executive at province/section/union level;
common centre for defence/communications/external affairs

Direct Action Day 16 Aug 1946 Muslim League; 'Great Calcutta Killings' — bloodiest civil war since 1857; Jinnah called Muslim
League's Working Committee → withdrew previous agreement

Attlee's Statement Feb 20, 1947 Deadline for transfer of power: June 30, 1948; Mountbatten replaced Wavell; hints of partition

Mountbatten Plan June 3, 1947 Punjab and Bengal Legislative Assemblies to vote on partition; two dominions if simple majority
voted for partition; Sindh's own decision; referendums in NWFP and Sylhet

Indian Independence Act July 5, 1947 Two independent dominions — India and Pakistan; M.A. Jinnah = 1st Governor-General of
(effective Aug Pakistan; Mountbatten = 1st GG of India
15, 1947)

Integration of States: July 1947 — Vallabhbhai Patel took charge of new States Department. By August 15, 1947 — all states
except Kashmir, Hyderabad, Junagarh had signed instrument of accession. Nehru presided over All India State People's
Conference at Udaipur (1945) and Gwalior (April 1947). Patel's greatest achievement.
19. INA & SUBHASH CHANDRA BOSE

Subhash Chandra Bose — Profile

• Passed ICS exam but resigned 1921 to join struggle; political guru: Chittaranjan Das
• Mayor of Calcutta 1923; presided over Haripura session INC 1938 (National Planning Committee set up; Roman script for
Hindi suggested)
• Formed Forward Bloc 1939
• July 6, 1944 — Bose addressed Mahatma Gandhi as 'Father of Nation' from Azad Hind Radio
• 'Give me blood, I will give you freedom' — famous slogan

INA Phase I:
• Mohan Singh created army of retreating soldiers from Malaya & POWs from Japanese; by end of 1942 — 40,000 men ready
• INA would go into action only on invitation of INC
• Indian Independence League (IIL): Ras Behari Bose (fled to Japan 1915, naturalized citizen) created in Tokyo 1942

INA Phase II under Bose:

• June 1943 — Subhash Bose reached Tokyo; July 1943 — Ras Behari Bose transferred control of IIL and INA to Subhash at
Singapore
• October 21, 1943 — formed Provisional Government of Free India at Singapore
• Women's regiment — Rani of Jhansi Regiment
• Nov 6, 1943 — Andaman & Nicobar Islands given by Japanese to INA; renamed Shahid Dweep and Swaraj Dweep
• INA HQ shifted to Rangoon January 1944; War cry 'Chalo Delhi!' became famous
• April 14 — Colonel Malik of Bahadur Group hoisted INA flag for 1st time on Indian mainland at Moirang, Manipur
• INA met same fate as Japanese — all brigades withdrew July 18, 1944

INA Trials (November 1945):

• 1st trial at Red Fort — trying Hindu (Premkumar Sehgal), Muslim (Shah Nawaz Khan), Sikh (Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon)
• INA Day celebrated Nov 12, 1945; INA Week (Nov 5–11)
• Defence organised by: Bhulabhai Desai, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Kailash Nath Katju, Jawaharlal Nehru, Asaf Ali
 20. CONSTITUTIONAL & ADMINISTRATIVE DEVELOPMENTS

20.1 Key Acts & Charters — Chronological

Act Year Key Provisions

Regulating Act 1773 First Parliamentary control of EIC; financial crisis of EIC; Dual form of admin by Robert Clive.
Introduced centralised admin; GG & council of 4 members; Warren Hastings appointed 1st GG of
presidency of Fort William; Supreme Court at Calcutta; GG controlled Bombay & Madras councils

Pitt's India Act 1784 Dual control — British government & company; Company became subordinate dept of State; Board of
Control (civil/military/revenue); Court of Directors = trading; GG given veto; Madras & Bombay made
subordinates

Charter Act 1793 Company's trade monopoly for 20 more years; GG given more power; company empowered to give
licences to individuals to trade in India

Charter Act 1813 EIC charter renewed 20 more years; Company's monopoly ended (except tea and China trade);
Christian missionaries allowed to preach; regulations required to be laid before British Parliament

