CAE ATPL Ground Training Series

032 Performance

Book 7
EASA Edition 2020

Your worldwide
training partner
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A Introduction

© CAE Inc.

2020

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interpreted as constituting instruction or advice relating to practical flying.

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Students preparing for the EASA ATPL (A) theoretical knowledge examinations should not regard
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II
A Introduction

Edition 2020

032 Performance

III
 2 050.01 = Subject. Section
C A B

How to use this book

To faciliate your learning experience, the handbook has been divided in EASA Learning Objectives
written as a series of numbers separated by points.

In the heading bar

A Subject
B Section

Within the text

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02.00 = Chapter
D 02.03 = Chapter. Part
E 04 Learning objectives Ex. [Link].04
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Information with Links to Other Subjects

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Equations
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Glossary
Words highlighted in red are found in the Glossary Index.

IV
A Other Publications

CAE ATPL Ground Training Series

Book 1: Subject 010 - Air Law

Book 2: Subject 021 - Aircraft General Knowledge: Airframes and Systems

Book 3: Subject 021 - Aircraft General Knowledge: Electrics and Electronics

Book 4: Subject 021 - Aircraft General Knowledge: Powerplant

Book 5: Subject 022 - Aircraft General Knowledge: Instrumentation

Book 6: Subject 031 - Mass and Balance

Book 7: Subject 032 - Performance

Book 8: Subject 033 - Flight Planning and Monitoring

Book 9: Subject 040 - Human Performance and Limitations

Book 10: Subject 050 - Meteorology

Book 11: Subject 061 - General Navigation

Book 12: Subject 062 - Radio Navigation

Book 13: Subject 070 - Operational Procedures

Book 14: Subject 081 - Principles of Flight

Book 15: Subject 090 - Communications

Book 16: Subject 100 - Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes (KSA)

A Table of Contents

Performance

032.01 General ..................................................................... 1

01.00 Performance Legislation ................................................................2
01.01 Applicability of Airworthiness Requirements of
CS – 23 and CS – 25 .............................................................2
01.02 Operational Regulations and Safety ................................3
01.03 Performance and Safety ....................................................5
01.04 Performance Definitions and Safety Factors ..................5
02.00 General Performance Theory ........................................................8
02.02 Definitions and Terms........................................................8
02.03 Variables Influencing Performance ............................... 14
03.00 Level Flight, Range and Endurance ............................................ 20
03.01 Steady Level Flight ........................................................... 20
03.02 Range................................................................................. 24
03.03 Maximum Endurance ...................................................... 35
04.00 Climbing......................................................................................... 40
04.01 Climbing (Climb Performance) ....................................... 40
05.00 Descending.................................................................................... 58
05.01 Descending (Descent Performance) .............................. 58

032.02 CS-23/Applicable Operational Requirements

Performance Class B – Theory............................. 66
01.00 Airworthiness Requirements ...................................................... 67
01.01 Airworthiness Requirements and Definitions.............. 67
03.00 Takeoff and Landing .................................................................... 74
03.01 Takeoff and Landing (Definitions and Effects) ............. 74
04.00 Climb, Cruise and Descent .......................................................... 89
04.01 Climb, Cruise and Descent
Requirements and Calculations) ................................... 89

032.03 CS-23/Applicable Operational Requirements

Performance Class B - Use of Aeroplane
Performance Data for Single- and
Multi-Engine Aeroplanes ..................................... 99
03.00 Use of Aeroplane Performance Data ....................................... 100
03.01 Takeoff ............................................................................ 100
03.02 Climb ............................................................................... 114
03.04 Landing ........................................................................... 122

VI
A Table of Contents

Performance

032.04 CS-25/Applicable Operational Requirements

Performance Class A - Theory ........................... 130
01.00 Takeoff ......................................................................................... 132
01.01 Takeoff Performance, Definitions of and
Relationships Between Terms ..................................... 132
01.02 Takeoff Distances .......................................................... 151
01.03 Accelerate-Stop Distance .............................................. 155
01.04 Balanced Field Length Concept.................................... 159
01.05 Unbalanced Field Length Concept ............................... 161
01.06 Field-Length-Limited Takeoff Mass (FLLTOM) ............. 164
01.07 Contaminated Runways ................................................ 167
01.08 Takeoff Climb ................................................................. 174
01.09 Obstacle-Limited Takeoff.............................................. 178
01.10 PLTOM and RTOM Tables.............................................. 186
01.11 Takeoff Performance on Wet and Contaminated
Runways.......................................................................... 188
01.12 Use of Reduced (Flexible or Flex) and
Derated Thrust............................................................... 191
01.13 Takeoff Performance Using Different Takeoff
Flap Settings ..................................................................... 193
01.14 Takeoff Performance Using Increased V2 Speeds
(‘Improved Climb Performance’) .................................. 194
01.15 Brake-Energy and Tyre-Speed Limit ............................ 196
02.00 Climb ........................................................................................... 197
02.01 Climb Techniques .......................................................... 197
02.02 Influence of Variables on Climb Performance ........... 200
03.00 Cruise ........................................................................................... 202
03.04 Long-Range Cruise ........................................................ 202
03.06 Cruise Altitudes .............................................................. 203
03.07 Cost Index ....................................................................... 209
04.00 En-Route One-Engine-Inoperative ........................................... 212
04.01 Drift Down ...................................................................... 212
04.02 Influence of Variables on En-Route
One-Engine-Inoperative Performance ........................ 216
05.00 Descent ........................................................................................ 218
05.01 Descent Techniques ...................................................... 218
05.02 Energy Management in Descent .................................. 221

VII
A Table of Contents

Performance

032.04 CS-25/Applicable Operational Requirements

Performance Class A - Theory ........................... 223
06.00 Approach and Landing .............................................................. 224
06.01 Approach Requirements ............................................... 224
06.02 Landing-Field-Length and Landing-Speed
Requirements ................................................................ 228
06.03 Influence of Variables on Landing Performance ....... 230
06.04 Quick Turnaround Limit................................................ 233

032.05 CS-25/Applicable Operational Requirements

Performance Class A - Use of Aeroplane
Performance Data .............................................. 234
01.00 Takeoff ......................................................................................... 235
01.01 Takeoff (Performance Data) ......................................... 235
02.00 Drift-Down and Stabilising Altitude ......................................... 261
02.01 Drift-Down and Stabilising Altitude
(Performance Data) ....................................................... 261
03.00 Landing ........................................................................................ 265
03.01 Landing (Performance Data) ....................................... 265

Glossary Index .................................................................. 273

VIII
 032.01 General
0 Section 1 Table of Contents

1
General

01.00 Performance Legislation .......................................... 2

01.01 Applicability of Airworthiness Requirements of CS – 23
and CS – 25 ......................................................................................2
01.02 Operational Regulations and Safety ............................................3
01.03 Performance and Safety ................................................................5
01.04 Performance Definitions and Safety Factors ..............................5

02.00 General Performance Theory .................................. 8

02.02 Definitions and Terms....................................................................8
02.03 Variables Influencing Performance ........................................... 14

03.00 Level Flight, Range and Endurance ....................... 20

03.01 Steady Level Flight....................................................................... 20
03.02 Range ............................................................................................ 24
03.03 Maximum Endurance .................................................................. 35

04.00 Climbing ................................................................... 40

04.01 Climbing (Climb Performance) ................................................... 40

05.00 Descending............................................................... 58
05.01 Descending (Descent Performance) .......................................... 58

1
1 032.01 General

01.00 Performance Legislation

01.01 Applicability of Airworthiness Requirements of CS – 23
and CS – 25
01 escribe the a lication of certification s ecification (CSs) with regard to the different
kinds of aeroplanes.

In the oint Aviation e uirement for the o eration of commercial air trans ort (aero lanes)
known as JAR-OPS 1, was introduced. It ensures that the operating and airworthiness requirements
of aeroplanes in the commercial role are standardised between member nations. To write and
maintain an Operations Manual the airline has to follow the performance criteria for Class B
aeroplanes in sub part H and Class A aeroplanes in sub part G. Regulations and standards are
governed through the issuance of an air o erator certificate (A C) and an o erator s licence ( L).
JAR OPS has been replaced with EU OPS in 2008. Certification s ecifications (CS) are used by
EASA to meet the essential requirements of the basic regulation.

CS describes airworthiness standards for ty e certificates and changes to those certificates

for aero lanes in the normal and large category. Within certification s ecification the following
definition a lies

Continued safe flight and landing means an aeroplane is capable of continued controlled
ight and landing ossibly using emergency rocedures without re uiring exce tional
pilot skill or strength. Upon landing, some aeroplane damage may occur as a result of a
failure condition. The two categories are

• CS-23 Normal, utility, aerobatic and commuter aeroplanes

• CS-25 Large aeroplanes

2
1 032.01 General

i erences et een eroplanes erti ed ccording to and

02 escribe the general differences between aero lanes certified according to CS (CS .
CS . ) and CS (CS . CS . ).

