Basic Chemistry

• Terminology- matter, atoms , elements, molecules, compounds, mixture.

• Matter- is anything that occupies the space, it has volume and such as
water, rocks , soil.
• Atom–is the smallest particle of a chemical element that can exist alone,
such as O,H,C. (Smallest piece of an element).
• Elements- are made up of atoms. e.g. Mg, Na, Zn. All elements cannot be
broken in simple substances. (Pure substance that cannot be broken down
into other substances).
• Molecule- is a group of two or more atoms which are bound together to
form a compound which behaves differently from the original atoms., e.g
H₂0, Co₂

Molecule:
When two or more atoms join to form a new substance.
 Terms…Cont.
• Compounds- Substances composed of two or more different
elements, e.g Nacl, H₂0

• Mixtures: Substance made up of different elements or

molecules or compounds that are not chemically joined
together e.g. salt and water
• They can be separated by physical means.
• (N.B. sugar water - only one phase is observed e.g. liquid)
 Periodic table
• The periodic table is a chart of all the known
elements.
• It gives information about the structure and
properties of the atoms of each element.
• There currently 116 known elements on the
periodic table.
• The elements in the periodic table are divided
into metal and non-metals.
• Metals are found on the left-hand side and centre.
• Non-metals are found on top right-hand side, except
Hydrogen(H).
• Metalloids form zigzag and are characterized of both metals
and non-metals.
• Alkali metals in Group 1 , they are similar but as you go
down, they become more reactive.
• Noble gases are in group 18(8), are unreactive.
• Transition elements are in group 3 to 12, these are hard ,
dense metals.
• Alkali earth metals in group 2
• Halogens in group 7
•
 Particles in the atom
• Atoms consist of three particles:
• Protons- have a positive charge and are found
in the nucleus of the atom.
• Neutrons – have no charge and are also found
in the nucleus of the atom.
• Electrons – have a negative charge and form a
cloud around the nucleus.
• Positively charged protons and negatively
charged electrons attract each other.
• The number of electrons is the same as the
number of protons in the atom.
• This makes the atom neutral.
 Atomic number and number of
particles in the nucleus
• The nucleus contains protons and neutrons.
• Number of protons give rise to atomic
number.
• Each element has a different number of
protons
• Number of protons + the number of neutrons
give rise to mass number
• Atomic number is the number of protons.
• Mass number is the number of proton with
neutrons.
• Number of protons is equal to the number of
electrons.
• Valency electron are electrons that can take
part in chemical bonding formation.
 Formation of ions
• Atoms are neutral because the number of
electrons is the same as the number of
protons.
• If an atom loses or gain protons is no longer
be neutral.
• We call the atoms a ions.
• An atom that gains electrons becomes
negatively charged and is called anion.
• An atom that loses electrons is called Cation.
 Examples:
• Na⁺ means that the sodium atom has lost one
electron.
• Ca²⁺ means that the calcium has lost two
electrons.
• Cl⁻ means that the chlorine atom has gained
one electron.
• N³⁻ means that nitrogen atom has three
electrons.
• Electrons are arranged in shells called orbitals.
• Each orbital can hold a certain number of
electrons.
• Orbital next to the nucleus can hold only 2
electrons.
• The second and third can hold up to eight
electrons each.
 Chemical Bonding
• Atom are held together in molecules and
compounds by force called chemical bonding.
• There two types of chemical bonding:
• Covalent Bonding
• Ionic bonding
 Covalent bonding
• Valence electrons are shared between two
atoms.
• Example: H₂O
 Ionic Bonding
• Electrons are gained or transferred form one
atom to another.
Examples of ionic bonding
 Chemical structure and structural
formulae
• Chemical formula is a shorthand way of
showing:
• The number and type atoms in compounds.
• The number of atoms in a molecular element.
 Examples
Molecular formula Structural formula
 Lewis structure (dot structure)
• Are diagrams that show the bonding between
atoms of a molecule.
• This is the quick and easy way to represent the
valence electrons of an atom.
 Acids and Bases
• Acid is a substances which contains relatively high
concentrations of hydrogen ions(H⁺) or hydronium
ions(H₃o⁺).
• Acid which release a lot of hydrogen ions quickly are
called strong acids.
• Acids neutralize bases in a neutralization reaction.
• Acids taste sour.
• Acetic acids- an acid from the substance of vinegar.
• Citric acids- an acid from citrus fruit, e.g. orange,
lemon.
• Lactic acids-an acid substance from sour milk.
 Bases
• Bases are the chemicals ‘opposites ‘of acids,
• They react strongly with acids.
• Bases taste bitter.
• Bases feel soapy or slippery.
• Bases neutralize acids in a neutralization
reaction.
Different between acids and bases
Acids Bases
tastes sour and have a strong smell Feels slippery or soapy
Gives off hydrogen Accepts hydrogen ions
Has a pH of 0-6 Has pH of 8-14
Example are hydrochloric acid , lemon Examples: ammonia, Lime , sodium
hydroxide.
 Inorganic compounds
• Water- water is a solvent, water facilitate
chemical reaction, water is source of hydrogen
and oxygen, water is a transport medium, it
forms 80-90% of the bodies of organisms, it
regulates temperature.
 Carbon dioxide
• It forms about 0.04% of the atmosphere.
• It is the product of respiration of all living
organisms.
• It is essential for photosynthesis in plants.
• It is excreted by animals and plants during the
process of respiration.
 Ammonia (NH₃)
• It serves as presever to food of certain
organisms.
• It serves as fertilizer for growing plants.
 Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
• Salt is used to preserve some food.
• Salt is added in most food items as a flavor
enhancer.
• Salt inhibits the bacteria growth.
• It is used in skins and hides treatment.
 Organic compounds
• Organic compounds contain carbon bonds in
which at least one carbon atom is covalently
linked to an atom of another type.
• There are five major categories that are possible
found in all living things.
• Hydrocarbons (C and H)
• Alcohols (C,H and O)
• Carboxylic acid ( C,H and O)
• Amino acids (C,H,O and N sometimes also S,P)
• Carbohydrates ( C,H and O)
 Basic grouping of organic
compounds
Functional Common Example of the Example
group property of the chemical class
group
hydrocarbyls Contains only Alkanes Ethane
carbon and
hydrogen
Hydroxly O, H , C Alcohols Methanol
 Alkanes
• Alkanes refer to a series of saturated and
unsaturated hydrocarbons.
• They are made from hydrogen and carbon.
Chemical composition and structure
of basic types of alkenes.
 Importance of alkanes in plants and
animals
• They form the bases of alcohol formation
when reacting with a hydroxyl group(OH).
• Combustion of alkanes produces carbon
dioxide and water.
• Methane is used for heating homes and gas
hot water heaters.
• Propane is used as heating fuel.
 alcohols
• They have hydroxyl group.(OH)
• To produce alcohols there must be alkanes.
• Examples: Methane, ethane, propane and
butane.
Alcohols
 Importance of alcohols
• Ethanol is found in all alcoholic drinks.
• It is also used with sulphuric acid to prepare
ethylene which burns in air to form water and
carbon dioxide.
• Methanol is used as ethylated spirits for
heating and cooking.
• Glycerol is the building block of all alcohols.
 Isomers in alkanes and alcohols
• Molecules that have the same
molecular/chemical formula but different in
structural formula are called isomers
 Fatty Acids

• Are organic acids that are formed from

alcohols.

• They have carboxyl group (COOH).

• They are also called carboxylic acids.

Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
• Saturated fatty acids have single bonds
between the carbon atoms in fatty acids.
• Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more
double bonds between carbon atoms in a fatty
acid.
Saturated fatty acid
Unsaturated fatty acid
Different between fatty acids and
alcohols
 Bio-molecules: lipids
• Bio-molecules are molecules found in living
organisms.
• Lipids are also called fats
 Chemical composition of lipids
• Lipids are composed of C,H and O.
• The monomers of lipids are 3 fatty acids and One
alcohol (glycerol).
• Fatty acids and glycerol are bonded by ester
bonds/link.
• A water molecule is lost from the formation of
each ester bond.
• Since a water molecule is given off to make ester
bond, we call this a condensation reaction.
Fat molecule
• Fats are lipids that are solid at room
temperature. Are found mainly in animals.
• Lipids that are liquid at room temperature are
called oil.
 The importance of lipids in living
organisms
• Structural material
• Storage
• Energy reserves
• Source of water
• Insulation
• Protection
• Absorption
• Waterproofing
 Protein
• The monomers of proteins are amino acids.
• About 20 amino acids are used to make
protein.
• Amino acids contain carboxyl (COOH) and
amino group (NH₂).
• Amino group replace one hydrogen atom in a
fatty acid. Another hydrogen atom is replaced
by R group or side chain.
Structure of a simple amino-acid
(Glycine)
Structures of a few simple amino-acids
Cysteine
alanine
 Essential and non-essential amino
acids
• Essential amino acids can not be made by
animal body, and must be supplied by food.
Example leucine, lysine, and valine.

• Non-essential amino acids can be made by

animal body, example alanine, cysteine and
serine.
 The synthesis and hydrolysis of
protein
• Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds to
form long chain called polypeptides.