Charter Act / GOI Act 1833 EIC = exclusive administrative body; trade with China also ended; Act legalised British colonisation;
(Saint Lord William Bentinck = 1st GGI; Bengal, Madras, Bombay + other territories under GGI; 4-member
Helena council (4th member = law member — Macaulay; Indian law to be codified); slavery abolished; access
Act) to public employment for Indians irrespective of class/caste

Charter Act 1853 Company to continue possession unless Parliament provided otherwise; law member became full
member with vote; patronage system ended; COD strength reduced to 18 (6 nominated by Crown);
separated GG of Bengal from GGI; Indian Legislative Council created

Govt of India Act 1858 Shifted company rule to crown rule; GG → Viceroy; New Secretary of State in Parliament; India
Council; Lord Canning = 1st Viceroy

Indian Council Act 1861 Significant changes in GG's council; Lord Canning nominated Indians; Portfolio system introduced
(foundation of cabinet govt); Secretary of State could dissolve any act; legislative powers of governors
of Madras & Bombay restored

Indian Councils Act 1892 INC formed 1885; growing nationalism → reform legislative councils; increased non-official members;
right to ask question on budget but no supplementary question; legislative councils could make/repeal
laws with GG's permission

Morley-Minto Reforms 1909 1st attempt to bring representative & popular element; Legislative Council strength increased (Central
(Indian Councils Act) 16→60; provincial 50→60); elected member could discuss budget, move resolutions, ask
supplementary questions; Satyendranath P. Sinha = 1st Indian in Viceroy's executive council; GG had
veto; SEPARATE ELECTORATES for Muslims introduced

Montagu-Chelmsford (GOI 1919 Dyarchy at provincial level; Reserved + Transferred subjects; Indian Legislative Council at Centre
Act) replaced by bicameral system; communal representation extended (Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-Indians);
Indian members in Viceroy executive council; women given right to vote

Simon Commission 1927 7 British MPs; Sir John Simon; boycotted by all parties; recommendations: abolish dyarchy; extend
(Report responsible govt in provinces; federation of British India + princely states; continue communal
1930) electorates

Govt of India Act 1935 451 clauses + 15 schedules; All-India Federation; federal/provincial/concurrent list; Dyarchy at Centre;
Bicameral legislature; Provincial Autonomy; Federal Court established 1937; Communal electorates
continued; Burma separated from India; basis for current Constitution

Indian Independence Act 1947 Two dominions — India & Pakistan; 15 August 1947

20.2 Civil Services in India

Act / Commission Key Points

Charter Act 1853 Ended patronage system; open competitive exams initiated; Indians barred from high posts

Indian Civil Service Act 1861 Examination held in England; age limit 23 (1859) → 19 (1878); Satyendranath Tagore = 1st Indian to qualify for
ICS (1863)

Statutory Civil Service (Lytton) 1/6 of covenanted posts to be filled by Indians of high families through nominations; Lord Ripon increased age
limit to 21
Act / Commission Key Points

Aitchison Committee (1886, Classification: (1) Imperial ICS — exam in England (2) Provincial — exam in India (3) Subordinate — exam in
set up by Dufferin) India; raised age limit to 23

Islington Commission Recommended simultaneous examination

Montford Reforms 1919 Simultaneous examination; 1st examination in India 1922 at Allahabad; 1/3 of recruitments in India — to be
raised annually by 1.5%

Lee Commission 1924 Secretary of State to continue recruiting; 50:50 parity between Europeans and Indians; Public Service
Commission to be immediately established

Govt of India Act 1935 Establishment of Federal Public Service Commission and Provincial Public Service Commissions

