Module 1

Q1.a Explain the types of lubricants and their specific

fields of application. (10 Marks)
Answer:

Lubricants are substances used to reduce friction and wear between moving surfaces.

Types of Lubricants:

1. Liquid Lubricants (Oils):

o Examples: Mineral oils, synthetic oils
o Applications: Engines, turbines, compressors
2. Semi-solid Lubricants (Greases):
o Made of oil + thickener
o Applications: Bearings, gears, chassis lubrication
3. Solid Lubricants:
o Examples: Graphite, Molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂)
o Applications: High temperature and vacuum conditions
4. Emulsions (Cutting fluids):
o Oil mixed with water
o Applications: Metal cutting and machining
5. Gaseous Lubricants:
o Example: Air
o Applications: High-speed and precision instruments

Summary:

Each lubricant type is selected based on operating conditions such as load, speed, and
temperature.

Q1.b Define viscosity. Explain any one method of its

measurement. (10 Marks)
Answer:

Viscosity:

Viscosity is the resistance offered by a fluid to flow.

\eta = \frac{\tau}{\frac{du}{dy}}
Where:

 ( \eta ) = viscosity
 ( \tau ) = shear stress
 ( \frac{du}{dy} ) = velocity gradient

Measurement of Viscosity:

1. Capillary Viscometer (e.g., Redwood viscometer):

o Measures flow time of oil
2. Saybolt Viscometer:
o Used in petroleum industries
3. Engler Viscometer:
o Compares flow with water
4. Rotational Viscometer:
o Measures torque required to rotate an object in fluid

Q2a. Explain the types of lubrication and standard grades

of lubricants. (10 Marks)
Answer:

Types of Lubrication:

1. Hydrodynamic Lubrication:
o Thick oil film separates surfaces
o No metal-to-metal contact
2. Boundary Lubrication:
o Thin film; partial contact occurs
o Used under high load/low speed
3. Extreme Pressure Lubrication:
o Special additives prevent wear under high pressure

Standard Grades of Lubricants:

1. SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) Grades:

o Example: SAE 30, SAE 40
o Based on viscosity
2. ISO Viscosity Grades (ISO VG):
o Example: ISO VG 32, 68, 100
3. API Classification:
o Based on performance (e.g., engine oils)
Summary:

Proper lubrication type and grade ensure efficient machine operation and longer life.

Q2b. Discuss the properties of lubricants and factors

affecting the selection of lubricants. (10 Marks)
Answer:

Properties of Lubricants:

1. Viscosity: Resistance to flow

2. Viscosity Index (VI): Stability with temperature
3. Flash Point & Fire Point: Safety at high temperatures
4. Pour Point: Lowest temperature for flow
5. Oiliness: Ability to stick to surfaces
6. Oxidation Stability: Resistance to chemical breakdown
7. Corrosion Resistance: Protects metal surfaces

Selection of Lubricants:

Factors to consider:

1. Operating Temperature
2. Load and Speed Conditions
3. Type of Machine
4. Environment (dust, moisture)
5. Cost and availability
6. Compatibility with materials

Module 2

Q3a. Briefly Explain the theories of friction and and

explain any one methods used for measurement of friction.
(10 Marks)
Answer:

Theories of Friction:

1. Adhesion Theory:
 oFriction arises due to molecular attraction between contacting surfaces.
oReal contact area is much smaller but highly stressed.
2. Ploughing Theory:
o Hard asperities of one surface plough into softer surface, causing resistance.
3. Deformation Theory:
o Energy is lost due to elastic/plastic deformation of surface irregularities.
4. Film Theory:
o In lubricated conditions, friction depends on the properties of lubricant film.

Measurement of Friction:

1. Inclined Plane Method:

o Angle at which body starts sliding gives coefficient of friction.

[
\mu = \tan \theta
]

2. Pin-on-Disc Apparatus:
o Measures frictional force under controlled load and speed.
3. Friction Dynamometer:
o Used in rotating systems like bearings.
4. Tribometers:
o General devices to measure friction and wear.

Q3b. Discuss friction characteristics of metals and non-

metals. (10 Marks)
Answer:

Friction of Metals:

 High adhesion due to metallic bonding

 Prone to galling and welding under high load
 Friction increases with surface roughness
 Sensitive to lubrication

Examples: Steel, aluminum

Friction of Non-Metals:
  Lower adhesion compared to metals
 Often show self-lubricating properties
 Lower coefficient of friction
 Less prone to seizure

Examples:

 Polymers (PTFE, Nylon)

 Ceramics (low wear, brittle)
 Rubber (high friction due to elasticity)

Comparison:

Property Metals Non-Metals

Adhesion High Low
Wear Resistance Moderate High (ceramics)
Lubrication Essential Sometimes not needed

Conclusion:

Material selection is crucial in tribological applications depending on friction requirements.

Q4a. Explain different mechanisms of wear. (10 Marks)

Answer:

Classification of Wear:

1. Adhesive Wear
2. Abrasive Wear
3. Corrosive (Oxidative) Wear
4. Surface Fatigue Wear
5. Erosive Wear

Mechanisms of Wear:

1. Adhesive Wear:
o Material transfer due to bonding and tearing
2. Abrasive Wear:
o Hard particles scratch softer surface
o Two-body or three-body abrasion
 3. Corrosive Wear:
o Chemical reactions degrade surface
4. Fatigue Wear:
o Repeated loading causes cracks and spalling
5. Erosive Wear:
o Caused by fluid or particle impact

Conclusion:

Wear mechanisms depend on environment, material properties, and operating conditions.

Q4b. Explain delamination theory of wear, debris analysis,

and testing methods. (10 Marks)
Answer:

Delamination Theory of Wear:

 Proposed by N. P. Suh
 Wear occurs by subsurface crack formation
 Cracks propagate parallel to surface → layers peel off
 Explains sheet-like wear debris formation

Debris Analysis:

 Study of wear particles to understand wear mechanism

 Methods:
o Optical microscopy
o Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
 Helps in condition monitoring and failure analysis

Testing Methods:

1. Pin-on-Disc Test:
o Standard wear testing method
2. Block-on-Ring Test:
o Used for sliding wear
3. Four-Ball Tester:
o Evaluates lubricants