• Polypeptides that consist of more 20 amino

acids are called protein.
 synthesis
• The amino acids react with other amino acids
through carboxyl group.
• When two amino acids combine, they form
dipeptide.
Protein synthesis
 Hydrolysis of amino acids
• Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction where water
is added to break chemical bonds.
Simple protein
Complex protein
 Functions of protein in living
organisms
• Body structure and support.
• Storage of amino acids
• Transport substances
• Coordination of body activities
• Movement
• Protection against disease
• Speed up chemical reactions
• Buffers.
 Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates consist of the element C, H and
O. the ratio is 2:1.
• Carbohydrates are divided into Three groups:
• Monosaccharides.
• Disaccharides.
• Polysaccharides.
 Monosacharides
• Mono means ‘one’ and saccharide means
“sugar”.
• Monosaccharides are single suger molecules.
• The are different groups of monosaccharides
based on the number of carbon atom in each
molecule.
 Examples of monosaccharides
Type of Number of carbon Chemical formula Examples
monosaccharide atoms
trioses 3 C₃H₆O₃ glyceraldehyde
tetroses 4 C₄H₈O₄ Threose
Pentoses 5 C₅H₁₀O₅ ribose
Hexoses 6 C₆H₁₂O₆ Glucose
• The hexoses are the most common
monosaccharides.
• The formula of hexoses is C₆H₁₂O₆, but the
arrangement of the atoms is different.
Therefore hexoses are isomers.
• Glucose and fructose are the most important
hexoses in living organisms.
Ring structures
 Disaccharides
• Disaccharides are formed from two
momosaccharides.
• They are by glycosidic bonds.
• Examples : maltose, sucrose, lactose
 Maltose
• Glucose + glucose = maltose
• ↘ glycosidic bond
 Sucrose
• Glucose + fructose = Sucrose
 Lactose
• Glucose + galactose = lactose
 Polysaccharides
• The important monosaccharides are starch,
glycogen and cellulose.
• Monomers are monosaccharides .
Structure of glycogen
 The functions of carbohydrates
• Source of energy for body processes.
• Energy storage and transport.
• Concentration of cell fluid.
• Structural component .
 Soil texture
• Soil texture refers to the relative quantities of
sand , silt and clay in the soil.
 Groups or types of soil particles
• Clay particles- are the smallest particles,
• They are less than 0,002 mm in size.
• Clay binds other soil particles together in
crumbs, blocks, or peds.
 Silt
• Silt are between 0,002 mm and 0,5 mm in
size.
• Silt particles cannot be seen with the naked
eye and feel smooth.
 Sand
• A sand contains mostly sand particles.
• Sand grains are the biggest soil particles.
• They are between 0,5mm and 2,0 mm in size.
• They are large enough to be seen with naked
eye.
 Scientific methods to determine the
quantity of sand, silt and clay.
• Sieve analysis- dry the soil in oven- break up
all big lumps and weigh the soil.
• The soil is shaken through the sieve.
• The soil will therefore separated according to
size particles.
 Hydrometer analysis
• The soil is taken to the lab
 The soil texture triangle
• They use a soil texture triangle.
• The three sides of the triangle represent one
of the soil frictions described in table.
• Each of sides is marked from o% to 100%.
• There are four types of soils on the triangle ,
namely sand, silt , clay and loam.
• Loam is a soil type where there are equal
amount of sand , clay , and silt particles.
 Interpretation
• On the side of the triangle representing silt ,
you will mark at 25% . On the side
representing sand you will mark 55%, on the
side representing clay , you will make a mark
at 20%.
sieve
Texture triangle
 Field method to determine soil
texture class
• Sometimes a farmer does not have access to the
lab. The following field methods can be used.
• Take a handful of moist and dampen it, just
enough to wet the soil.
• Rub a small quantity of moist soil between your
thumb and forefinger.
• Now shape the soil into a ball or small sausage by
rolling the moist soil between the palms of your
hands.
• Try to bend the sausage , but only until cracks.
•Sand •Sandy loam •Sand clay •Clay loam •Clay
•Grains can be •Grains can not loam. •Can be rolled • cannot feel
seen. be seen but •Can be easily into a stable any grains of
•Cannot be can be felt. rolled into a sausage and and feels
rolled into a •Can be rolled sausage which can be rolled smooth like a
sausage. into a sausage can be swung out and bent plastic .
•Can be farmed which breaks from one end into a stable U- •Can be made
into a small when lightly bent into a shape. a ring with no
ball which pressed . stable U- •Breaks when cracks.
crumbles on •Forms a stable shape. the ends of the
touch. ball. •U-shape sausage
sausage can brought
break when together to
bent further. form a ring.
The influence of sand and clay article
size on soil characteristics
• Cohesion
• Erodability
• Permeability and porosity
• Cation exchange capacity
• Workability
 Reasons for knowing the textural
class of soil.
• To determine the crop type.
• To determine irrigation system
• To determine the drainage system.
 Soil structure
• Soil structure: is the way soil particles bind
together into large units called soil
aggregates.
• When soil particles group together , the form
structural units or aggregates.
• They are held together by electrostatic force.
• Structural units are formed by swelling and
shrinking of clay and by the action of humus
colloid.
Types of soil structure
• Platy – lie in horizontal plates
• Occurs in clay soil, compacted soil
• Water and movement is limited
• It is not suitable for crops.
 Platy structure
• .
• Platy – structure peds
are thin , flat , and plate
like. It is commonly
found in compacted
soil.
 Blocky Structure:
• Blocky – has shaped
structure with sharp
angles and they are
found mostly in B-
horizon.
• Prismatic/columnar –
occurs in the subsoil
horizons in arid and
semi-arid regions.
 Crumb structure
• Granular/crumb/spher
oid- commonly found in
surface horizon.
• Suitable for crops
 Amorphous structure
• Amorphous/single
grain/massive- found in
dune sands and in pot
clay.
 Factors influencing the development
and stability of soil structure.
• Colloidal matter in the soil.
• The type of clay mineral.
• Climate.
• Alternating moisture and drought.
• Plant roots.
• Soil texture
• Activity of soil mycorrhizae.
• Organic matter content
• Cultivation
• Soil compaction
• The freezing
Factors that destroy soil structure.
• Flood irrigation
• Rain drops
• Ploughing
• Excessive cultivation
• Tilling when the soil is too wet or dry.
• Removal of plant residues
• Overgrazing
 Methods to improve poor structure
• Add organic matter to the soil.
• Dig the soil to reduce compaction.
• Avoid rapid wetting or drying
• Avoid flood / furrow irrigation
• Avoid dip ripping machines.
Advantages of good soil structure.
• Prevents soil compaction
• Prevents soil crusting
• Prevents soil erosion
• Prevents salts imbalance
• Limits the effect of drought or excessive wetness
and anaerobiosis.
• Reduced mechanical damage.
• Improves biological activities
• Greater water infiltration
• Improved root penetration
 Soil colour
• Homogenous soil colour- when the single
colour dominates in the soil.
• Any particular soil mineral which occurs in
large enough quantities, gives the soil a
specific colour.
• Non-homogenous - occurs when a soil horizon
is very wet for part of the year. It shows a
mixture of colours.
• It is described as being mottled.
Factors that determine the soil colour
• The amount and the state of the organic
matter in the soil.
• The amount of water in the soil.
• The mineral content in the soil.
The interpretation of soil colour
 Dark soil
• High percentage of
organic matter.
• The soil is very fertile.