20.3 Development of Judiciary

• Pre-British: Hindu litigation — caste elder/village headman; Muslims — head of towns/villages; only Mayor's Courts (Fort
William 1774, Madras, Calcutta, Bombay)
• Warren Hastings (1772–85): District diwani adalats; Hindu law to Hindus; Muslim law to Muslims; under Regulating Act 1773
— Supreme Court setup at Calcutta
• Cornwallis (1786–1793): Diwan Faujdari adalat abolished; court of circuit at Calcutta/Deccan/Murshidabad/Patna; Cornwallis
Code: separation of revenue & justice; European subject brought under court; govt officials answerable to court
• William Bentinck (1828–33): Circuit courts abolished → transferred to collector; 1833 Law Commission under Macaulay for
codification — Civil Procedure (1859), Criminal Procedure (1861), Indian Penal Code
• 1860 — No Indian origin judge could try European; 1865 — Supreme Court & Sadar Adalats merged into 3 High Courts at
Calcutta, Bombay, Madras; 1935 — GOI Act set up Federal Court (1937)
 21. ECONOMIC IMPACT OF BRITISH RULE
At beginning of 18th century — India had 23% share in world economy → came down to 3% at Independence. British
transformed India's economy into a colonial economy.

21.1 Key Economic Impacts

tion & Deterioration of Agriculture', 'Cultivator had no means/incentive to invest; zamindar ['e. Famine & Poverty', 'Famine not just from food-grain shortage
ts in villages; Govt spent little on agriculture'] crore died in famines']

21.2 Stages of Colonialism (R. Palme Dutt — Marxist Historian)

Phase Period Objective

Phase 1 — Mercantile 1757–1813 Monopoly in trade and direct plunder of Indian states; eliminating all other European powers
Phase and native states that opposed

Phase 2 — Industrial 1813–1860 Source for raw material and market for finished goods; Industrial Revolution → demand of raw
Phase material & market; Industrial Capitalists showed critical attitude towards EIC monopoly →
Charter Act 1813

Phase 3 — Financial 1860–1947 Promotion and protection of foreign investment; investment avenues: railway loans, trade,
Phase plantations, coal mining, jute mills, shipping, banking

21.3 Revenue Laws

Type Introducer Region Key Features

Permanent Lord Cornwallis Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Zamindars = owners; pay fixed 10/11th revenue; known as
Settlement (1793) Varanasi (~30%) Ist-e-Marari/Jagirdari; if payment fails → land sold; peasants became
rent-paying tenants who could be evicted at will

Ryotwari Alexander Read + Madras, Bombay Ryots (farmers) = direct owners; pay directly to state; Munro: 'Ryotwari
Thomas Munro (1812) (~51%) always prevailed in India'; 1st experiment: Baramahal, TN (1792);
revenue NOT permanently fixed — revised every 20–30 years

Mahalwari Holt Mackenzie (1822) Central Provinces, Revenue unit = Mahal (village/group); village jointly responsible for
Punjab, NW India payment; duty of local lambardar to collect revenue
(~30%)

Additional Economic Facts:

• Punjab Land Alienation Act 1900: Prevented land transfer from peasants to moneylenders
• Bengal Tenancy Act 1885: Defined tenant rights in Bengal and Bihar
• Assam Company (oldest tea company): est. England 1839 | 40% of central revenue → military
• Deindustrialisation started 1813 (EIC monopoly abolished except tea/China trade)
• Home Charges: UK expenditures billed to India — India Office, pensions, debt interest, store purchases (Drain Theory
components)
 22. GOVERNOR GENERALS, VICEROYS & KEY DATES

22.1 Important Governor Generals / Viceroys

GG / Viceroy Period Key Contributions / Policy

Robert Clive 1757–60, Battle of Plassey 1757; Dual Government Bengal 1765; Allahabad Treaty 1765; Founded British
('Heaven-Born General' — 1765–67 Empire in India
William Pitt)

Warren Hastings 1772–85 Ended Dual Government 1772; Ring Fence Policy; Asiatic Society of Bengal (Sir William Jones)
1784; Rohilla War; Calcutta Madarsa 1780; Regulating Act 1773; Pitt's India Act 1784;
Impeachment proceedings (not convicted)

Lord Cornwallis 1786–93, Permanent Settlement 1793; organised civil services (ICS); Cornwallis Code (separation of
1805 revenue+judiciary); Circuit Courts; Treaty of Seringapatam (3rd AM War); Tomb: Ghazipur, UP