EASA CS-23 is the Euro ean Aviation Safety Agency Certification S ecification for normal utility
aerobatic, and commuter category aeroplanes. EASA CS-25 covers all multi-engine jets, and all
multi-engine turboprops with more than nine passenger seats or a weight in excess of 5,700 kg.

igure . illustrates the minimum re uired manoeuvring envelo e limits for different sub
categories of CS-23.

Figure 1.1 Manoeuvring envelope G limits

01.02 Operational Regulations and Safety

01 escribe the basic conce t that the a licable o erational re uirements differ de ending
on aeroplane performance.

Operational Requirements
Any class of aeroplane operated in the public transport role must adhere to the operational
requirements set out in EU-OPS 1. EU-OPS 1 prescribes a minimum performance level for each
stage of ight for Class A Class and Class C aero lanes. The certification and o erational
regulations together aim to achieve a high standard of safety that has kept air travel as the safest
form of travel. To achieve the required safety standard, the aviation authorities have added a
safety margin into the aeroplane performance data.

As a result of the high passenger capacity and high speed of these aeroplanes, they must have
the highest safety standards. Safety standards are enforced in two ways.

• y the certification re uirements which are laid down in CS and

• By the operational requirements which are laid down in EU-OPS 1
The operational requirements have one unique detail regarding Class A aeroplanes that is very
different when com ared to Class aero lanes. or Class A aero lanes engine failure must be
considered for all stages of ight whereas for multi engine Class aero lanes engine failure
was not assumed below 300 ft. Assuming an engine failure for Class A aeroplanes adds an extra
dimension to understanding and assessing the aero lane s erformance.

3
1 032.01 General

er or ance lassi cation

02 Describe the performance classes for commercial air transport according to the applicable
operational requirements.

Performance Class A

These are multi-engine aeroplanes powered by turbo-propeller engines with a maximum

a roved assenger seating configuration of more than nine or a maximum takeoff mass
exceeding 5,700 kg. Moreover, the aeroplanes are multi-engine turbojet powered. Class A
aero lanes must abide by the certification s ecifications laid out in the document from EASA
called CS-25.

Performance Class B

These are ro eller driven aero lanes with a maximum a roved assenger seating configuration
of nine or less and a maximum takeoff mass of kg or less. Class aero lanes must abide
by the certification s ecifications laid out in the document from EASA called CS .

Performance Class C

The aeroplanes are powered by reciprocating engines with a maximum approved passenger
seating configuration of more than nine or a maximum takeoff mass exceeding kg.

Unclassified

This class is given to those aeroplanes whose performance characteristic is unique and special
erformance consideration is re uired. or exam le the unclassified class includes su ersonic
aeroplanes and sea planes.

Figure 1.2 Performance classification

4
1 032.01 General

01.03 Performance and Safety

Dispatched Weight Restriction
01 State that aeroplane performance required for commercial air transport may limit the
weight of a dis atched aero lane in order to achieve a su cient level of safety.

Although an aero lane ty e may be certified for a s ecific maximum takeoff weight this may
not be achievable because of environmental factors, runway conditions and lengths, local airport
obstacle and/or noise restrictions, and available payload or fuel load requirements.

Minimum Level of Safety

02 Describe that the minimum level of safety required for commercial air transport is ensured
through the combination of airworthiness requirements and operational limitations, i.e.,
the more stringent airworthiness requirements of CS-25 enable a wider range of operating
conditions for these aeroplanes.

Each ty e of aero lane must conduct air tests demonstration ights and rovide roof of
compliance to satisfy airworthiness and operating limitations across a broad spectrum of regulatory
agencies such as EASA to satisfy civil aviation safety. These agencies carry out certification
regulation, standardisation, and perform investigation and monitoring. CS-25 has the most
stringent airworthiness re uirements but once satisfied allows for a wider o erating s ectrum.

. er or ance e nitions and a ety actors

01 Describe measured performance and explain how it is determined.
02 Describe gross performance.
03 Describe net performance and safety factors.
04 Describe that the size of a safety factor depends on the likelihood of the event and the
range of the measured performance data.

Measured Performance

Measured performance is the performance achieved by the manufacturer under test conditions
for certification. It utilises new aero lanes and the test ilots who rigorously test the aero lane.
Therefore it is unre resentative of the erformance that will be achieved by an average eet of
aeroplanes. It is determined by conducting numerous air tests and averaging each area of data,
achieved by the new aero lane when own by the test ilots.

Gross Performance
Gross performance is the average erformance that a eet of aero lanes should achieve if
satisfactorily maintained and own in accordance with the techni ues described in the manual.
Therefore gross erformance is measured erformance reduced by a set margin to re ect
average operating performance.

5
1 032.01 General

Net Performance

Net performance is the gross performance diminished to allow for various contingencies that
cannot be accounted for o erationally (e.g. variations in iloting techni ue and tem orary below
average erformance). It is im robable that the net erformance will not be achieved in o eration
rovided the aero lane is own in accordance with the recommended techni ues. This level of
erformance is a roximately five standard deviations from the average erformance or gross
performance. Therefore, 99.99994% of the time, the aeroplane will achieve net performance or
better. However, there is less than 1 in 1 million chance that the aeroplane will not achieve the
net performance. This is the safety standard which the aviation authorities aim to achieve.

Safety Margin

Performance regulations balance the con icting demands of safety and rofitability when
determining the size of the safety margin. The Safety margin required for public transport, is
based on the robability of an event incident accident being less than in million ( ) when
a passenger buys their ticket. Statistically this is known as a remote probability.

et a eo and anding istances

05 escribe the relationshi between net and gross take off and landing distances and net
and gross climb and descent gradients.

rom the definitions of gross erformance and net erformance (stated above) it can be deducted
that on takeoff and landing, the net distances will be longer and should be satisfactorily achieved.
The climb and descent gradients are decreased to impact distance that can be travelled. This
would affect obstacle and drift down rocedures.

Figure 1.3 Net and gross takeoff

6
1 032.01 General

Figure 1.4 Gross and net landing

Figure 1.5 Gross and net descent gradient

7
 2 032.01 General

02.00 General Performance Theory

. e nitions and er s
Climb Angle and Climb Gradient
01 efine the terms climb angle and climb gradient .

. . . .
The climb angle can be defined as the angle between a hori ontal lane re resenting the
earth s surface and the actual ight ath followed by the aircraft during its ascent. The climb
gradient is the ratio between distance travelled over the ground and altitude gained and is
expressed as a percentage.

Figure 1.6 Climb angle/gradient

VX is the speed for the best gradient or angle of climb.

VY is the speed for the best rate of climb.

Figure 1.7 Climb angle/gradient

8
2 032.01 General

Flight-Path Angle and Flight-Path Gradient

02 efine the terms ight ath angle and ight ath gradient .

The flight-path angle (γ) is the angle between horizontal plane and the velocity vector, which
describes whether the aircraft is climbing or descending.

Figure 1.8 Flight path gradient

The flight-path gradient is the corrected ight ath vector over the ground and the altitude gained.

Descent Angle and Descent Gradient

03 efine the terms descent angle and descent gradient .

The descent angle can be defined as the angle between a hori ontal lane re resenting the
earth s surface and the actual ight ath followed by the aircraft during its descent. The ight
path descent gradient is the corrected ight ath vector over the ground and the altitude lost.

i erence et een li escent ngle and lig t at ngle

04 Ex lain the difference between climb descent angle and ight ath angle.

The climb/descent angle refers to the angle of the aircraft relevant to the air mass the aircraft is
climbing or descending in whereas the ight ath angle refers to the angle relative to the earth s
surface and is therefore de endent on head or tail wind. Therefore effectively the differences
between the ight ath angle and the climb descent angle would be the angle of attack (AoA).

9
2 032.01 General

Absolute Ceiling
05 efine absolute ceiling .

Absolute ceiling is the altitude at which the theoretical rate of climb, with all engines operating at
maximum continuous power, is reduced to zero feet per minute.

Clearway and Stopway

06 escribe clearway and sto way according to CS efinitions.

Clearways are located at end of T A not less than m( ft) wide centrally located about
the extended centre line of the runway having its centre (imaginary) in line with centre line of the
runway, and under the control of the airport authorities. The clearway extends from the end of
the runway with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25%, above which no object or terrain exists.
However, threshold lights may be located in the clearway if their height above the end of the
runway is . m ( in) or less and if they are located to each side of the runway. Its maximum
length can only be up to half of TORA.

Figure 1.9 Stopways

Stopways are an area at the end of takeoff run available same width as the runway and centred
upon the extended centre line of the runway. It should be able to support the aeroplane during a
rejected takeoff ( T ) without causing structural damage to the aero lane. It is also designated
by the airport authorities for use in decelerating the aeroplane during a RTO. Stopways are usually
paved structures designated by airport authorities to assist decelerating aircraft in the event of an
T . Sto ways are identified by large yellow chevrons on either end of the main runway.