 Red soil
• Iron compounds in the
soil forming rocks have
undergone certain
chemical change.
• This change might have
taken place in the
presence of enough air
and low moisture.
• Indicates good air to
moisture (well drainage
and aerated).
• Has high production
potential.
 Light colour
• Soil was formed out of
sandstone with very little
iron.
• It is also indicates that the
soil was never been
saturated with water.
• Light soil is suitable for
crops that need a light,
deep soil.
• No drainage will be
necessary.
 Yellow soil colour
• Indicates that iron in the
soil has undergone
chemical changes.
• The iron has changed in
the presence of much
moisture and shortage of
oxygen.
• Limonite may be present
• Indicates a degree of
water saturation in the
soil which occurs only
during a wet season.
 Grey colour
• Iron has changed
chemically in the
absence of oxygen and
in the presence of too
much water.
• Indicates badly
waterlogged condition
in the soil and has to be
drained before any
plants can be planted in
it.
 Mottled soil colour
• Subsoil and the soil is
grey , this indicate a
varying water table.
• Mottled soil can
negatively affect root
development of plants.
• Mottled soil should be
drained properly before
any perennial or deep
rooted crops are
planted .
 Soil pores
• Soil pores are filled mainly with water and air.
• The movement of water and air takes place
through these pores.
• The pore space provides enough water and
oxygen to the plants.
 Effect of various factors on the total
pore space.
• Soil texture
• Soil structure
• Soil cultivation
 Macro – pores and Micro- pores
Macro – pores Micro – pores
• Diameter is more than • Diameter is less than 0,03
0,1mm. mm.
• Coarsely textured soil • Finely textured soil(clay)
(sand).
• Capillary movement of
• Good aeration and rapid
drainage. water.
• Water retention capacity is • Water retention capacity is
decreased . enhanced.
• Infiltration capacity is • Infiltration capacity is
enhanced. reduced.
 Bulk density and porosity
Bulk density Porosity
• Bulk density is the • Porosity is the total volume
relationship between the occupied by pores per unit
mass of the soil sample the volume of soil .
volume of the soil sample. • Bulk density is inverse
• Formula for bulk density: related to the porosity .
• In other words if bulk
• Bulk density= mass of soil sample(kg) density increases porosity
Total volume of soil sample(m³)
= kg/m³ decreases.
 Soil air
factors that influence soil air
• Soil texture.
• Soil dept
• Soil temperature
• Respiration
 A comparison between atmospheric
and soil air
Soil air Atmospheric air
• Oxygen 20,6 • Oxygen 20,9
• Carbon dioxide 0,25 • Carbon dioxide 0,03
• Nitrogen 79,2 • Nitrogen 79
 The importance of soil gases
• Oxygen
• Carbon dioxide
• Nitrogen
 Oxygen
• Necessary for respiration of plants and
animals.
• Important for oxidation of minerals.
• Plays an important role in the decay of plant
remains or organic matter.
 Carbon Dioxide
• Combines with water to form a weak
acid(carbonic acid).
• Plant nutrients are released in a soluble form
when rocks are eroded.
• Reacts with compounds to make them
accessible to the plants.
• Encourages ectomycorrhizal fungi.
 Nitrogen
• Plants cannot use nitrogen in its pure form.
• Micro-organisms bind nitrogen to form
nitrogen compounds, which eventually
become available to plants.
• Dilutes oxygen to slow down oxidations.
• Micro – organisms fix in the soil to synthesize
microbe- proteins.
 Soil water
• Types of soil water- gravitational water,
capillary water , hygroscopic water.
 Gravitational water
• Is a free water that moves through the soil
due to force of gravity.
• It is found in macro pores.
• It is not available for plants because ii moving
very fast.
• Gravitational water can cause the plants to die
because the occupies air space.
 Capillary water
• Is the water in the micro-pores.
• It is also called water solution.
• Water is adhered against the soil by cohesion
and adhesion forces.
• It is available for plants.
 Hygroscopic water
• This water forms a very thin films around soil
particles.
• It is not available for plants.
• This water is held by adhesion force.
 Water retention
• Plants get water from the soil through
absorption.
• we use the term water retention to describe
how the soil retains after drainage.
 Soil water losses
• Losses of water take place through run-off,
evaporation , seepage/percolation.
 Water loss through run-off
• Run-off occurs especially on sloping soil, where
water is very large and causes soil erosion.
• Way to limit loss
• Never leave sloping soils without plant cover in
raining season.
• Use contour walls.
• Till organic matter into the soil.
• Use gypsum.
 Water loss through evaporation
• Evaporation takes place into ways:
1. Transpiration – loss of water through plant
leaves.
2. Soil surface evaporation.
 Ways to limit loss
• Use nitrogen fertilizers that will increase the
number of leaves and leaf size.
• Use cultivars with low transpiration ratio.
• Choose cultivars with a very short season.
• Get rid of weed.
 Water loss through
seepage/percolation
• Soil which is saturated water will undergo
seepage.
• Ways to limit loss:
• Use controlled irrigation
• Add organic matter to the soil.
The availability of soil water to plants
• Saturation point- occurs when all soil pores
are filled with water that is held by adhesion
force to soil particles. It is also called
waterlogged.
• Field water capacity- the water that will
remain after drainage. Hygroscopic water and
capillary water remain.
• Temporary wilting point- occurs when the soil
cannot provide enough water for plants. The
plants will lose their turgidity. Plants often
slightly wilted during the hot day.
• Permanent wilting point- there is no less or
no water to supply the plants. On this stage
only hygroscopic water left.
 Effective soil water management
• We can represent the soil water balance with
this equation.
• Change in the soil water balance=
precipitation-evaporation-runoff.
 Management of soil water
• Increase or supplement precipitation with
suitable irrigation.
• Add enough organic matter for water
retention.
• Limit-runoff by cotour walls.
Soil temperature
 Factors that influence soil
temperature
[Link] radiation – the quantity of the radiation
energy of the sun which reaches the Earth
depends on:
• The position of the sun in the southern
hemisphere.
• Slopes of the soil
• Degree of cloud cover.
• Soil colour
• Degree of vegetation cover.
2. Soil water- water has high thermal capacity.
. It takes a lot of energy to increase the water
temperature.
. A wet soil will therefore heat up more slowly
than dry soil.
. A wet soil is cooler than dry soil.
3. Evaporation of water- water that evaporates
from the soil takes a lot of energy.
. The water cools the soil.
4. Soil depth- with an increase in soil depth, the
daily variation in soil temperature decreases.
. Mineral soil particles have heat conductivity of
soil air.
.
 Methods to manipulate soil
temperature
• Add mulch on top of the soil.
• Keep soil covered with vegetation.
• Add organic matter to the soil.
• Put down weed matting in orchards.
• Use minimal or no tilling to keep the soil
covered.
• Use greenhouse or shade netting to control
the environment.
 Soil Profile(soil morphology)
• Soil profile- is an exposed cross-section , from
top to the bottom, of all the layers making up
a particular soil.
• Soil horizons- are individual layers in the soil
profile.
• A profile hole- is a pit dug in a soil to expose
all the horizons.
Soil profile
Time influence soil formation
 Combinations of soil horizons in soil
types
• Adult or old soil A A
B or E
C B
R C
• Young Soil A OR A
C R