Sir John Shore 1793–98 Policy of non-intervention; signed Treaty of Bassein

Lord Wellesley 1798–1805 Subsidiary Alliance (first: Hyderabad 1798); Censorship of Press Act 1799; 4th Anglo-Mysore War
(Tipu killed); Peshwa accepted Bassein 1802; Fort William College established

Lord Minto I 1807–13 Treaty of Amritsar (1809) with Ranjit Singh

Lord Hastings 1813–23 Anglo-Nepal War 1814–16; Treaty of Sugauli 1816; 3rd Anglo-Maratha War 1817–18; Ryotwari in
Bombay; Mahalwari in UP

Lord Amherst 1823–28 1st Anglo-Burmese War 1824–26; Treaty of Yandaboo

Lord William Bentinck (1st 1828–35 Sati Abolished 1829 (Reg. XVII); suppressed Thugs (Capt. Sleeman); English education
GGI under Charter Act (Macaulay Minute 1835); Liberator of Indian Press: Charles Metcalfe (1835); Annexed Mysore
1833) (1831) + Coorg (1834)

Lord Ellenborough 1842–44 Slavery abolished (Act V, 1843); Conquered Sindh 1843 (Charles Napier)

Lord Hardinge I 1844–48 1st Anglo-Sikh War; Treaty of Lahore

Lord Dalhousie 1848–56 Doctrine of Lapse (Satara 1848 first); 2nd Anglo-Sikh War; 2nd Burma War; Annexation of Awadh
1856 (Wajid Ali Shah); 1st Railway: Bombay-Thane 1853; 1st Telegraph line; PWD established;
Woods Despatch 1854 (Magna Carta of Education); Universities: Calcutta, Madras, Bombay 1857

Lord Canning (1st Viceroy) 1856–62 Revolt of 1857; Queen Proclamation 1858; GOI Act 1858; Indian Councils Act 1861; Hindu Widow
Remarriage Act 1856; Penal Code 1860; Portfolio system (foundation of cabinet govt)

Lord Elgin I 1862–63 Suppressed Wahabi Movement

Lord Lawrence 1864–69 Telegraphic communication with Europe; High Courts established; Bhutan War

Lord Mayo 1869–72 1st Census 1872; Financial Decentralisation 1870; Mayo College at Ajmer; only GG/Viceroy
murdered in office (by Sher Ali Afridi, Andaman Islands)

Lord Northbrook 1872–76 Kuka Movement in Punjab suppressed

Lord Lytton 1876–80 Vernacular Press Act 1878 ('Gagging Act'); Arms Act 1878; Strachey Famine Commission 1878;
2nd Anglo-Afghan War; Grand Delhi Durbar 1877 (despite famine); reduced ICS age 21→19

Lord Ripon 1880–84 Repealed VPA 1882; Hunter Commission 1882; Local Self-Government Resolution 1882; First
Factory Act 1881; Ilbert Bill 1883; 'Most pro-Indian Viceroy'; Father of Local Self-Government

Lord Dufferin 1884–88 3rd Anglo-Burmese War; INC founded 1885; Aitchison Committee on Public Services

Lord Lansdowne 1888–94 2nd Anglo-Manipur War; Durand Line Agreement with Afghanistan 1893; Indian Councils Act 1892;
Factory Act 1891

Lord Elgin II 1894–99 Famine Commission; Frontier tribal uprisings; Plague Commission

Lord Curzon 1899–1905 Partition of Bengal 1905; Universities Act 1904; Official Secrets Act 1904; Sedition Meetings Act;
ASI reorganized (John Marshall as DG); Ancient Monument Protection Act 1904; Imperial Cadet
Corps 1901; Longest tenure (7 yrs); 'Congress tottering to its fall'

Lord Minto II 1905–10 Morley-Minto Reforms 1909; Muslim League formed 1906; Surat Split; 'Father of Pakistan' per
Rajendra Prasad
GG / Viceroy Period Key Contributions / Policy

Lord Hardinge II 1910–16 Capital shifted Calcutta→Delhi 1911 (Delhi Durbar); Partition of Bengal revoked; Bomb thrown at
Hardinge 1912 (Ras Behari Bose + Sachindra Sanyal)