10
2 032.01 General

Figure 1.10 Clearway

TORA, TODA and ASDA

07 escribe take off run available (T A) take off distance available (T A) accelerate
sto distance available (AS A) and determine each from given data or a ro riate
aerodrome charts

The takeoff run available (TORA) is the distance from the point on the surface of the aerodrome
at which the aero lane can commence its takeoff run usually the threshold or nominated turn
on oint to the shortest oint in the direction of takeoff at which the surface of the runway is
incapable of bearing the weight of the aeroplane. Usually, the TORA is the physical length of the
runway from threshold to threshold. The takeoff run re uired must not exceed T A

The takeoff distance available (TODA) is the takeoff run available with any clearway (T A
clearway). With no clearway at the aerodrome the T A will be the same length as the T A.
The T A must be com ared to the aero lane s actual takeoff distance re uired (T ). The
re uirements for takeoff state that the aero lane must be able to com lete the takeoff ortion
within the TODA, that is from brakes release point to the aeroplanes screen height. In theory
clearways could be unlimited, but there is a limit to the amount of clearway that can be used. The
maximum distance of clearway cannot be more than half the length of the TORA.

11
2 032.01 General

The accelerate-stop distance available (ASDA) is the length of T A and any sto way (T A
sto way). With no sto way at the aerodrome the AS A will be the same length as the T A. The
AS A must be com ared to the aero lane s actual accelerate sto distance re uired (AS ). The
re uirements for takeoff state that the aero lane s AS must need exceed the AS A.

Figure 1.11 TORA, ASDA and TODA

Figure 1.12 Airfield runway dimensions

12
2 032.01 General

Screen Height
08 escribe screen height including its various values.

Screen is an imaginary barrier located at the end of the takeoff distance available (T A) or
the beginning of the landing distance available (L A). The screen height has a lications in
performance planning and test pilots use the screen height when assessing the performance of
the aeroplane. TODA Class B is 50 ft and Class A is 35 ft. LDA all classes are 50 ft.

Range and Endurance

09 efine the terms range and endurance .

Regarding range, the aeroplane is trying to achieve the greatest distance for a quantity of fuel
or s ecific range. The endurance of an aero lane is the time it can remain airborne on a given
quantity of fuel.

peci c ange
10 efine an aero lane s s ecific range (S ) in terms of nautical air miles ( A ) er unit of
fuel and s ecific range over the ground (S ) in terms of nautical ground miles ( ) er
unit of fuel.

Specific range (SR) is the distance an aircraft travels per unit of fuel consumed. Typically, this is
calculated in nautical miles er ound of fuel. This can be ex ressed in two ways s ecific (air)
range in terms of nautical air miles ( A ) using TAS or s ecific (ground) range using nautical
ground miles ( ) which is TAS corrected for wind roducing specific range ground (SRG).

Power Available and Power Required

11 efine the ower available and ower re uired.

Power available is the maximum power that the power plant can deliver under given atmospheric
conditions (altitude ressure tem erature humidity). Power required is the power needed to
maintain straight and level ight at the a licable airs eed. The difference between the two is
known as excess power. It is generally a term associated with propeller driven aeroplanes and is
useful in defining aero lanes ability to erform manoeuvres.

13
2 032.01 General

Figure 1.13 Power available and power required

. aria les nfluencing er or ance

01 ame the following factors that affect aero lane erformance ressure altitude and
tem erature wind aero lane weight aero lane configuration aero lane anti skid status
aero lane centre of gravity (C ) aerodrome runway surface and aerodrome runway slo e.

aria les ecting eroplane er or ance

Pressure altitude: The altitude of an aircraft above or below the pressure level of 1,013.25hPa.
This is achieved by setting the altimeter subscale to 1,013hPa and reading the altitude indicated.

Outside air temperature: This is the free air static (ambient) tem erature. The ressure altitude
and tem erature along with humidity affects the density therefore the following can occur

• The power or thrust of the engine educed density will reduce combustion
inside the engine and therefore, reduce the thrust and/or power that the engine can
generate. Therefore acceleration will be less and the takeoff distance will increase.
• The TAS for a given IAS educed density will increase the true airs eed for a given
indicated airs eed. or exam le if the takeoff safety s eed was an indicated airs eed
of 120 kt, then in low density this may represent a true airspeed of 130 kt. Getting to
a true speed of 130 kt will require more distance. Therefore, low density will increase
the takeoff distance.
• The angle of the initial climb Since there is less thrust and or ower in low density
the angle of climb will reduce. Therefore, getting to the screen height will require a
longer horizontal distance.
Winds affect the true ground s eed of the aero lane for any given true airs eed. eadwinds will
reduce the ground s eed at the re uired takeoff airs eed and reduce the takeoff distance. or
exam le with a headwind of kt and a true airs eed for the takeoff safety s eed being kt
the ground speed will only be 100 kt. Getting to a true ground speed of only 100 kt will require
less distance. Another benefit is that headwinds also increase the angle of initial climb which
will further reduce the required distance to climb to altitude. Therefore, headwinds reduce the

14
2 032.01 General

takeoff distance and it is advisable to take off into a headwind. A tailwind does the o osite to a
headwind. Tailwinds will increase the ground s eed and increase the takeoff distance.

The regulations for all classes of aircraft re uire that in calculating the takeoff distance no more
than 50% of the headwind component is assumed and no less than 150% of a tailwind component
is assumed. This is to allow for variations in the re orted winds during takeoff. or exam le it
would not be wise to lan a distance limited takeoff with kt of headwind in the event that
conditions changed at the actual time of takeoff and the wind became less than kt. In this
case the aero lane would not be able to com lete the takeoff within the available distance. ost
aeroplane performance manuals and operating handbooks already have the wind rules factored
into the takeoff gra hs or tables. Therefore sim ly use the forecast wind and the gra h or table
whichever is available and it will automatically correct the takeoff distance to account for the
regulation on wind.

Note or any headwind the distance re uired to takeoff will be less than the calculated distance
as only half the headwind is allowed for. Equally for any tailwind the distance required will be
less, as a stronger tailwind is allowed for. If the wind is a 90° crosswind, the distance required to
take off will be the same as the distance calculated for ero wind com onent.

The weight of the aero lane affects the following

• Acceleration for a given accelerating force This is the effect of inertia. An aero lane
with higher mass will have more inertia. Therefore, as mass increases, acceleration
will decrease which will increase the takeoff distance.
• Wheel drag Increased mass increases the load laced on the wheels and therefore
increases the wheel friction. Because of the increased wheel friction, wheel drag will
increase. Therefore acceleration is reduced and the takeoff distance will increase.
• a eo sa ety speed An aero lane with a higher mass will have a greater force of
weight. This must be overcome by greater lift. To gain this extra lift the aeroplane
must be accelerated to a higher s eed which will of course increase the takeoff
distance.
• Angle of initial climb to screen height This effect will be better understood in the
next chapter, but nonetheless a higher mass reduces the angle of the initial climb.
This means that the aeroplane will use a greater horizontal distance to get to the
screen height.

Configuration for the a s affect de ends on the CLmax of the wing and drag. Increasing a
angle increases CLmax which reduces stalling s eed and takeoff s eed. This reduces the takeoff
distance. Increasing a angle increases drag reducing acceleration and increasing the takeoff
distance. The net effect is that takeoff distance will decrease with increase of a angle. owever
above a certain a angle the takeoff distance will increase again. An o timum setting can be
determined for each type of aircraft, and any deviation from this setting will give an increase in
the takeoff distance.

Anti-Skid Systems

These are designed to minimise aquaplaning and the potential tyre damage which can occur when
a wheel is locked or rotating at a speed which does not correspond to the speed of the aircraft,
thereby reducing the risk of skid. If the anti-skid system does not work, then the stopping ability
will be severely reduced and will cause the accelerate-stop distance to increase dramatically.

15
2 032.01 General

Aeroplane CG

This will affect the aero lanes elevator tail lane and rudder authority during the takeoff roll and
ability to rotate or provide directional control.

Runway Surface
Even on a smooth runway there will be rolling resistance due to the bearing friction and tyre
distortion. If the runway is contaminated due to snow, slush or standing water, there will be
additional drag due to uid resistance called hydro laning which limits braking action due to
contact se aration. Any contamination will increase the drag and hence increase the takeoff
distance. If the takeoff is rejected and braking is re uired the coe cient of braking friction is
severely reduced on a runway which is wet, icy or contaminated by snow or slush. This means
that the brake pressure must be severely reduced to prevent skidding. Thus, the stopping
distance is greatly increased.

Runway Slope

If the runway is sloping, a component of the weight will act along the longitudinal axis of the
aeroplane. This will either augment thrust, or augment drag which will increase or decrease the
accelerating force. The amount of weight augmenting either thrust or drag is called either weight
apparent thrust or weight apparent drag. It can be calculated by multiplying the force of weight
by the sine of the angle of the runway slope.

Figure 1.14 Runaway slope

A downhill slo e will increase the accelerating force and reduce the takeoff distance re uired
whereas an u hill slo e will reduce the accelerating force and increase the takeoff distance
required.