• Wet/waterlogged soil A or O A
E G G
G

• Eroded Soil B
C
 Soil classification
• Is a systematic way of grouping soils into classes
according to certain characteristic.
• The soil is classified based on the following
characteristics:
• Morphological, physical, chemical and
mineralogical.
• South Africa uses taxonomic soil classification
system which has two level of classes.
• Soil form(general)
• Soil families(specific)
 How to use the taxonomic system
• Demarcate the master horizons( O,A,E,B,C,R
and G)
• Identify the diagnostic horizon to be classified.
• Establish the soil form.
• Establish the soil family.
• Determine the texture class of the A horizon
and add it to the name of the soil family.
 Purpose of soil classification
• Optimal utilization of land
• Homogenous production unit.
• Choice of crop.
• Planning of farm activities.
• Allocation of land.
• Valuation of soil
•
 Top soil diagnostic horizons
• Organic O-horizon
• Humic A-horizon
• Melanic A-horizon
• Vertic A- horizon
• Orthic A- horizon
 Subsoil Diagnostic horizons
• E- horizon
• G-horizon
• Red apedal B –horizon
• Yellow brown apedal B-horizon
• Red structured B- horizon
• Soft plinthic B- horizon
• Hard plinthic B-horizon
• Gley-cutanic B-horizon
• Prismo-cutanic B-horizon
• Pedo curanic B-horizon
• Lito –cutanic B horizon
• Neo-cutanic B-horizon
• Podzol B-horizon
• Stratfied B – horizon
• Stratfied aluminium
• Regic Sand
Soil colloids and soil acidity
 Colloids
• Soil colloid is a very tiny soil particles, less
than 0,001 mm in size.
• They are slightly negative charge which
attracts nutrients cations.
• There are two types of colloids:
1. Organic colloid
2. Inorganic colloid
 Inorganic colloids
• Are mainly represented by clay and make up the
bulk of the soil.
• Are rich in mineral silica.
• Description of inorganic colloids.
• Clay minerals have layered structure and flat
platelets.
• Specific surface- they are very small.
• Negative electrical charge.
• Adsorbed cations.
 Organic colloid
• Organic colloid is humus.
• These are characteristics of organic colloid:
1. It has negative electric charge.
2. It has no fixed shape.
3. It can be formed or destroyed.
4. It has a large surface area.
5. It consists of elements C,H and Oxygen.
Examples
Cation exchange
 Cations that are dominant in the
adsorbed ions
• When hydrogen ions (H⁺) are in majority, the
soil will be acidic (low pH).
• When Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ are in majority the soil
will be neutral.
• When Na⁺ and K⁺ are in the majority the soil is
brackish(high pH)
 Factors causing soil acidification
• Natural acids
• Application of nitrogen fertilizers
• Cropping activities
• Oxidation
• Acid rain.
 Effects of soil acidity on crop
production
• Problem for plants due to a combination of to
aluminum (Al) and Impaired of certain
substances.
• Poor in plants.
• Nutrients that have poor availability in acidic soil:
N, P, K, S, Ca, Mg, B, Mo,
• Weak soil structure.
• Proliferation of pests in acid soils.
• Reduced productivity of roots in acid soils.
 Exchange reaction of reclamation
process
• H
H CaCO₃ Ca + H₂CO₂
Soil alkalinity and Salinity
 Soil alkalinity
• Refers to a condition of soil having pH greater
than 7.
• These soils are dominated by Ca, K , Mg, and
Na.
 Identification and characteristics of
saline and sodic soil.
• Salinity is a condition of soil having an excess
amount of soluble salts such Cl, S, Ca, Mg.
• pH is more than 8,5.
• Lowered infiltration and leaching of water.
• Organic matter dissolved by high
concentration of sodium hydroxide.
 Causes of soil alkalinity and salinity
• Alkaline fertilizers
• Proximity of ocean
• Saline irrigation
• Incorrect irrigation scheduling
• Over-frequent , light irrigation
• Drying up of pans and lakes
• Saline soil/white brack- is the result of an
excess of all salts in the soil.
• Examples Cl, Na , S, Ca Mg.
• Soils contain so much soluble salt that reduces
production.
• Sodic soils/black brack -with low total soluble
salt content , but enough adsorbed sodium to
cause significant deflocculation.
• This destroys the soil structure.
 Characteristics of saline soil
• The pH is lower 8,5
• Shows a salt crust on the surface.
• There is no sodium carbonate in the soil
solution.
• Most common salts are chlorides and sulfates
and magnesium.
• Salts with low solubility.
• Soil colloids are well flocculated.
 Characteristics of sodic soils
• pH is usually high than 8,5
• Sodium carbonate occurs in the soil solution.
• Calcium carbonate sometimes occurs in the
solid phase.
• Soil colloids deflocculated
• The soil shows signs of swelling and shrinking.
• The subsoil often has a prismatic or columnar
structure.
 The effects of alkalinity or brack on
crop production
• Hydrolysis of sodium in the soil causing pH to
rise.
• Sodium ions have deflocculated.
• Leads to the development of prismatic soil
structure.
• Humus dissolves in the soil.
• It is difficult for plants to absorb water from
the soil.
 Methods to prevent or control
alkalinity
• Avoid sing alkaline fertilizers.
• Use acidic fertilizers
• Use green manuring
• Moderate , not excessive irrigation with
brackish water.
• Avoid too frequent light irrigation.
 Soil alkalinity and soil salinity
• It opposite of soil acidity
• PH is high than 7
• Sodium ions are dominant.
 Characteristics of alkaline soil
• Sodium occupies more than 15% of cation
exchange.
• PH is more than 8.5
• Poor structure
• Little infiltration
• Humus is dissolved.
 Causes of soil alkalinity and soil
salinity
• Alkaline fertilizers
• Proximity of the ocean
• Saline irrigation water
• Incorrect irrigation schedule.
• Over frequent , light irrigation.
• Drying up of pans and lakes.
• Saline soil is the soil with excess soluble Cl, Na ,
Ca , Mg
• Sodic soil is the soil with low soluble salts with
enough Na that causes deflocculation.
 Characteristics of saline soil
• Ph is low than 8,5
• Crust on soil
• Salt layer profile
• Sodium carbonate in the soil.
• Colloids are well flocculated.
 Characteristics of sodic soil
• Ph higher than 8,5
• Sodium carbonate occurs in the solution
• Soil colloids are deflocculated.
• The soil shows the signs of swelling or
shrinking .
• Subsoil has prismatic or columnar soil
structure.
 The effects of alkalinity on crop
production
• High Ph extremely harmful to plant tissues.
• Have deflucculation effect
• Develop prismatic soil structure
• Humus dissolve in the soil
• Make difficult for plant to absorb water
 Methods to prevent or control soil
alkalinity
• Avoid alkaline fertilisers
• Use green manuring
• Use acidifying fertilisers
• No excessive irrigation
 How to reclaim of alkaline soil
• use one to three tons of gypsum per hector.
• Sulfur helps to reduce alkaline.
• Use green manuring.
• Plant alkaline tolerant plants.
• Limit evaporation.
 Living organic matter in the soil.
• Micro organisms (components of soil)
1. Bacteria
2. Fungus
3. Algae
4 protozoa
 Macro organisms
• Earth worms
• Night crawlers
• Red wigglers
• Molluscs
• Ants
• Mites
• Any other worms
• Termites
 Important and role of soil micro and
macro organisms
• Plants and animal remains are broken down.
• Release plant nutrients.
• Improve soil structure.
• Release carbon dioxide to the into the
atmosphere.
• To bind nitrogen.
Requirements of soil micro and macro
organisms
• Fresh organic matter.
• Need mineral nutrients
• Need moisture
• Oxygen for respiration
• Temperature should be between 25°C and
30°C
• Ph 7,5
Carbon cycle
Nitrogen cycle / conversion by micro –
organisms
❖ nitrogen exists in soils in many ways forms
and constantly changes from one form to
another.
❖ both air and soil consists of 80% of nitrogen.
❖ only few plants and micro – organisms are
able to use nitrogen.
❖Micro – organisms bind it so that it will be
available to organisms.
 Nitrogen cycle
• The first is nitrogen fixing- legumes are plants that contain bacteria
in tiny nodules on the roots . Symbiosis
• Ammonification- the bacteria(rhizobium) can fix atmospheric
nitrogen into the soil to ammonia.
• Nitrification – nitrifying bacteria in the soil change the ammonia to
nitrates .
• Plants can absorb nitrites.
• Lighting and adding fertilizer are two other ways that nitrogen is
added to the soil.
• When plants die , they are broken down decomposers and the
nitrogen is returned into the soil in form of ammonia.
• Denitrification – when it rains a lot denitrifying bacteria change
nitrates back to nitrogen , which return to the atmosphere
The process of symbiosis: mycorrhiza
and Rhizobium bacteria
• Symbiosis – living together of different species of
organisms. (terrestrial plants and fungi)
• These associations are called mycrorrhizal (mean
fungus root)
• Rhizobium bacteria carry out the process of
nitrogen gas into ammonia.
• Ammonification – organic nitrogen is converted
to ammonium compound (bacteria).
• Nitrification – ammonium is converted to nitrites
and nitrates.
• Denitrification – reduction of nitrates to nitrites
with the release of nitrogen.
• Nitrogen assimilation – is the absorption and
binding of accessible nitrogen by soil microbes.
• Solubilisation – minerals and compounds are
made soluble by living organisms.
• Immobilisation – when nitrogen is limited ,
microbes compete with plants.
• Mineralisation – organic compounds are broken
down.
 photosynthesis
o Is the process whereby plants are their own
food.
o Autotrophic organisms- plants that can make
their own food. e.g green plants
o Heterotrophic organisms- organisms that
cannot make their own food. e.g animals
 Requirements of photosynthesis
• Carbon dioxide (Co₂)
• Water (H₂o)
• Sunlight
• Temperature
• Pigment – Chlorophyll
carotenes
carotenoids
xantophylls
 Schematic representation of
photosynthesis
• Roots absorb water from the soil.
↓
. Water moves up the stem to the leaves.
↓
. Leaves absorb carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.
↓
. There is a mesophyll tissue in the leaves containing
chloroplasts and enzymes.
. Chloroplasts use pigments, enzymes and radiant energy to
change water and carbon dioxide to oxygen and
carbohydrates (C₆H₁₂O₆).
. ↓
. Oxygen leaves the plant and go back into the atmosphere.
↓
. Carbohydrates are stored in leaves and stem of the plant.
↓
Oxygen is a by product (secondary product derived from
manufacturing process)
Carbohydrate is a product
 difference between photosynthesis
and Respiration
photosynthesis respiration
• Anabolism or building process. • Catabolism or breaking down
• Carbohydrates are formed and process.
energy is stored in these • Carbohydrates are broken
carbohydrates. down and energy is released.
• Carbon dioxide is absorbed • Oxygen is absorbed from the
from the atmosphere. atmosphere.
• Oxygen is released into the • Carbon dioxide is released into
atmosphere. the atmosphere.
• Water is absorbed from the • Water is released into the
soil. atmosphere.
 Photosynthesis reaction and
Respiration reaction.
chlorophyll
6Co₂ + 6H₂o + energy → C₆H₁₂o₆ + o₂(photosy)
enzyme
C₆H₁₂o₆ + 6o₂ → 6Co₂ + 6H₂o + energy(ATP)
 Importance of photosynthesis
• converts radiant energy to chemical energy.
• Produces oxygen
• Uses carbon dioxide.
• Is the origin of fossilized fuel.
 Dark and light phases of
photosynthesis
• photosynthesis takes place in two steps inside
the chloroplast, dark and light phases.
 Light phase(Hill reaction)
• Takes place in the quantasomes of chloroplast.
• The pigment absorb radiant energy and convert it into chemical
energy.
• Part of chemical energy is used to split water(PHOTOLYSIS) into
oxygen and hydrogen ions.
• Oxygen is released into the atmosphere.
• Hydrogen ions combine with co-enzyme , NADP, to form NADPH
• NADPH is used during dark phase
• Other chemical energy is used to produce carrier molecule ATP. This
process is called photophosphorylation.
• ATP carries energy to the stroma(in chloroplast) to build
carbohydrates .
 Dark Phase (Calvin cycle)
• It takes place in stroma of the chloroplast.
• It does not require light energy.
• NADPH releases the hydrogen ions and ATP release excess energy
which it carries.
• The original molecules of NADP and ADP are now again available to
repeat the process during the light phase.
• The hydrogen atoms and the liberated energy react with carbon
dioxide to synthesize a carbohydrate(glucose).
• Glucose molecule are converted to Starch through enzyme action(
dehydration).
• Glucose molecules combine with nitrate and sulphate ions to form
amino acids.
• Amino acids are converted to plant protein through enzyme action.
 factors that influence the rate of
photosynthesis
• Light intensity
• Temperature
• Availability of carbon dioxide
• Availability of soil water
 Food storage in plants
• Plants produce more carbohydrates than they
can use.
• Some carbohydrates are used for fat and
protein synthesis.
• Excess carbohydrates are stored in different
organs such as stems, leaves , roots, flowers ,
seed, fruit.
 Ways to increase the rate of
• Pruning
photosynthesis
• Plant density
• Greenhouses
 Functions of water in plants
• Transports nutrients from the soil to the leaves.
• Transports the products of photosynthesis to the
plant organs where they are stored.
• Provides structural support to plants.(turgid)
• In the absence of water the plants become flaccid
, wilt and die.
• Water regulates temperature.
• Water provides the medium for metabolic
processes.
•
The movement of water from the soil
to the roots
• Plants get water and nutrients from the soil
• Water and nutrients are absorbed by root hairs.
• Absorption of water and minerals can be passive
or active.
• Passive uptake needs no energy and happens
spontaneously through diffusion or osmosis.
• Active uptake needs cellular energy and
sometimes even carrier molecule to transport the
nutrients through cell membranes.
 Diffusion
• Is the spontaneous movement of molecules
from region of high concentration to a region
of low concentration, until the equilibrium is
reached.
•
 Osmosis