Lord Chelmsford 1916–21 Home Rule League Movement; Montagu-Chelmsford Report (1919); Rowlatt Act 1919; Jallianwala
Bagh 1919; NCM launched

Lord Reading (only Jewish 1921–26 Moplah Rebellion 1921; NCM; Chauri Chaura; Gandhi arrested 1922; Prince of Wales visit
Viceroy) boycotted; Hijrat Movement

Lord Irwin 1926–31 Simon Commission 1928; Gandhi-Irwin Pact 1931; Dandi March 1930; 1st RTC

Lord Willingdon 1931–36 2nd & 3rd RTCs; Communal Award 1932; Poona Pact 1932; GOI Act 1935; 2nd CDM

Lord Linlithgow 1936–43/44 GOI Act 1935 implemented; Cripps Mission 1942; Quit India 1942; Pakistan Resolution 1940;
August Offer

Lord Wavell 1943/44–47 Simla/Wavell Plan 1945; Cabinet Mission 1946; Elections 1945–46

Lord Mountbatten 1947 Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947); Indian Independence Act 1947; Partition of India; Integration of
Princely States; 'One Man Boundary Force' (Gandhi — per Mountbatten)
22.2 Key Dates Timeline
Date Event

1498 Vasco da Gama arrived Calicut

1526 1st Battle of Panipat — Babur vs Ibrahim Lodi; Mughal Empire founded

1600 East India Company established (Dec 31)

1612 Battle of Swally — EIC vs Portuguese

1757 Battle of Plassey (June 23)

1761 3rd Battle of Panipat — Marathas vs Ahmad Shah Abdali

1764 Battle of Buxar (Oct 22)

1773 Regulating Act

1784 Pitt's India Act

1793 Permanent Settlement (Cornwallis)

1799 4th Anglo-Mysore War — Tipu Sultan killed

1813 Charter Act — EIC monopoly ended

1817–19 3rd Anglo-Maratha War

1828 Brahmo Sabha / Samaj founded (Ram Mohan Roy)

1829 Abolition of Sati (William Bentinck — Reg. XVII)

1835 English as medium of instruction (Macaulay's Minutes); Metcalfe: Liberator of Indian Press

1848–56 Lord Dalhousie — Doctrine of Lapse

1853 1st railway (Bombay to Thane); 1st telegraph; last Charter Act

1857 Revolt of 1857 began May 10 at Meerut; Universities: Calcutta, Madras, Bombay

1858 GOI Act — Crown rule; 1st Viceroy (Lord Canning)

1866 Deoband School founded; East India Association (Dadabhai Naoroji)

1875 Arya Samaj founded (Dayanand Saraswati, Bombay)

1876 Indian National Association (Surendranath Banerjee + Ananda Mohan Bose, Calcutta)

1885 Indian National Congress founded (1st session Bombay, W.C. Bonnerjee, Dec)

1892 Indian Councils Act

1897 Chapekar Brothers murdered Rand — 1st revolutionary act

1902 Anushilan Samiti founded (Calcutta)

1904 Abhinav Bharat Society (V.D. Savarkar)

1905 Partition of Bengal; Swadeshi & Boycott Movement proclaimed; India House (London)

1906 Muslim League founded (Dhaka); All India Khilafat Committee formed

1907 Surat Split

1908 Khudiram Bose bomb case; Alipore Conspiracy

1909 Morley-Minto Reforms; separate electorate for Muslims

1913 Ghadr Party founded (San Francisco, Apr 21)

1915 Gandhi returned to India (Jan)

1916 Lucknow Pact; Home Rule Leagues (Tilak — April; Besant — September)

1917 Champaran Satyagraha (1st Civil Disobedience in India); Montagu's August Declaration

1918 Ahmedabad Mill Strike; Kheda Satyagraha; AITUC (Madras Labour Union = 1st modern trade union)
Date Event

1919 Rowlatt Act; Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13); Montagu-Chelmsford Act

1920 NCM launched (Aug 1); Nagpur session of Congress; AITUC founded (Bombay)

1922 Chauri-Chaura incident (Feb 5); NCM called off; Gandhi jailed; Swaraj Party formed

1924 HSRA founded in Kanpur (Oct); Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha (Ambedkar)