16
2 032.01 General

ensity and peed nfluence on rust and o er vaila le

Propeller-Driven Aeroplane
02 escribe how for different density altitudes the thrust and ower available vary with
speed for a propeller-driven aeroplane.

For a propeller driven aircraft, thrust is produced by a propeller converting the shaft torque
into ro ulsive force. or a fixed itch ro eller angle of attack decreases as forward s eed
increases. Thrust therefore decreases with increasing speed. For a variable pitch propeller, the
ro eller will initially be held in the fine itch osition during takeoff and the ro eller angle of
attack will decrease with increasing speed. Above the selected rpm the propeller governor will
come into operation, increasing the propeller pitch, and reducing the rate at which the thrust
decreases. In summary, the thrust of a propeller aeroplane decreases with forward speed.

Figure 1.15 Thrust reduction with speed

If the engine is un-supercharged, the power produced will decrease with decreasing density
(higher tem erature or lower ressure). or a su ercharged engine ower may be maintained
with increasing altitude, up to the full throttle height.

ensity and peed nfluence on rust and o er vaila le

Turbojet Aeroplane
03 escribe how for different density altitudes the thrust and ower available vary with
speed for a turbojet aeroplane.

or a jet engine the net thrust is the difference between the gross thrust and the intake momentum
drag. Increasing speed increases the intake momentum drag, which reduces the thrust. However,
at higher s eeds the increased intake ressure due to ram effect hel s to reduce this loss of thrust
and eventually at very high s eeds it will cause the net thrust to increase again. uring takeoff the
aero lane s eed is still low and the ram effect is insu cient to counteract the loss of thrust due to
intake momentum drag. Therefore during the takeoff there will be a decrease of thrust.

17
2 032.01 General

In later chapters and in some performance graphs you will notice that the assumption is made
that jet thrust is constant with speed. This is done to simplify some of the teaching points.

Figure 1.16 Thrust reduction with speed

Flat Rated Engines

The thrust produced by an engine at a given rpm will depend on the air density, air pressure and
temperature. At a given pressure altitude, decreasing temperature will give increasing thrust.
However, many jet engines are flat rated, that is, they are restricted to a maximum thrust even
though the engine can produce higher thrust. The reason being that at lower temperatures too
much thrust may be generated and the pressures within the compressors may be exceeded.
Conse uently at tem eratures below the at rating cut off (ty ically about ISA C) engine
thrust is not affected by tem erature.

Figure 1.17 Flat rating

18
2 032.01 General

pact o ensity ltitude eig t and on guration on rag o er

and TAS

04 escribe how for different density altitudes the drag and ower re uired vary with
indicated airs eeds (IAS) and true airs eeds (TAS).
05 escribe how for different aero lane weights and configurations the drag and ower
required vary with IAS and TAS.

i erent ensity ltitudes

At low density altitudes ( A) drag will increase with increasing IAS and TAS and will re uire more
power. As the performance is improved, the excess power will be higher than for a higher DA.
The opposite will be true for a higher DA.

i erent eroplane eig ts and on gurations

At higher aero lane weights and greater a settings the drag and ower re uired will increase
as IAS increases reducing excess power available. The opposite will be true with lower aeroplane
weight and lower a settings.

19
3 032.01 General

03.00 Level Flight, Range and Endurance

03.01 Steady Level Flight
Relationship of Aerodynamic Forces
01 Ex lain how drag (thrust) and ower re uired vary with s eed in straight and level ight.

Figure 1.18 Steady level flight forces

In figure . thrust is e ual to drag. In order for the aero lane to accelerate thrust must exceed
drag. This can be achieved by the ilot o ening the throttle further (more ower re uired). With
thrust greater than drag the aeroplane will accelerate, as the aeroplane accelerates drag will
then increase. When drag reaches a value which is the same as the thrust, acceleration will cease
and the aero lane will have achieved balanced ight once more but now at a higher s eed.
Therefore the highest level ight s eed that can be own by the aero lane will be at a s eed
where thrust and drag are maximum.

20
3 032.01 General

In figure . the thrust and drag curves for a ty ical jet aero lane are shown.

Figure 1.19 Highest speed for turbojet

cess o rust ect on peed

02 Ex lain the effect of excess thrust and ower on s eed in level ight.

Figure 1.20 Excess power

With excess ower available (u er line) the maximum and minimum s eeds change and the
ability to change speed or manoeuvre is improved.

21
 3 032.01 General

Thrust/Power Required and Thrust/Power Available

03 Inter ret the thrust ower re uired and thrust ower available curves in straight and
level ight.

Figure 1.21 Thrust/power required and thrust/power available

The thrust/power required and thrust/power available curves allow for easy interpretation of
excess ower stall s eed maximum endurance s eed ( MP) and the best lift drag (L ) ratio
(range s eed).

Maximum Achievable Straight and Level Flight vs IAS TAS

04 escribe how the maximum achievable straight and level ight IAS and TAS vary with altitude.

irstly let us examine what we mean by an aero lane s maximum s eed. ou will have learnt
from earlier chapters that an aeroplane will remain at a constant speed when the forward and
[Link].02 rearward forces are balanced. Recalling the information from [Link].02 for the aeroplane
to accelerate thrust must exceed drag. otice in figure . the maximum s eed is achieved
once thrust and drag are e ual. It is im ossible in straight and level ight to accelerate any faster
since the drag would exceed the thrust. This speed is the fastest speed the aeroplane can achieve
in level ight.

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3 032.01 General

Figure 1.22 Flight speed range at low altitude

At high altitude, the thrust produced by the engine decreases, and as a result the green thrust
line moves downwards.

Figure 1.23 Flight speed range at high altitude

It is clear to see that at high altitude the maximum level ight s eed is slower and the minimum
level ight s eed is faster com ared to lower altitudes. Therefore the range of s eeds for the
aeroplane is narrower.

23
 3 032.01 General

Use of Range and Endurance Speeds

05 escribe situations in which a ilot may elect to y for maximum endurance or
maximum range .

Maximum endurance occurs when the power required is minimum. In this case, the maximum
endurance speed is one where the power required is minimum. This speed is particularly
useful for holding where fuel consumption is minimum, and speed is not the most important
consideration. The endurance speed is VMP for a propeller driven aeroplane, and VMD for a turbo
jet aeroplane. However, maximum range speed is interrelated with maximum-range cruise
(MRC) speed, which is the speed that will provide the furthest distance travelled for a given
amount of fuel burned, and the minimum fuel burned for a given cruise distance. This is usually
the most effective cruise s eed.

Figure 1.24 Jet aircraft VMD and propeller driven aircraft VMP

03.02 Range

Turbojet SFC and SR

01 efine a turbojet aero lane s s ecific fuel consum tion (S C) and describe how it affects
fuel ow and s ecific range.

It was stated in . . . . that there are two erformance arameters in cruise range and
endurance. Range is a more useful performance parameter than endurance, and one that
[Link].09 aircraft designers continually try to improve, whereas endurance is about airborne time. Range
is more concerned with distance covered, and it is therefore sometimes referred to as fuel
mileage. or range not only is the concern to minimise the fuel ow but more im ortantly to
maximise the speed, allowing the aeroplane to travel a greater distance. Maximum range can be
defined as being the maximum distance an aero lane can y for a given fuel uantity consumed
or to put it another way, the minimum fuel used by an aeroplane over a given distance. This
latter expression of range is more commonly used for commercial operations. As a formula,
range is simply the distance in nautical miles divided by fuel quantity in kilograms.

24
3 032.01 General

The range formula must be adjusted so that it provides us with useful information. The range
that an aero lane can achieve is determined by the s eed of the aero lane and the fuel ow. The
formula is nautical air miles er hour true airs eed (TAS) divided by kilograms of fuel er hour.
Thus the formula now reads TAS divided by fuel ow.

This is the formula for s ecific air range. The formula shows that s ecific air range is defined as
the ratio of true airs eed to the fuel ow. In the endurance section it was stated that fuel ow is
s ecific fuel consum tion (S C) multi lied by drag for a jet and alternatively S C multi lied by
power used for a propeller driven aeroplane. Therefore, it is now obvious that in order to maximise
the s ecific range of the aero lane true airs eed must be high and the fuel ow must be low.

Propeller-Driven Aeroplane’s (SFC)

02 efine a ro eller driven aero lane s s ecific fuel consum tion (S C) and describe how it
affects fuel ow and s ecific range.

Specific fuel consumption (SFC) is described as fuel ow er unit of thrust. The lower the value
the more e cient the engine this is achieved by lowering the fuel ow er unit of thrust.

As with a jet aero lane the higher the TAS and the lower the ower re uired (i.e. fuel ow) the
greater the s ecific range (S ). or a iston engine aero lane this is at lower altitude where the
power required matches full throttle height and for a turbo prop at medium altitude where the
TAS is higher and the ro eller is still relatively e cient.