• Is a diffusion process where water molecules

move from a high water potential to a low water
potential through a permeable membrane.
• The solution that has low water potential(strong)
is called hypertonic solution.
• The solution that has high potential(weak) is
called hypotonic solution.
• Water always moves from high water potential to
low water potential.
Movement of water from the roots to
the leaves
• Xylem tissues are responsible to transport
water from the roots to the leaves
• The movement of water can be apoplastic or
symplastic
 Apoplastic movement
• Movement of water via intercellular air space
• Water moves along the outside of the cells
 Symplastic movement
• the movement of water through the cells.
 Movement from the leaves into the
atmosphere
• At the leaves excess water is released into the
atmosphere via evaporation.
• Through tiny opening called stomata.
• The process called transpiration.
• In some plants water is lost as small droplets
through hydathodes.
• The process is called guttation.
 Factors that influence the upward
movement of water
• Root pressure
• Capillarity
• Adhesion and cohesion force
• Transpiration pull
• Osmotic flow
 Transpiration pull and osmotic flow
• Transpiration is the process whereby water is
lost as water vapour through the stomata into
the atmosphere.
• Transpiration lowers the water potential in the
leaves relative to the stems and roots.
• This causes a suction force by the leaves called
transpiration pull.
• Water and nutrients are continuously moved
from the roots to the leaves via osmosis
• The movement is called osmotic flow.
 The adaption of plants to reduce
transpiration rate
• Thick cuticles (i.e. waxy coating)

• Small , sunken stomata

• Hairy leaves (which serves to cover leaves)

• Small leaves
 Movement of the products of
photosynthesis
• food are transported from the leaves to the
different plant organs.
• The plant tissue that transports the foods is
the phloem.
 Nutritional elements of plants
• Plants need mineral elements to survive.
• Mineral elements are dissolved in the soil
• The roots of plants absorb mineral elements
from the soil.
• Plant minerals are divided into two groups,
micro-elements and macro-elements.
 Macro elements
• are also called macronutrients that plants need
in large amount.
• examples : nitrogen , phosphorus , potassium ,
calcium , magnesium, sulfur.
 Micro – elements
• are also called micronutrients, are the
elements that the plants need in very small
quantity.
•Too much micro elements are toxic and will kill
the plants.
•Examples : Boron, Copper , iron ,
molybdenum, and zinc
 Primary and secondary macro
elements
• Primary – are needed in large amount by the
plants
• they are important for root and leaf
development .
•Examples : nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
 Secondary Macro elements
• there are enough in the soil,
•Fertiliser is not needed.
•Examples calcium, magnesium , and sulfur
 Plant nutrient uptake
• The mineral salts that are dissolved in the
water are in the form of ions.
•The uptake of mineral ions can be passive or
active.
•Passive uptake needs no energy and happens
spontaneously through diffusion or osmosis.
• Active uptake needs cellular energy and
sometimes a carrier molecule.
 The forms in which nutrients are
available
Nutrient Which form is best absorbed
Nitrogen Ammonium(NH₄⁺) and nitrate( NO₃⁻)
Phosphorus In combination with calcium(in alkaline
soils) in Ca-P minerals.
Potassium K⁺ is normally bound to soil colloids. Lime
is added to the soil to displace K⁺ with
Ca²⁺ . The Ca²⁺ is then bound to the soil
and plants can absorb K⁺.

Sulfur Sulfur ions(SO₄²⁻)

Manganese, iron, copper, zinc, and boron Absorbed better under acidic conditions.
Molybdenum Absorbed better under alkaline condition.
 Factors that affect nutrient
availability
• Soil texture
• Soil pH
 Nutrient element analysis in crop
• Soil analysis production
• Plant analysis
• Sampling Plant Tissue
 Fertilisers
• A fertiliser is any inorganic or organic material
that is added to the soil to supply one or more
plant nutrients.
• Organic and inorganic fertilises
• Organic are made from natural substances
such as dead/decayed plant or animal
material.
• Inorganic are synthetic substances that are
manufactured from the chemicals.
 Inorganic fertilizers can be divided
into TWO groups
• Straight fertilizer (single element fertilizer)
• Compound fertilizer (contain TWO or more of
primary nutrient minerals)
 N,P,K fertilises and their use
• Limestome Ammonium Nitrate(LAN)
•Contains limestone and is used on acidic soil.
•It maybe used where seeds are sown.
•Contains nitrates that are available to the
plants.
 Urea
• Urea is applied as a top dressing.
• There is a danger that the leaves of crops will be
scorching.
• It may applied with irrigation water.
• It can be mixed with superphosphate because it
becomes moist and sticky.
• I can be mixed with ammonified superphosphate.
• It is applied in quantities of 50 – 100 kg/ha.
 Ammonium Nitrate
• Should not be used in acidic soils, make soil
more acidic.
• Used as top dressing
• It is applied in quantities of 25-50 kg/ha
depending on the fertility of soil.
 Superphosphate
• Never used as top dressing.
• It is applied at the time of seeding.
• Suitable with a pH that is lower than 5,5.
• Should be accompanied by organic fertilizer.
• Stimulate micro-organisms.
• It is applied in quantities of 200-500kg/ha
Raw phosphate or Rock phosphate
• It is applied before the time of seeding.
• Suitable in acidic soil.
• It should be broadcasted .
• It must be accompanied by organic fertilizer.
• It is applied in quantities of 400-500kg/ha.
 Potassium
• Available immediately to plants.
• It is adsorbed to the soil colloids.
• Prevents leaching,
 Potassium sulphate
• It is applied at the time of seeding/planting.
• Used on alkaline soil.
• Can be applied as top adressing.
• It is applied in quantities of 100-200kg/had
 Mixtures N:P:K
• Contains combination of straight fertilisers.
• They contain different ratios of N,P and K
 Calculation of plant nutrients in
fertilisers
• N:P:K 3:2:1(28)
•28 indicates that each grams of fertiliser
contain 3 parts N, 2parts P and 1 part of K.
•Example: 3+2+1= 6
• The % N: 3/6 x28=14%
• The % P: ?
• The % K: ?
Environmental impact of inorganic
fertilisers
• Can destroy soil web,
• Nitrogen causes soil
acidification.
• Overfertilisation causes
plant burns.
• Run –off and leaching of soil
water with fertiliser destroy
aquatic ecosystem.
• Methane(green house gas)
emissions from crop field
are increased.
• Nitrous oxide(greenhouse
gas) is also emitted.
 Agricultural Lime
It is a soil additive made from It contains magnesium oxide,
pulverized limestone and magnesium carbonate
• Calcitic limestone consists
of calcium calcium
carbonate
• Dolomitic is a mineral that is
composed of calcium
magnesium carbonate, also
contain lead, zinc, iron and
manganese.
 Types of Organic fertilisers
•Sewage waste- it must be tasted before use,
•It may contain poisonous element , heavy metals.
• Green manure- is the planting of special crops on
a rotation cycle.
• legumes , small grain crops, maize, and cereal are
suitable for green manure.
•Plants are planted and worked back into the soil.
•Farm manure- it is animal waste or excreta that is
used as fertiliser.
 Types of farm manure