1925 Kakori Train Robbery (Aug 9); RSS founded (Nagpur — Hedgewar)

1927 Simon Commission appointed; Madras Congress — Complete Independence

1928 Nehru Report; Simon Commission arrived; Calcutta Congress; Bardoli Satyagraha; Saunders Murder (Dec 17)

1929 Jinnah's 14 Points; Irwin's Declaration (Oct 31); Lahore Congress — Purna Swaraj; Dec 31 — flag hoisted; HSRA Assembly
bomb (Apr 8)

1930 Dandi March (March 12 – April 6); CDM launched; Chittagong Armoury Raid (April 18); 1st RTC

1931 Gandhi-Irwin Pact (Feb 14); Karachi Congress; 2nd RTC; Bhagat Singh hanged (March 23)

1932 Communal Award (Aug 16); Poona Pact; 3rd RTC; CDM 2nd Phase; All India Harijan Sevak Sangh

1935 Govt of India Act 1935

1938 Haripura Session — Bose presides; National Planning Committee

1939 Congress Ministries resigned; Tripuri Crisis; Forward Bloc (Bose)

1940 Pakistan Resolution (March, Lahore); August Offer; Individual Satyagraha; Communist Party founded (Oct — Tashkent)

1942 Cripps Mission (March); Quit India Movement (August 8, 'Do or Die'); INA formed; IIL (Tokyo)

1943 INA Provisional Government at Singapore (October 21)

1944 Gandhi addressed as 'Father of Nation' by Bose (July 6)

1945 INA Trials (Nov); Elections

1946 Cabinet Mission Plan; Direct Action Day (Aug 16); Communal Holocaust

1947 Mountbatten Plan (June 3); Indian Independence Act; August 15 — Independence
 23. QUICK REFERENCE: QUOTES, BOOKS & NEWSPAPERS

23.1 Famous Quotes & Their Authors

Quote Author

"Swaraj is my birthright, I shall have it" Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Lucknow 1916)

"Do or Die" Mahatma Gandhi (Quit India 1942)

"Give me blood, I will give you freedom" Subhash Chandra Bose (INA)

"Jai Hind" Subhash Chandra Bose

"Inquilab Zindabad" Coined by Hasrat Mohani; popularised by Bhagat Singh

"Sarfaroshi ki tamanna ab hamare dil me hai" Bismil Azimabadi (famous recitation by Ram Prasad Bismil)

"She was the only man among the rebels" Sir Hugh Rose (on Rani Laxmibai)

"Congress is tottering to its fall..." Lord Curzon (1900)

"Microscopic minority" Lord Dufferin (on INC)

"Heaven-Born General" William Pitt (on Robert Clive)

"Grand Old Man of India" Dadabhai Naoroji (also: Gokhale called him 'Gladstone of India')

"Father of Indian Unrest" Valentine Chirol (on Bal Gangadhar Tilak)

"Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity" Sarojini Naidu (on M.A. Jinnah)

"Spiritual father of modern nationalist movement" Subhash Bose (on Swami Vivekananda)

"One Man Boundary Force" Lord Mountbatten (on Gandhi)

"Post-dated Cheque" Gandhi (on Cripps Mission)

"Preventive Murder" Gandhi (on Jallianwala Bagh)

"Cruelest violence = persistence of poverty" Mahatma Gandhi

"Dominion status concept is dead as a doornail" Jawaharlal Nehru (on August Offer)

"Father of Pakistan" (Lord Minto) Per Rajendra Prasad

"If religion does not sanction social reform, then change religion" Gopalhari Deshmukh (Lokahitawadi)

23.2 Key Books & Authors

Book Author

Poverty and Un-British Rule in India Dadabhai Naoroji (1901)

The Economic History of India Romesh Chandra Dutt

Gulamgiri Jyotiba Phule

Satyarth Prakash Dayanand Saraswati

Unhappy India Lala Lajpat Rai

The Indian War of Independence 1857 V.D. Savarkar

Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind (Causes of Indian Revolt) Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