25
3 032.01 General

Optimum Speed for Maximum SR - Turbojet Aeroplane

03 Explain the optimum speed for maximum SR for a turbojet aeroplane in relation to the
drag curve.

To maximise the range the TAS must be high and the s ecific fuel consum tion and the drag
must be low. Figure 1.25 illustrates a drag curve for a jet aeroplane. If the aeroplane were to
y at MD then of course the drag force would be at its lowest. If we look at the formula for
s ecific range as shown in the gra h it seems we have solved one of the oints namely how
to make drag as low as ossible. owever notice that because the drag curve is relatively at
at the bottom the s eed may be increased significantly from MD with only a small drag penalty.
Therefore we can see that while drag has increased a little (which is bad for range) whereas the
airs eed has increased significantly (which is good for range). Conse uently the overall effect
is that there is an increase in s ecific range. The s eed at which the s eed over drag ratio is
maximised may be read from the graph at the point of contact of the tangent from the origin to
the curve. Therefore, it is 1.32VMD that is the speed for maximum range for a jet aeroplane.

Figure 1.25 Optimum range speed for a turbojet

There is now only one remaining item left in the formula which still needs to be resolved. To
increase range even more s ecific fuel consum tion must be decreased. ou may recall that the
only way to do this for a jet aeroplane is to operate at as high an altitude as possible. Operating
as high as possible will give us a higher true airspeed for any given indicated airspeed which,
again will im rove the s ecific range.

26
3 032.01 General

Optimum Speed to Achieve Maximum SR - Propeller-Driven Aeroplane

04 Explain the optimum speed to achieve maximum SR for a propeller-driven aeroplane in
relation to the power required and drag graphs.

The TAS must be high and the s ecific fuel consum tion and the ower re uired must
be low. Shown in the figure . we can observe the ower re uired curve for a ro eller
aero lane. If the aero lane were to y at MP then its engine would be delivering minimum
ower re uired for level ight. It seems then that we have solved one of the com onents with
that component being the minimization of the power required. However, looking at the graph,
you will notice similarities with the jet aeroplane. This is because the power required curve is
at at the bottom and the aero lane s eed may be increased significantly from MP for only
a small penalty increase in the power required. You can see that while power required has
increased a little (which is bad for range) the airs eed has increased significantly (which is good
for range). Conse uently the overall effect is an increase in the range. The oint at which the
speed power ratio is at a maximum is the point of contact of the tangent from the origin to the
curve. You may recall that this speed is VMD. Therefore, it is VMD that is the speed for maximum
range for a propeller aeroplane.

Figure 1.26 Optimum range speed for propeller driven aeroplane

27
3 032.01 General

There is now only one remaining item left in the formula which still needs to be resolved. To
maximise range even more s ecific fuel consum tion must be decreased. owever you may
032.02.02 remember from . . that s ecific fuel consum tion for iston aero lane is good at lower
altitudes whereas for turbo ro eller aero lanes which use gas turbine engines the s ecific
fuel consumption decreases with altitude up to a point about halfway up the troposphere. The
graph indicates why VMP is lower than VMD for reference to range speed and SR. Propeller
aeroplane range speed is located at VMD.

Figure 1.27 VMP vs VMD and range speed

e ect o eroplane eig t and osition on uel onsu ption

Range and SR
05 Ex lain the effect of aero lane weight and C osition on fuel consum tion range and the
optimum speed for maximum SR.

As discussed in 081 Principles of Flight, increasing the weight of the aeroplane increases induced
drag and thus moves the total drag curve and power required curve up and right.

28
3 032.01 General

Figure 1.28 The effect of weight on jet aeroplane range speed

igure . (for a jet aero lane) illustrates that for higher weights the aero lane is subject to
a higher drag force and therefore re uires a higher rate of fuel ow and less range. This will
decrease s ecific range. owever notice that the s eed for maximum range is . MD.
Note
that at higher weights, the operating altitudes are reduced, which for a jet aeroplane means that
the s ecific fuel consum tion increases because at lower altitudes the jet engine is less e cient.
There is a linear relationshi between weight and fuel ow assuming identical aero lanes at
the same altitude and the same s ecific fuel consum tion. The rinci les for a ro eller driven
aeroplane are similar to that of the jet aeroplane. Regarding CG, a more aft CG allows a nose
down moment which must be countered by a tail down correction. This tail down force is added
to the overall lift which lowers the effective lift re uired from the wing and allows less re uired
thrust and therefore less fuel consumption and better range.

29
3 032.01 General

Turbojet Engine SFC Variation with Temperature and Thrust Setting

06 State how a turbojet engine s S C varies with tem erature and thrust setting.

As an aeroplanes operating altitude increases, the colder air and requirement for increasing rpm
cause the s ecific fuel consum tion to decrease which will hel to increase the s ecific air range.
An important consideration if temperature increases is the thrust available reduces. In a turbojet,
the fuel ow is ro ortional to thrust. Therefore as thrust increases fuel ow increases.

Turbojet Aeroplane SR Variation with Altitude and Meteorological

Conditions
07 Ex lain how S for a turbojet aero lane varies with altitude and under different
meteorological conditions.

The effect of altitude on the range of an aero lane is im ortant es ecially for a jet aero lane.
ere is the formula for the s ecific air range for a jet aero lane. Let us examine how the variables
change with increasing altitude.

As an aero lane o erating altitude increases it was seen above that a turbojet engine s S C
varies with temperature and thrust setting, however, there are two other variables left to
consider namely the true airs eed and the drag. Let us deal with true airs eed first. If you think
back to the art of the lesson where we were analysing the effects of altitude on the various
speeds, you will recall that if the aeroplane operates at higher altitudes at the constant indicated
or calibrated airspeed of 1.32VMD the true airs eed increases. The effect of increasing altitude
and therefore increasing true airs eed acts together with the reducing s ecific fuel consum tion
to hel increase the s ecific range. Therefore s ecific range increases with altitude.

However, the last element of the formula to consider is drag. You will recall that with altitude,
as the true airspeed increases and the local speed of sound decreases, the Mach number
increases. This means that the aeroplane is approaching the speed of sound and approaching its
maximum Mach operating (MMO) number. The problem with this is that beyond a certain Mach
number, the compressibility factor and approaching shock wave will cause drag to increase. This
will be detrimental to the s ecific range as you can see by the formula. owever it is a little more
complicated. As altitude increases, if the Mach number is allowed to get too high, the penalty due
to drag will start to outweigh the benefits of increasing TAS and reduce s ecific fuel consum tion.
It is at this oint that the s ecific air range will start to reduce. sing the blue line on the left hand
side of the gra h below you can see that initially s ecific range increases with altitude but then
above a certain altitude the s ecific range decrease.

30
3 032.01 General

Figure 1.29 The effect of altitude and weight on SR for a jet aeroplane

Propeller-Driven Aeroplane SRG Variation with Altitude and

Meteorological Conditions
08 Ex lain how S for a ro eller driven aero lane varies with altitude and under different
meteorological conditions.

aving discussed the effect of altitude on the jet aero lane let us now consider the effect of
altitude on the propeller aeroplane. In general, though, we may say that most turbo-propeller
aero lanes o erate significantly lower than their jet counter arts. Turbo ro eller aero lanes
seldom o erate above ft and therefore never really suffer from the effects of getting
close to the speed of sound. Turbo-propellers are based on the same engine design as a pure
jet. Therefore the effect of altitude on the turbo ro eller is very similar to the jet aero lane. As
altitude increases the increasing TAS and slightly decreasing s ecific fuel consum tion hel to
im rove the s ecific range ground. owever this benefit is offset a little by the increasing ower
re uired at higher altitude. So while s ecific range does im rove with altitude above
ft it only improves by a small amount. The choice of altitude may depend more on the wind
considerations and the time and fuel considerations involved in climbing to the selected altitude.

The other type of propeller aeroplane is the one driven by a piston engine. The piston engine
aero lane has a more or less fixed s ecific fuel consum tion even though s ecific fuel
consumption is lowest at high manifold pressures, low rpm, and with the mixture correctly set.
Therefore the only remaining variables in the s ecific air range formula for the iston engine
aeroplane are the true airspeed and the power required.

31
 3 032.01 General

Figure 1.30 The effect of altitude on SR for a propeller driven aeroplane

As the aeroplane operates at higher altitudes the power required to maintain the range speed
will increase. This of course is detrimental to range. However, as altitude increases, true airspeed
increases for any given indicated airs eed and this is good for range. This fact offsets the increase
of ower re uired and therefore the s ecific range slowly increases with altitude. Eventually the
aeroplane will reach an altitude where the throttle needs to be fully advanced to maintain the
selected s eed. This altitude is called the full throttle height and it is shown in figure . . eyond
this altitude the selected power and selected airspeed cannot be maintained, and the aeroplane
will slow down. Very soon after this altitude, the true airspeed will also start to fall despite the
decreasing density. This fact combined with the constantly increasing amount of power required
means that the s ecific range will decrease. As a result maximum s ecific range will be attained
just after full throttle height.

ect o eig t on pti u ltitude or a i u ange

09 Ex lain the effect of weight on the o timum altitude for maximum range.

[Link].07
sing the left hand blue line in figure . you will notice that there is an altitude at which the
s ecific range is greatest in our exam le this is just below ft. This altitude is called the
o timum altitude. It is defined as being the ressure altitude which rovides the greatest s ecific
range or fuel mileage at a given weight and speed. Flying higher or lower than the optimum
altitude will decrease the range of the aeroplane.