•Waste of farm animals such as chickens, cattle ,

horses , pigs and sheep.
•Factors affecting the composition of farm
manure
• the type of animal.
• the type of food the animal consumed.
•The livestock diet.
 The beneficial effects of liming
• Chemical effect- neutralizes acidic soil.
•Raise pH of acidic to acceptable level.
•Essential nutrients are available to plants.
•Source of calcium and magnesium to plants.
•Biological effect- microbial activity increases.
•Physical effect- increased decomposition of
dead organisms. Improves the texture of the
soil. Increases water retention ability.
 Gypsum
• It is a white or gray material that consists of of hydrated calcium sulfate.
• It occurs primarily in sedimentary rock deposite.
• Use of gypsum: decreasing bulk desity of soil make it easy to till.
• Prevents crusting.
• Prevents waterlogging.
• Decreasing loss of fertiliser.
• Helps plants to absorb nutrients
• Stops run-off and erosion
• Improves soil structure
• Improves fruit quality
• Prevents plant deseases
• Corrects soil acidification
• Decreases heavy metal toxicity
• Keeps clay particles from adhering to roots
• Helps earthworms to florish.
• Improves soil aeration
 Compost
• Compost is nature’s own fertilizer.
• Advantages of making compost:
• Improves soil structure.
• Improves water holding capacity.
• Provides essential mineral nutrients to the
soil.
• Improves soil fertility.
 Guidelines for making a good compost
heap
• Find or make a container for your compost.
• You need enough organic material , moisture , heat and air.
• Collect the content of your heap such as dead plant material,
kitchen waste, grass cutting.
• Make your material small pieces so that it will rot fast.
• Use soft foliage for your compost, rather than woody material.
• Keep your compost moist at all times.
• Make sure that the bottom of your compost heap is open and in
contact with the soil.
• Halfway through the rotting process, turn and mix your compost.
• Avoid any non-plant matter.
• Try to gather a variety of material for your compost.
• Choose a good site for your compost.
 The beneficial effects of organic
manure on the environment
• Chemical effects
• Provides essential minerals to the soil.
• Recycle much needed mineral nutrients.
• Improves raises the soil pH
• Physical effects
• Improves soil structure and soil texture.
• Improves water holding capacity.
• Improves penetration of water, gases and mineral nutrients.
• Improves soil aeration.
• Biological effects
• Provides medium for micro-organisms to flourish.
• Accelerates plant growth and crop production.
Disadvantages of organic fertilizers
• Not all organic fertilisers are Eco- friendly.
• Too much fertiliser can leach into the soil
water.
• Algal bloom and eutrofication of water
resources can kill aquatic animals.
 Methods to apply fertilisers
• Band Placing- it is a placing of fertiliser above/on one
side/both sides/below the seed.
•Liquid application- mix the fertiliser with the required
amount of water.
•Gas application is the spraying of fertiliser over a crop.
•Broadcasting – is the even distribution of granular fertiliser
over the soil.
•Foliar application- spraying of the fertiliser directly onto the
leaves of the plant. Examples: fertigation(mix with irrigation
water) and Aerial application(spraying of fertiliser from the
aircraft).
•Top-dressing – its when the fertiliser is spread and left on top
of the soil next to the plant. The fertiliser wait for the rainfall
to wash it into the soil.
•Plant mixture- it is used when Two or more macronutrients
are needed simultaneously.
Plant reproduction: -
Definition of Sexual (pollination) and asexual reproduction
(runners) in plants
– Types of asexual methods of reproduction (bulbs, tubers,
cuttings, stolons and rhizomes)
- Differences between self-pollination and cross pollination
(JUST THE CONCEPTS)
- Listing the main agents of pollination
- Only concepts of – fertilization, ablactation,
seed formation,
fruit setting
- Distinction between vegetative and stimulative parthenorcapy
- Types of fruits (simple, compound, multiple and accessory
 Sexual reproduction
• Is the process whereby young new plants are
produced by the fusion of male sperm and
female egg.
Sexual parts of the flower
• Pistil is the female part of the flower
• It develops flower leaves called carpels.
• Pistil consists of three parts:
• Stigma- outer tip of the pistil
• Stigma receives the pollen during pollination.
• Style – tube which the pollen tube grows
when start germinating.
• Ovary- produces egg cells.
 Stamen
• Male part of a flower.
• Stamen consists of two parts
• Anther- produces pollen(male gametes)
• Filament- holds the anther
 Non-sexual parts of the flower
• Calyx – green leaves that protect the flower.
• Corolla- colorful leaves that attract the
pollinators.
• Sepal- protect the flower from environmental
damage. Sepal are green.
• Sepal can photosynthesize and make food for
the flower.
 Monocotyledonous and
dicotyledonous flower
Dicotyledonous Monocotyledonous
flower flower
Calyx and corolla No distinction
can be distinguished between a calyx and
corolla
Floral parts Flower parts
arranged in arranged in
multiples of 4 or 5 multiples of three.
 Bisexual and unisexual flowers
• Bisexual flowers carry
both male and female
parts. Example most of
flowers
• Unisexual flowers carry
either male or female
part. Example Pumpkin.
 Pollination
• Pollination is a passing of pollen grain to the
stigma.
• There are two types of pollination
• Cross pollination
• Self pollination
 Self pollination
• Occurs when pollen is transferred from the
anther of a flower to the stigma of a same
flower on the same Plant.
 Conditions under which self
pollination takes place
• When the flowers of the plant are very small.
• After cross pollination failed due to bad
conditions.
• When the weather is unfavorable.
 Cross pollination
• Occurs when pollen is transferred from the
anther of one flower to the stigma of another
flower on different plants.
How can a plant avoid self pollination
to encourage cross pollination
• Plants produces pollen before the ovules are
ready for fertilization.
• The internal structure of a flower adapts.
Example develop short filaments.
• Male and females organs occurs on separate
plants.
 The main agents of pollination
• Wind
• water
• Insect
• Birds
• And other animals
 Plant adaptation to insects and birds
pollination
• Flowers have brighter coloured petals.
• Flowers have an attractive smell.
• Flowers produces nectar.
Plant adaptations to wind pollination
• Large quantities of pollen are produced.
• Pollen is light and dry, so that the wind can
carry it easily.
• Some pollen has air sacs to float through the
air.
• The female flower are simple and bare , for
pollen to enter.
 Plants adaptations to water
pollination
• Female flower on the surface of water
• Male flower below the surface of water.
Germination of a ripe pollen grain on
a stigma
• Pollen grain absorb water and swell,
• The outer layer called exine bursts open.
• The inner wall of the pollen grain, called the intine,
then grows in the form of a tube through the opening.
• The content of the pollen grain flows down the tube.
• Empty shell of the pollen grain remains on the stigma.
• The pollen grain contains two nuclei
• The first nucleus called vegetative controls the
direction in which pollen tube grows.
• The second one is generative nucleus that divides male
gametes into two.
 Fertilization and double fertilization
• Fertilization is the fusion of nucleus of a male gamete with the
nucleus of female gamete.
• Double fertilization in plants occurs when two separate fusions take
place inside the ovule during the fertilization process.
• When the pollen tube grows through the micropilum, the
vegetative nucleus disappears.
• The tip of pollen bursts open and the male gametes are released
into embryonic sac.
• One of the male gametes fuses with ovum and form zygote.
• The other male gamete fuses with diploid(2n) primary endosperm
cell to form triploid endosperm cell.
• This process is called double fertilization.
• The triploid endosperm divides and give rise to the nucellus tissue
in the seed which feeds the embryo.
Development of fertilized ovule to for
a seed.
• Zygote starts dividing by mitosis to form
embryo.
• The endosperm sperm cells used to feed
young embryo.
• The ovule with its embryo and endosperm is
called a seed.
 Parthenocarpy
• Is the production of fruit without the fertilization of
ovules.
• Fruit is produced seedless example banana,
cucumbers.
• There are two types of parthenocarpy:
• Vegetative – occurs in plants that do not need
pollination, example cucumber.
• Stimulating parthenocarpy- requires pollination to
produce: example watermelon.
• Parthenocarpy is also desired trait in fruit that are
difficult to pollinate.
 Ablactation
• Is the process where many plant trees shed
many young flowers and fruit to reduce the
amount of fruit set.
 Factors causing ablactation
• Biological factors
• Deformed flowers.
• Too many fruit in one tree.
• Insects
• Spraying of trees.
• Soil factors
• Mineral deficiencies .
• Too much soil moisture.
• Too little soil moisture.
• Climatic conditions
• Strong winds.
• Low temperature inhibit germination,
• Frost damage flowers.
• Rain make pollen wet and difficult to disperse.
 Fruit setting
• Is the process whereby a fertilised ovaries
undergo changes and develop into a fruit.
• The wall of the ovary become fleshy and this is
what we see as the fruit.
 Seed germination
• Seed germinates when it is dropped and
conditions become favorable.
• Seed require warm , moist conditions to
germinate.
• The seed absorb water and get swell up. The
zygote divides and form a young plants.
 The embryo has three parts
• A radicle which will grow into a root.
• An epicotyle that grows and give rise the
leaves .
From fertilised flowers to seeds/fruits
• The ovule develops into a seed and protects a
young embryo.
• The most typical fruit shows the following:
• The pericarp – external part of the fruit that
surrounds the seed.
• Exocarp- outer cover that protects the fruit.
• Masocarp- middle fleshy part which we normally
eat.
• Endocarp- Stiffened inner part that covers the
seed.
 Types of fruits
• Dry simple fruit- (a) Dehiscent dry fruit, (Pods)
• (b) Indehiscent dry fruit.(Nuts)
• Fleshy simple fruit- have soft caricarp (tomato)
• Compound fruit- strawberries
• Multiple fruit – Figs, pineapples
• Accessory fruit – apples , pears
 The process of seed germination
• Seed absorbs water(imbibition).
• The seed swell up.
• Inside the seed embryo develops.
• The germination ends when the radicle of the
embryo extends and penetrates the structure
surrounding the embryo.
• A new young plant grows.
 Seed dormancy
• Seed are dormancy when they can not
germinate.
• Seed can not germinate when the surrounding
structures constrain the embryo.
• This is called coat-enhanced dormancy.
• Embryos themselves can be dormancy .
• This is called embryo dormancy.
 Scarification
• Is the process whereby small incisions are
made in the coat of the seed in order to
hasten germination.
 Requirements for seed germination
• Warmth
• Moisture
• Plant hormones( gibberrellins and auxins)
 Asexual reproduction/vegetative
propagation in plants
• Is the process of growing plants from other
parts of the plant.
 Methods of vegetative propagation
• Natural vegetative propagation
• Artificial vegetative propagation
 Natural vegetative propagation
• Include bulbs ,corms: stems ;root tubers ,
rhizomes , plantlets, runners , layering , and
suckers.
 Bulbs and Corms
• Bulbs are underground stems covered with
fleshy leaves that store food.
• Lateral buds develop among the fleshy leaves ,
giving rise to new bulbs.
Bulbs
 Corms
• Corms are short, thick, round underground
stems that store food.
 Stem and root tubers
• Stem are enlarged , short underground which
food is stored.
• They contain a terminal bud as well as a group
of lateral buds (eyes).
• Examples potatoes.
 Rhizomes
• Are thickened underground stems with nodes
and internodes that grow almost horizontally
with the surface of the soil.
 Plantlets, runners, layering, and
suckers
• Runners bend downwards and where it
touches the soil , roots develop and form a
new plant.
• Example sweet potatoes.
 Suckers
• Can develop from underground buds on
stems.
• They grow upwards
 Artificial propagation
• Include cutting , grafting and budding
• Cutting are taken from stems, leaves or roots
of the parent plant and grow into a new plant.
• Examples: leaf cutting , Stem cutting ,root
cutting.
 Grafting
1. Budding – a bud is inserted underneath the
bark of the stock.
2. Grafting - the whole scion with several buds
is used to propagate the plant.
 Advantages of asexual reproduction
• Fertilization does not take place.
• Plants can be produced without using seed.
• Progeny is genetically identical to the parents.
• Germination is not necessary.
Disadvantages of asexual propagation
• There is no genetic variation
• Lethal genes will be inherited by the offspring.
• Overcrowding will occur and lead to a
competition .
 Plant improvement
• Selection- is a process by which plants with
good characteristics are selected for
propagation.
• Mass selection – plants are selected
according there visibility.
• Hybridization- is the crossing of two
different varieties of a plant.
• Mutation- is the change in the genetic make-
up of an organism.
 Gene mutation to improve plant
production
• Scientists do genetic modification of plants by
adding one or more specific genes to a plant
by, deleting the gene,
 Biotechnology
• Is the use and manipulation of living
organisms to make useful production such as
food.
• The process is called genetic modification
(GM)
 Advantages of GMOs
• Their ability to resist pests.
• Their ability to resist disease.
• Environmentally sustainability.
• High nutritional value.
• Increased yield.
• Their ability to tolerate hash environmental
conditions.
 Disadvantages of GMOs
• Built-in resistance to pests may affect other
non-target organisms.
• GMs may affect local biodiversity.
• Can spread invasive species.
• Inserted genes can be passed onto the species
through gene flow.
 Characteristics of Genetically
Modified Organisms
• They pest and disease resistant.
• They are herbicide tolerant.
• Use nitrogen better.
 Weed management and control
• Weed are plants that grow in places where we don’t
want them to grow.
• Weed can be classified into two groups:
• Annual – complete their life cycle in one year and set
the seed to grow next year.
• examples – narrow leaf grass.
• Perennial weeds persist for years if not cut/removed .
• Examples narrow leaf quick grass.
• Plant pests are insects, spiders, nematodes and snails.
• Plant parasites are plants that live on other plants.
• Herbicides are chemicals used to kill weed.
 Harmful effects of weeds on plant
growth
• Weed compete with crops for moisture, light,
nutrients and space.
• Weed control can damage crop.
• Herbicides can harm neighboring plants.
• Pulling up weed can disturb or destroy the
root system.
Adaptation of weed grow more easily
• Weed germinate and grow quicker than planted
crops.
• Weed have effective root system that can survive
in nutrient poor soil.
• Weed produces seed that remain in the soil for
many years.
• Some weed have short lifespan with multiple
generations in one season.
• Some weed has stems that spread out
underground.
 Agents of weed dispersion
• Wind, water, people, birds, and other animals.
 Methods to control weed
Chemical control
• examples ban weed and roundup.