Anandamath (source of Vande Mataram) Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (based on Sanyasi Revolt)

Neel Darpan Dinabandhu Mitra (on indigo planters atrocities)

Hind Swaraj Mahatma Gandhi (1909, South Africa)

Unto This Last John Ruskin (influenced Gandhi)

Book Author

Discovery of India Jawaharlal Nehru

My Experiments with Truth (Autobiography) Mahatma Gandhi

Bahubivah Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (against polygamy)

'Philosophy of the Bomb' Bhagvati Charan Vohra (for Chandrashekhar Azad)

Some Economic Aspects of British Rule in India G. Subramaniya Aiyar

Essays on Indian Economics (1900) M.G. Ranade

Ain-i-Akbari + Akbarnama Abul Fazl

Baburnama (Tuzuk-i-Babri) Babur (original Turkish; translated to Persian by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana)

23.3 Key Newspapers, Founders & Languages

Newspaper Language Editor / Founder

Bengal Gazette (1st newspaper in English James Augustus Hicky (1780)

India)

Udant Martand (1st Hindi newspaper) Hindi Calcutta, 30 May 1826

Hindoo Patriot (1st English paper by English Girish Chandra Ghosh; later Harish Chandra Mukherjee (supported Indigo Revolt,
Indians) 1853)

Kesari + Mahratta Marathi + English Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1st Indian journalist imprisoned)

Mirat-ul-Akhbar + Sambad Kaumudi Persian + Bengali Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Som Prakash Bengali Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

Al-Hilal Urdu Abul Kalam Azad (1912)

Ghadar Urdu/Punjabi Ghadar Party (San Francisco)

Commonweal + New India English Annie Besant

Indian Opinion, Young India, Harijan Multilingual/Englis M.K. Gandhi (Indian Opinion: South Africa)
h

Amrita Bazar Patrika (changed to Bengali → Shishir Kumar Ghosh + Motilal Ghosh (1868)
English overnight to escape VPA) English

Vande Mataram + Karmayogin English Aurobindo Ghosh

Harijan English Gandhi (1933, first issue from Poona)

Bahishkrit Bharat Marathi B.R. Ambedkar

The Hindu English G. Subramaniya Aiyar

National Herald English Jawaharlal Nehru

Bombay Chronicle English Pherozeshah Mehta

Voice of India English Dadabhai Naoroji

Bengalee English Surendranath Banerjee

Sudharak Marathi Gopal Krishna Gokhale

Samachar Darpan Bengali J.C. Marshman

Independent English Motilal Nehru

Qaumi Awaz Urdu Nehru + Rafi Ahmed Kidwai (1945, Lucknow)

Free Hindustan English Tarak Nath Das (North America)

Indian Sociologist English Shyamji Krishna Verma (London, 1905)

Searchlight English Sachchidananda Sinha

Newspaper Language Editor / Founder

Dainik Aaj Hindi Shiv Prasad Gupta

Rast Goftar (Truth-Teller) Gujarati Parsi reformers (Naoroji Furdonji et al.)

The Pioneer (Allahabad) English George Allen (1865)

23.4 Land Grant Terminology (Cross-Reference)

Term Context

Amaram Vijayanagara Empire

Mokasa Maratha

Iqta Delhi Sultanate

Jagir Mughal

Chauth Maratha — 1/4th of revenue (protection tax)

Sardeshmukhi Maratha — additional 10%

■ EXAM TIPS FOR MODERN HISTORY ■

• GG/Viceroy-Policy pairs = VERY HIGH YIELD
• Battles table with dates, parties, treaty names
• Congress sessions + presidents + key events
• Surat Split causes; 1857 leaders by region
• Treaties ending each Anglo-Mysore War
• Land revenue systems (Permanent, Ryotwari, Mahalwari)
• Home Rule League details (Tilak vs Besant: area, HQ, newspaper)
• Revolutionary organisation + event + date pairs
• Newspaper-editor-language table = regular MCQ
• Quote-author matching = regular MCQ
• Reform movement founders + year + location
• Constitutional Acts (year + key provision)