It is im ortant to understand that the o timum altitude is not fixed. ou will recall that as the
weight decreases through fuel burn, the drag curve moves down and left. Therefore, the best
range speed, 1.32VMD, falls and the total drag decreases. Consequently, with decreasing weight,
the aeroplane needs to slow down to maintain the best range speed. As it does so, the Mach
number will also decrease, meaning that the aeroplane is not limited by the high Mach number,
and corresponding high drag. This fact allows the aeroplane to climb a little. As the aeroplane

32
3 032.01 General 3
climbs, the Mach number will increase again to its previous limiting value and drag will increase
back to its revious value. ore im ortantly the higher altitude has decreased the s ecific fuel
consum tion. Therefore the s ecific air range increases during this climb. This means that over
time, as the weight decreases with fuel burn, the optimum altitude increases. You can see this
in figure . by com aring the s ecific range line for high and low weight. otice as well that as
the o timum altitude increases the s ecific range increases. Plotting the change of the o timum
altitude over time can be seen in figure . .

Figure 1.31 Optimum altitude increases as weight reduces

or the aero lane to maximise the s ecific range the aero lane must stay with the o timum
altitude as the optimum altitude slowly increases, in other words the aeroplane must climb along
the green line shown in figure . . Climbing in this way is sometimes called a cruise climb but
carrying out a cruise climb is not always ossible in congested airs ace due to air tra c control
re uirements and restrictions that may redetermine ight cruising levels. In this case to stay
close to the optimum altitude, step climbs may be performed and are shown by the dashed
yellow line in the figure . .

e ect o ind on and

10 escribe the effect of wind on S and the o timum s eed for S when com ared to S
and the optimum speed for SR.

The effect of headwinds and tailwinds on the range of the aero lane can lay a significant role
in the choice of cruising altitude due to the in uence on ground s eed ( S). eadwinds will
cause the aircraft to travel slower over the ground, and therefore cover less distance for a given
level of fuel consumption. Thus, in headwinds, range SRG is reduced. In order to minimise this
effect the s eed of the aero lane is increased by a margin slightly less than the amount of the

33
3 032.01 General

headwind. The increase in speed will require more thrust and power, causing an increase in fuel
consumption, but on a positive side the aeroplane will be exposed to the headwind for a shorter
eriod of time if it is ying faster. This higher s eed then recovers some of the range lost caused
by the headwind. On the contrary, a tailwind will increase the ground speed and increase the
distance covered for a given level of fuel consumption, thereby increasing the SRG. For maximum
range with a tailwind, the speed for the best range should be decreased slightly to reduce the
thrust and ower re uired. This will therefore reduce the fuel ow and im rove the range. The
reduction in speed is slightly less than the speed of the tailwind component being experienced.

The headwind and tailwind speed changes can be seen on the drag and power curves for the jet
and propeller aeroplane. However, to simplify things, we will just concentrate on the drag curve
for the jet aeroplane.

Figure 1.32 The effect of headwind

Looking at figure . with a kt headwind the origin of the tangent line moves kt to the
right. Notice that the tangent meets the curve at a point corresponding to a higher speed, thus
confirming that in a headwind the s eed for best range is higher. The o osite is the case in a
tailwind scenario. With a tailwind of 20 kt, the origin of the tangent line moves 20 kt left. The
tangent meets the curve at a oint corres onding to a lower s eed. This confirms that in a
tailwind the speed for best range is lower than in conditions of zero wind.

34
3 032.01 General

03.03 Maximum Endurance

Fuel Flow in Relation to TAS and Thrust
01 Ex lain fuel ow in relation to TAS and thrust for a turbojet aero lane.

In a turbojet the fuel ow is ro ortional to thrust. Therefore as thrust increases fuel ow

increases. The TAS will be affected by the MD s eed and altitude according to weight and fuel ow.

Speed for Maximum Endurance for a Turbojet

02 State the speed for maximum endurance for a turbojet aeroplane.

In this scenario fuel ow is a function of the fuel used er unit of thrust multi lied by the total
number of thrust units. Obviously if it were possible to reduce the fuel used per unit of thrust
and the total number of thrust units re uired then the total fuel ow would be reduced. uel
used er unit thrust is commonly known as s ecific fuel consum tion (S C).

The formula for fuel ow should be as shown below.

The s ecific fuel consum tion needs to be small in other words the aim is to reduce the amount
of fuel used to produce each thrust unit. For a jet engine this occurs when ambient temperature
is very low and engine r m is very high. This can only occur at high altitude. So ying at high
altitude, minimises the fuel used per unit of thrust.

aving minimised the fuel used to roduce each unit of thrust the aim is now to y the aero lane
using minimum possible total thrust because each unit of thrust requires fuel to be consumed.
This roblem is com aratively sim le to solve. In level ight the forward acting force of thrust is
controlled and balanced by the rearward acting force of drag. If drag is small, the aeroplane need
y with only a small amount of thrust. Looking at the formula below thrust can be re laced by
drag since the value of drag is equal and opposite to the value of thrust.

To minimise drag the jet aero lane sim ly ies at the velocity for minimum drag. Therefore MD
is the s eed to y for maximum endurance for a jet aero lane.

In summary then for a jet aero lane to maximise its endurance by minimi ing its fuel ow the
ilot would y the aero lane at MD and y as high as ossible where the TAS is highest.

35
3 032.01 General

Figure 1.33 VMD location against range speed

Fuel Flow in Relation to TAS and Thrust for a Propeller-Driven Aeroplane

03 Ex lain fuel ow in relation to TAS and thrust for a ro eller driven aero lane.

The situation with endurance and fuel ow for a ro eller aero lane is very similar to that for
the jet aero lane. There is just one small difference in the formula we use. Turbo ro and iston
engines first convert chemical energy in the fuel into ower out ut on a shaft. The ro eller then
converts that power into thrust. Therefore, for a propeller aeroplane, since the fuel is used to
generate ower and not thrust the formula for fuel ow is fuel used er unit of ower multi lied
by the total units of power.

The speed for endurance for a propeller driven aeroplane is VMP. At this s eed fuel ow is
minimum and thrust re uired is low. e ending on altitude the TAS will not adversely affect the
fuel ow as the aero lane is ying a MP speed not TAS.

36
3 032.01 General

Speed for Maximum Endurance for a Propeller-Driven Aeroplane

04 State the speed for maximum endurance for a propeller-driven aeroplane and the
disadvantages of holding at this s eed (e.g. high angle of attack (AoA) and lack of s eed stability).

As explained for a propeller aeroplane, since the fuel is used to generate power and not thrust,
the formula for fuel ow is fuel used er unit of ower multi lied by the total units of ower.

bviously to minimise the fuel ow the fuel used er unit of ower and the total number of
power units must be kept to a minimum. Fuel used per unit power as you already know is
called s ecific fuel consum tion. Therefore similar to a jet aero lane the fuel ow formula for a
propeller aeroplane reads as below.

The s ecific fuel consum tion value needs to be small but for most ro eller aero lanes
the value is more or less fixed. owever in very general terms it is safe to say that for iston
engines s ecific fuel consum tion is a minimum at lower altitudes whereas for turbo ro eller
engines s ecific fuel consum tion is a minimum at middle to high altitudes. Since s ecific fuel
consum tion is more or less fixed the only other way to minimise fuel ow is to use the minimum
amount of ower. This can be achieved by ying at the s eed for minimum ower re uired or
VMP. This is a low speed and is below VMD and requires a higher AoA to generate lift as shown in
figure . . As reviously identified in Princi les of light being to the left of MD means the
aeroplane is in the unstable speed region.

As indicated in figure . the endurance s eed for an e uivalent weight jet aero lane is kt at
VMD and for a propeller driven aeroplane, endurance speed is at VMP which is130 kt.

Figure 1.34 Jet aircraft vs propeller driven aircraft endurance speed

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3 032.01 General

Figure 1.35 Propeller holding speed

e ect o ind and ltitude on a ur o et s ndurance peed

05 Ex lain the effect of wind and altitude on endurance and the maximum endurance s eed
for a turbojet aeroplane.

The case of wind is uite sim le. It has no effect on endurance for turbojet and ro eller driven
aeroplanes. You will remember that maximum endurance is concerned with minimising fuel
ow. It should be obvious that wind does not affect the fuel ow into the engine. Endurance
is about time in the air not distance covered. Whatever the effect of wind an aero lane will
remain airborne only for as long as it has usable fuel in its tanks. owever altitude does affect
endurance. Its effect though is a little com licated and is de endent on engine ty e. enerally
jet aero lanes become more e cient as altitude increases artly due to the decreasing ambient
temperature, but also because of the increasing rpm required to maintain thrust. Therefore,
theoretically the maximum endurance of a jet aero lane will be achieved when ying at or above
the tropopause where the ambient air temperature is lowest.