Mechanical control
• Cultivation practice
• Cutting of weed
• Fire

Biological Control
• natural enemies
• crop rotation
 Plant diseases and their control
• Types of micro-organisms that cause diseases
in plants.
• Organisms that cause diseases are called
pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, fungi and
protozoa.
 Bacterial plant diseases
• Vascular wilt- in tomato, white colour appears
if the stem is cut and put in water.
• Scab – occurs due to poor crop rotation.
• Brown spots on potatoes. Occur due to poor
crop rotation.
 Viral plant diseases
• There are more than 300 viruses causing plant
diseases . The most common virus in plants
mosaic.
• It inhibits chlorophyll production causing a
decrease in photosynthesis.
• Symptoms are discoloration between the
vains.
 Fungal Plant diseases
• Fungi are large group of plants that include
molds, mildew, mushrooms and rusts.
• They feed on other plants as parasites causing
many diseases.
 Prevent or control plant diseases
• Eliminate the inocculums.
• Limit spreading of diseases
• Avoid conditions favorable to diseases.
 Plant pests and their control
• We control pests by using the chemicals such
as pesticides and fungicides.
• In order to control pests you must know their
life cycle.
 Description and life cycles of plant
pests
• Insects , such as locusts are the common plant
pests.
• They have four stages in their life cycle
• Some insects such as weevils , undergo a
complete metamorphosis.
• It means that the young animal does not look
like the old one.
 The life cycle
• Egg: unborn stage
• Larva : young stage
• Pupa: inactive (no feeding)
• Adult : final stage(they grow wings)
 Other insects have three stages
• Egg
• Larva
• adult
 Different types of plant pests
• Arachnids- damage the plant, causes serious
stress on them.
• Molluscs- snails and slugs are the most
common pests.
• Nematodes – round worms, they parasite the
plants.
 Types of damage caused by plant
pests on crops
• Chewing pest-such as snails normally cut off
young seeds.
• Sucking pests such as red spider mites, attack
the growing point of the plant.
• Stinging pests- the female lay eggs inside the
flower.
 Prevent or control plant pests
• Biological control
• Chemical control
• Biotechnological control
• Farming strategies
 Integrated pest management control
• Is the use of deferent strategies to control
pests. The use of practice that are
environmental friendly.
 Advantages of IPM
• Promotes healthy plants.
• Reduces environmentally risks.
• Reduces the potential for air and ground
water contamination by pesticides.
• Decreases the exposure of workers by
chemicals
 Fundamental principles of IPM
• Acceptable pest levels
• Preventive measures
• Monitoring
• Mechanical control
• Biological control
• Responsible pesticide use.
Insect control in stored seed and grain
• Conditions that favour insect damage of
stored seeds and grains
• Optimum temperature between 25 and 32°C
• Optimum humidity 70%
 Life cycles of pests and insects of
stored agricultural products.
• Rice weeviles- they feed on a variety of rice
grains.
• The female deposit up to a 150 eggs at a time,
• A single egg is laid in each grain after boring a
hole in it.
• The weevil lives inside the grain.
 Grain moths
• Lay their eggs in or near the grain.
• The larvae bore into the kernels and feed on
the inside.
• The adult emerges from the grain by pushing
through the seed coat.
 Secondary insects
• They feed from the outside of the grain.
• They chew the outer coat and devour the
inside of the grain such as red dust flour.
Rice weevil
 Methods to control insects in stored
seeds or grains
• Prevention of infestation
• Control of infestation
• Action of pesticides
 The role of the state in plant
protection (1. Legislations)
• National Department of Agriculture (NDA) is
responsible to control:
• Implement import conditions and export of agricultural
crops, seed, timber.
• Use of chemicals : herbicides, pesticides, fungicides
,insecticides
• Use of agricultural land.
• Production and use of modified organisms in
agriculture
• Eradication of alien vegetation on farms.
• Redistribution of agricultural land.
 [Link]
• ARC- plant Protection Research institute(PPRI)
• ARC-Grain Crop institute (ARC-GCI)
• ARC- institute for Industrial Crops
• ARC- Small Grain Institute (ARC-SGI)
• ARC- Infruitec- Nietvoorbij(horticultural
programme)
• ARC- Roodeplaat Vegetable and Ornamental Plant
institute.
• ARC- Institute for Tropical and Subtropical
Crops(ARC-ITSC)
 3. Depositors
• Food depositors (places where food is stored)
• Seed depositors (places seeds are stored)
 Soil surveying and planning
• Soil surveying is the methodical examination ,
classification and description of soil by the
physical examination a soil profile.
• Soil map is a map showing the distribution of
soil types and/or soil proper's (soil pH,
texture, organic matter, depths of horizon, etc)
 Purpose of soil surveying
General In Agriculture
• Land evaluation • Suitability for a particular
• Spatial planning crop.
• Agricultural extension • Suitability for irrigation
• Environmental protection • Suitability for animal grazing
• Erosion risk
 When a soil survey is carried out , a
farmer is able to do the following
• The characteristics of the soil in that particular
area.
• Classify the soil according to a standard
system.
• Plot the boundaries of the soils on a map.
• Make predictions about the behaviour of soil.
• Help develop plans that makes it possible to
use land effectively.
 Steps in soil survey process
1. Study of aerial photographs- general layout, topography, natural
vegetation, erosion impacts , land use practice.
2. Field observation- cultivation practice, fields, roads, watering
places, buildings,
3. Digital soil map- mark homogeneous pieces of land by means of
provisional boundaries on the aerial photographs or GPS imagery.
4. Provisional classification and mapping of land types-
• Soil texture , structure, depth , colour , pH , fertility and salinity
5. Planning and marking of profile test holes. Soil horizons,
6. Description of soil profile
7. Soil mapping
 Precision farming
• Precision farming makes use of computers,
global satellite positioning system and remote
sensing devices to measure the correct
environmental conditions and to determine if
crops are growing at maximum efficient.
 Aims of precision Farming
• Improve crop performance
• Environmental control
• Economic benefit
• Precise information
 The basic principles of Precision
farming
• Geo-location of data
• Characterizing variability
• Remote sensing
• Proxy detection
 Water use
• Irrigation- is the artificial application of water
to soil or any growing medium for the benefit
of plants.
• Irrigation schedule is a management tool to
determine the correct frequency and amount
of water that must be given to a crop.
 Sources of water for irrigation
• Ground water
• Surface water
• Non-conventional water sources(treated
water)
Criteria of water quality for irrigation
• Salinity
• Water infiltration
• Specific ion toxicity
• Excessive nutrients
• Scale deposits
• Mineral content
• Irrigation system
• Organic and inorganic content
 Instruments to determine moisture
content of soil