38
 3 032.01 General

e ect o ind and ltitude on a ropeller riven eroplane s

Endurance Speed
06 Ex lain the effect of wind and altitude on endurance and the maximum endurance s eed
for a propeller-driven aeroplane.
[Link].05

Turbo-propeller aeroplanes function in a similar way to jet aeroplanes since they are, in essence,
jet engines with a propeller attached to a geared shaft. However, even though the turbo-
ro eller engine gains e ciency with altitude the ower re uired increases due to the rising
TAS offsetting the e ciency gains. This means that for most modern turbo ro eller aero lanes
maximum endurance is achieved at around 10,000 ft or less at VMP. Piston engine aeroplanes are
most e cient at sea level when the manifold ressure is high and r m is low rovided that the
mixture has been leaned correctly. In summary, jet aeroplanes achieve maximum endurance
at or above the tro o ause turbo ro eller aero lanes reach maximum endurance at about
10,000 ft and piston engine aeroplanes have their maximum endurance at sea level.

Managing En-Route Airspeed

07 escribe the benefits of managing your en route airs eed to reduce or avoid holding time
and the o erational situations when it could be used (commanded by the ilot or air tra c
control (ATC) when delays at arrival air ort occur).

Changing the en-route speed will have a direct operational consequence on arrival times, fuel
burned and ight time. Through the mani ulation of these arameters it may be ossible to
avoid costly holding patterns if forecasted phenomena such as weather, or airspace closure are
present. Moreover, if the pilot has been advised of delays by ATC, or dispatch, it would be at his/
her discretion to slow the aeroplane to respect these restrictions. This anticipation would enable
lanning at more e cient higher altitudes as o osed to lower altitudes.

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4 032.01 General

04.00 Climbing
04.01 Climbing (Climb Performance)
The Aerodynamic Forces During a Steady Climb
01 Resolve the forces during a steady climb.

If the aircraft is laced in a climb attitude as shown in figure . a com onent of the aero lane s
weight acts backwards along the ight ath and is added to drag.

Figure 1.36 Climbing low angle of attack Figure 1.37 Climbing high angle of attack

The larger the angle of climb the larger the backward com onent of weight as shown in figure
. and figure . . In both illustrations it is a arent that the sum of the two rearward acting
forces is greater than the forward acting thrust force. If this situation were left unchanged the
aircraft would decelerate.

To maintain a steady s eed along the ight ath in a climb additional thrust is re uired to balance
the backward component of weight. This additional thrust required is called excess thrust.

Excess thrust is the thrust available from the engine(s) after aerodynamic drag is balanced.

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4 032.01 General

Figure 1.38 Balancing the climbing forces Figure 1.39 Lack of excess thrust on climbing

In figure . the forward acting force in green is now the same as the two rearward acting forces
in red and the aero lane will maintain a steady s eed along its new ight ath. To maintain a
steady climb with no loss of speed, thrust must balance not only the aerodynamic drag, but also
the backward component of weight.

In figure . the aircraft only has a small amount

of excess thrust available. Notice that there is
too much backward component of weight from
the climb angle that has been established, so
that the climb angle cannot be maintained.

Therefore, the angle of climb must be reduced

to give a smaller backward component of
weight that matches the excess thrust available,
as shown in figure . . The greater the excess
thrust, the larger the backward component of
weight that can be balanced.

In other words, the more excess thrust

available, the steeper the angle of climb, or the
greater the weight at the same climb angle.

Figure 1.40 Balanced forces

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4 032.01 General

Figure 1.41 Greater excess thrust increases climbing angle of attack

Critical Engine, VX and VY

02 efine and ex lain the following terms critical engine s eed for best angle of climb ( x)
s eed for best rate of climb ( y).
03 Ex lain climb erformance in relation to the thrust available and thrust re uired (angle of
climb) and ower available and ower re uired (rate of climb).
04 Ex lain the meaning and effect of excess thrust and excess ower in a steady climb.
05 Inter ret the thrust ower re uired and thrust ower available curves in a steady climb.

Critical engine: The engine whose failure would most adversely affect the erformance or
handling qualities of an aircraft. On twin engine aeroplanes this would cause the aeroplane to yaw
to the failed engine and reduce excess thrust. Losing 50% of the thrust available reduces excess
thrust by approximately 75% because the same value of aerodynamic drag must be balanced.
Figures 1.42 and 1.43 emphasise that a two-engine aeroplane with one engine inoperative, has a
severely reduced ability to climb.

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4 032.01 General

Figure 1.42 Excess thrust reduces after Figure 1.43 Climbing angle reduces
engine failure with 1 engine

VX is the speed for the best gradient, or angle of climb. This is achieved by the greatest excess
thrust at VMD e ualling the backward com onent of weight (or a arent weight drag).

Figure 1.44 Maximum excess thrust

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4 032.01 General

Figure 1.44 shows thrust required (aerodynamic drag) and thrust available (from the engines)
for an aeroplane powered by turbojet engines. Excess thrust is the amount of thrust that exceeds
aerodynamic drag. Excess thrust can be seen on the graph as the distance between the thrust
available and thrust required lines. You will recall that to maximise the climb gradient, excess
thrust must be a maximum. aximum excess thrust is obtained by ying at the IAS where the
distance between the thrust and the drag lines is maximum.

Notice that maximum excess thrust is available only at one IAS, labelled VX. At any other speed,
faster or slower, the distance between the thrust and drag curves is smaller and excess thrust is
less. Therefore, climbing at an IAS other than VX will give a climb gradient less than the maximum
possible. The IAS at which the aeroplane generates the greatest amount of excess thrust and is
therefore capable of its steepest climb gradient, is called VX.

VX is referred to as the best angle of climb s eed. In figure . it can be seen that for an
aeroplane powered by turbojet engines, VX is the same IAS as VMD. VX for a propeller aeroplane is
less than VMD and at low altitudes will be in the region of VMP.

VY is the speed for the best rate of climb. That is an angle of climb with a speed vector along
the gradient.

Sometimes angle of climb is being confused with rate of climb, so the following basic explanation
is rovided to hel decide when and how to use rate of climb. (The same considerations can be
used later with rate of descent).

Power = Rate of doing work (associate the word rate with the word power)
Work = Force × Distance
Therefore,
Power = Force × Distance
Question When climbing what force must be balanced
Answer rag The remaining roduct from the formula is distance divided by time (e.g. nautical
miles er hour kt).
Question ow many s eeds are there
Answer ne The True Airs eed the only s eed there is the s eed of the aero lane
through the air.
Therefore: Power required = Drag × TAS

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4 032.01 General

If a thrust re uired (drag) curve is considered in sea level ISA conditions multi ly the drag at
various airspeeds by the TAS, and then plot the resulting power required curve on the same
iece of gra h a er. The result will be that illustrated in figure . .

Figure 1.45 Power required vs thrust required

The shape of the power required curve is similar to that of the thrust required curve. The
significant difference is that the ower re uired curve is dis laced to the left. Conse uently the
s eed for minimum ower re uired ( MP) is slower than the s eed for minimum thrust re uired
( MD). It is essential to be able to visualise the ower re uired curve relative to the thrust re uired
curve, together with the VMP and VMD relationship. Associated data will be presented later.

To demonstrate a ractical use of the (Power re uired rag TAS) formula if an aircraft
climbs at a constant IAS, drag remains constant, but TAS must be increased to compensate for
decreasing air density. Therefore, when climbing at a constant IAS, power required increases.
ate of climb is the vertical s eed of an aero lane measured in feet er minute it is dis layed in
the cock it on the vertical s eed indicator ( SI).

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4 032.01 General

Another way to think of rate of climb is to consider it as the TAS of the aeroplane along a gradient.

Example
An aircraft with a gradient of . is ying at an IAS of kt at a ressure altitude of ft and
an outside air temperature 15°C.
The aircraft will have a C of
a. 284 ft/min
b. ft min
c. 1117 ft/min
d. 334 ft/min
As Power e uired is rag TAS the IAS must be converted into TAS at the ressure altitude of
8500 ft and an OAT of 15°C. Using a circular slide rule, the TAS is 100 KTAS.
Note At climb angles less than a roximately (and they always will be) the difference in
length between the hypotenuse and the adjacent sides of a right-angled triangle is so small
that, for the sake of simplicity, it is disregarded in this type of calculation. So, we do not need
to worry about the fact that the aero lane TAS is u the hy otenuse. (EASA makes the same
assum tion so your answers will be correct)
From our previous study of climb angle/gradient, it is self-evident that use of percentage gradient
allows us to visualise the ratio of u to along . In this case the climb gradient of . gives a
horizontal component of 100 and a vertical component of 3.3. Because we are considering
rate of climb the hori ontal com onent is the TAS which in this case is TAS this must be
converted into ft min

The formula for the gradient of climb is

Gradient is given by the formula thrust available minus thrust required divided by weight. All
that it is needed now for consideration of rate of climb is to add the velocity function, as shown
below. This will be the formula for rate of climb.