• Class A evaporation pan

• Tensiometer
• A neutron moisture
meter
 Irrigation systems
• Flood irrigation
• Advantages- cheapest
method. Water
distributed through the
whole soil.
• Saves on labour costs
• Disadvantages-
leaching of chemicals.
Creater labour cost in
leveling the land
 Sprinkler irrigation
• Advantages- can be
used in sand soil, cause
no soil structure
destruction, uniform
application of water,
• Disadvantages- very
expensive, blockages
occur in the nozzle,
 Furrow irrigation
• Advantages- lower
initial investment, lower
water pumping cost,
minimum agrichemicals
leaching.
• Disadvantages- very
expensive, lower
application efficiency
compared to sprinkler
and drip irrigation.
 Micro/Drip irrigation
• Advantages- lower
instillation, easy
application, water
savings, labour savings,
better growth of plants.
• Disadvantages-
blockages occur, water
loss through
evaporation, its good
for shallow root
ssystem.
Soil drainage system, soil cultivation,
and crop rotation
• Soil drainage is the artificial removal of excess
water from the soil surface and the root
system of crops.
 Types of drainage systems
• Open drains
• Rock drains
• Pipe drains
 Types of pipe drainage system
• Parallel • Local drainage systems
• Herringbone • Cut-drainage systems
• Double main • Fishbone drainage
• Targeted systems
• Grid drainage systems
 Considerations before installing a
pipe drainage system
• Spacing
• Depth
• Pipe diameter
• Slope
• Layout
 Soil cultivation
• Soil cultivation is a practice which is designed
to re-arrange the soil to establish crops.
 Aims of soil cultivation
• To loosen the soil for better root penetration.
• To incorporate green manure.
• To prepare the land for irrigation
• To destroy impermeable layers in the subsoil.
• To incorporate lime or fertilizer.
• To improve soil aeration.
• To destroy soil crust and improve infiltration.
• Cultivation is divided into primary cultivation
and secondary cultivation.
• Primary cultivation usually leaves soil with a
rough texture(big lamps).
• Secondary cultivation is to pulverize , level
and firm the top part of the soil to produce
finer soil.
 Types of implements for soil
cultivation
• Shovel • Pickaxe
• mattock • Hoe
• Spade • Rake
• Plough • Rotary tiller
• Cultivator • Plough
 Types of soil cultivation systems
• Ploughing
• Discing
• Harrowing
• Mulching
• Bare cultivation
• Minimum or no tillage farming
 Crop rotation
• Crop rotation is the cultivation of unrelated
crops in the same field in consecutive seasons.
 Monoculture versus crop rotation
Mono culture Crop rotation
• Planting of one crop over • Planting of different crops over
consecutive seasons. consecutive seasons.
• No much knowledge is needed • It is more challenging and time
because you cultivate one crop consuming.
• If there is a problem on the
crop, they have no • It insures greater profit
alternatives. because does not depend in
• Encourages the spread of one crop.
diseases. • Breaks pest and diseases cycle.
• Uses large quantities of • Moderate to large amount of
fertilizers and chemicals. fertilizer are still needed.
Factors that determine a crop rotation
programme
• Climate
• Soil type
• Soil usage
• Production costs
• Labour
• Soil fertility
• Managerial skills of the farmer
• Access to markets
 Advantages and disadvantages of
crop rotation
Advantages Disadvantages
• Prevents soil depletion • May not allow maximum
• Maintains soil fertility profitability as the space is
• Reduce soil erosion limited.
• Reduces built-up of pests • It needs greater investment.
• Prevents diseases • Requires greater
management skills
• Help to control weeds
 Greenhouses
• Greenhouse is a structure with walls and
transparent roof
Advantages Disadvantages
• Any plant can be grown anywhere , • They are labour intensive.
anytime of the year.
• More crops can be obtained through • They are expensive to
the year construct.
• Production is increased
• Germination is high • Automation and
• Crop production schedules can be supplemented heating will
planned increase running costs.
• Water, fertilizers, seeds and plant
protection chemicals can be precisely • Glass get dirty quickly and
monitored and administered . needs constant cleaning.
• Pests and diseases control is more
effective. • Glass let through a lot of
• Irrigation can be automated sunlight which could result in
sunburn on plants
 Material used to construct a
greenhouse
• Polyethylene
• Shade netting
• Glass
• Plastics
 Environmental factors that influence
the choice of site of a greenhouse
• Light
• Temperature
• Water
• Nutrition
• Plant disease
 Hydroponics
• Hydroponics is a production system whereby
plants are cultivated in a nutritive solution
with or without artificial growth medium for
mechanical support.
 Two types of hydroponics
• Solution culture
• Medium culture( sand, gravel, rock)
Advantages Disadvantages
• Favourable climate can be • Capital , labour and
created.
management intensive.
• Certain characteristics of
plants can be manipulated. • Knowledge is needed.
• Correct nutrients are provided • Specially formulated ,
to the plants.
• Crop rotation is not necessary. soluble nutrients must
• Weed control is easy, always be used.
• Easy to control pests and • Soluble fertilizers are very
insects expensive.
• Quality of product can be high.
• It is economical.
 Growing mediums in hydroponics
systems
• Providing the roots with oxygen.
• Bringing water and dissolved nutrients in
contact with the roots.
• Anchoring the plant so that they do not fall
over.
 Different systems of hydroponics
1. Closed – re-circulating
• Advantages – uniform irrigation. Good
aeration of roots. Big saving on water. No
growth medium is needed.
• Disadvantages – very high capital outlay.
Roots tend to block drainage. Accumulating of
water may cause grow too big. Diseases can
spread.
 2. Open bag systems
• In the drain –to- waste
• Advantage – spread of diseases is less. Less blockage of
drains. Equal distribution of nutrients. Good aeration.
Balanced nutrients . system is easy to maintain.
• Disadvantages - Certain growth mediums may contain
toxic substances. Building-up of salts can occur. Growth
medium must be replaced often. Fermentation of
growth mediums can lead to negative nitrogen periods.
Certain growth mediums have the tendency to retain
certain elements.
 Differences between hydroponics
system and field system
Hydroponics Open field system
• No soil is required • Disease- free topsoil is
• Plants are irrigated required with good drainage.
automatically • Plants need to be irrigated.
• Balanced nutrients • Nutrients must be added to
• Soil borne diseases can be the soil.
eliminated
• Soil borne diseases can build
• It is not organic
in the soil.
• Expensive
• Less expensive
• Labour intensive
• High kill and knowledge • Less labour intensive
required • Fewer skills needed.
 Aquaculture
• Aquaculture is a controlled production of
aquatic species for human consumption,
industrial use and recreational purposes.
 Species suitable for aquaculture in
South Africa
• Abolone , African catfish, dusky kob , marron ,
mussels , oysters , prawns , seaweed , tilapia ,
trout , koi , ornamentals
 Systems of fish culture
• Open through flow system
• Semi-closed systems
• Closed (recirculation) systems
 Open through flow systems
• Open systems refer to production systems
which are put directly into open water bodies
such as the oceans , dams , rivers and lakes.
 Semi-closed systems
• Water flows through this system once before
returning to the original source.
 Closed (recirculation) system
• In this system water is cleaned and
recirculated through the system.
• There is very little exchange with water form
outside the system.
• Systems are opened to seasonal change in
water temperature.
 Basic requirements for aquaculture
• Choice of a species
• Choice of a site
• General feasibility
• Market analysis
• Authorisation and legal matters
 Factors which restrict choosing
certain species
• Market price and demand
• Hardiness and adaptability under high density
• Knowledge of the species
• Simple larval development
• Reproduction in captivity
• Water temperature
 THANK YOU

END OF 2020 SYLLABUS