46
4 032.01 General

owever there is a little more detail to understand

The velocity is true airspeed but thrust and drag are both forces and TAS is distance over time.
Force multiplied by distance gives work and work divided by time gives power. This means that
instead of thrust multiplied by velocity, the formula now contains the expression power available,
and instead of thrust required multiplied by velocity, the formula now has power required.

The rate of climb formula now reads ower available minus ower re uired (excess ower
available) divided by weight.

For any given weight, the greater the excess power available, the greater the rate of climb.
Conversely, the less excess power available, the smaller the rate of climb. In order to maximise
the aero lane s rate of climb therefore we need to maximise excess ower. To understand how
it is possible to obtain the greatest amount of excess power available and therefore climb at the
highest rate of climb, it is necessary to look at some more graphs.

Excess Power Available (Jet)

igure . shows a gra h of ower available and ower re uired for a ty ical jet aero lane. In
order to provide some benchmarks, it is necessary to locate the two reference speeds VMP and
VMD that we mentioned earlier. The speed found at the bottom of the power required curve is
called the velocity for minimum power or VMP. There was another speed, slightly faster than VMP
called VMD. This speed is the velocity for minimum drag and is found at the point of contact of the
tangent from the origin to the power required curve.

Having analysed the reference speeds, the object now is to locate where excess power available
is maximum.

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 4 032.01 General

Figure 1.46 Excess power available

In the graph, the area between the two curves represents the area of excess power available.
Also, the greatest amount of excess power available will be found where the distance between
the curves is at its maximum. Notice that it occurs at a speed higher than VMD. At any other speed,
the excess power is less, and the rate of climb will be less. The speed for the best rate of climb is
called VY. Therefore, for a jet aeroplane VY occurs at a speed higher than VMD. VY is the airspeed to
use to climb to the cruise or en-route altitude as it will give the greatest height gain per unit time.
In a ty ical this s eed is about kt and is usually ublished in the aero lane ight
manual as an indicated airspeed.

The greatest excess of power for a propeller aeroplane is a speed higher than VMP, and in the
region of VMD.

e i erence et een li ngle and radient

06 State the difference between climb angle and gradient.

[Link].01
The angle of climb can be defined as the angle between a hori ontal lane re resenting the
Earth s surface and the actual ight ath followed by the aircraft during its ascent. The climb
gradient is the ratio between distance travelled over the ground and altitude gained and is
expressed as a percentage.

48
4 032.01 General

e ect o eig t on X
and VY
07 Ex lain the effect of weight on the climb angle and rate of climb and the s eed for best
angle and best rate of climb.

iewing thrust re uired (drag) and thrust available on the same gra h shown above will show
any obvious changes in excess thrust and therefore maximum climb gradient. Any associated
changes in the IAS for VX can also be seen.

Figure 1.47 The effect of weight on excess thrust

Figure 1.47 shows the result of increased weight on the steady climb. More weight requires more
lift therefore induced drag will be greater. This moves the total drag curve u but also to the
right. Thrust required is increased and VX is a faster IAS. This can be observed, because thrust
required has increased, excess thrust has decreased, so maximum climb gradient has decreased.

The formula to calculate climb gradient is

49
4 032.01 General

Considering the above formula certain facts are self evident

• or a given weight the greater the excess thrust (T ) the more times weight will
divide into the bigger value. Therefore, the climb gradient will become steeper. On
the other hand, the less the excess thrust the shallower the climb gradient.
• or a given excess thrust (T ) the greater the weight the fewer times weight will
divide into the same value. Therefore, the climb gradient is shallower. On the other
hand, the less the weight, the steeper the climb gradient.
• Increased weight reduces maximum climb gradient and increases VX.
It has been discussed that an increase in weight creates more weight apparent drag which
reduces the angle of climb. For any given airspeed, if the angle of climb reduces, then so will the
rate of climb VY because they are fundamentally linked. This effect can be seen on the formula of
rate of climb. If the value of weight is increased, the rate of climb will reduce.

urthermore weight has an effect that we have already talked about. An increase in weight will
require an increase in lift. Increasing lift increases induced drag which causes the drag curve to
move u and right. The ower re uired curve shown in red in figure . is based u on drag.
Power required is drag multiplied by velocity. So, if the drag curve moves up and right, so will the
power required curve.

Figure 1.48 Jet aeroplane VY

50
4 032.01 General

As you can see in figure . for jet aero lanes ( ro eller aero lanes are similar rinci le) the
power required curve moves up and right. Therefore, less excess power is available and therefore
the rate of climb decreases. However, what is important to see is that the speed for maximum
excess power available is no longer the same. It is now higher. So, with higher weight, the rate of
climb is decreased but VY is increased.

e ects o ressure ltitude and e perature on X

and VY
08 Ex lain the effects of ressure altitude and tem erature including an inversion on climb
erformance (angle and rate of climb).

As ressure altitude and tem erature affect density these have a direct effect on climb
erformance

• Air density affects the mass ow of air into the engine.

• A decrease in air density reduces thrust available, thus excess thrust is also decreased.

Therefore, the ability to climb decreases with decreasing air density. Air density is presented on
erformance gra hs as two com onents tem erature and ressure altitude. Pressure altitude is
the reading on the altimeter when 1,013 hPa is set on the subscale. Any variation in atmospheric
pressure or temperature will change air density and therefore excess thrust. Relevant aircraft
performance graphs contain a horizontal axis of temperature and a series of sloping pressure
altitude guidelines. An intersection of these two values will provide the necessary compensation
for density altitude.

Figure 1.49 The effect of altitude on excess thrust

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4 032.01 General

Any decrease in air density (increase in density altitude) will reduce thrust available and therefore
move the thrust line downwards as shown on the gra h in figure . . This can be seen because
decreased density reduces excess thrust, as a result reducing the maximum climb angle will be
reduced. Excess thrust will continually decrease with increasing density altitude, so the maximum
angle of climb will continually decrease as the aircraft climbs. Note that VX will remain constant
with changes in air density because at a constant IAS ( X) drag will not vary. owever you will
recall that as air density decreases, TAS must be increased to maintain the required dynamic
pressure. So, although the IAS for VX is constant with increasing density altitude, the TAS for VX
will of course increase.

ensity is another im ortant factor that affects the rate of climb. owever density affects a lot
of the variables in the formula for the rate of climb. Shown below is an expanded rate of climb
formula, reminding you that power available is thrust multiplied by TAS and that power required
is drag multiplied by TAS.

Focusing on the power available for the moment, decreased density will decrease the thrust,
but it will also increase the true airs eed. The overall effect is that the thrust loss is more than
the TAS gain, meaning, overall, that the power available decreases. Looking at power required,
decreased density will increase the true airs eed but have no effect on the drag. Therefore the
ower re uired will increase. Looking at figures . and . and using the gra hs for the jet
and propeller aeroplanes, you can see that the power available curves move down and right,
and the power required curves move up and right. You will notice that there is less excess power
available and this causes a reduction in the rate of climb for both aeroplane types.

Figure 1.50 Jet aeroplane Figure 1.51 Propeller aeroplane

Notice from the graphs that the true airspeed for VY increases a little with decreasing density
or increasing altitude. owever as ilots we y using indicated airs eeds and therefore it is
important to understand what happens to the indicated airspeed of VY. In order that we may
understand this, a further explanation is needed.

52
4 032.01 General

sing figure . you will notice that if the true airs eed increases slightly with altitude then the
indicated airspeed will still fall. Therefore, although VY as TAS increases with decreasing density or
increasing altitude, VY as an IAS decreases. In fact, VY will eventually fall to become the same value
as VX. So, in summary, reduced density decreases the indicated airspeed of VY and decreases the
rate of climb.

Figure 1.52 The influence of altitude on VY IAS and TAS

In relation to altitude as the aero lane ies higher the excess ower available diminishes and
therefore, the maximum achievable rate of climb will decrease.

An inversion would have a detrimental effect on erformance as the density would reduce and
de ending on the inversion s magnitude it would limit climb erformance.

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4 032.01 General

e ect o on guration on X
and VY
09 Ex lain the effect of configuration on climb erformance (angle and rate of climb and
x and y).

Another factor that affects maximum climb angle is aircraft configuration. Configuration means
whether the a s (or gear) are extended or retracted. If a s (and gear) are retracted the aircraft
is said to be in the clean configuration. If a s (or gear) are extended parasite drag will increase,
with no significant change in induced drag.

Figure 1.53 Configuration changes reduce excess thrust Vx

igure . shows a steady climb with a s (or gear) extended com ared to the clean configuration.
Parasite area is increased therefore arasite drag will be greater. This moves the total drag curve
up, but also to the left. Thrust required is increased and VX is a slower IAS. As Thrust required has
increased, excess thrust is decreased, so maximum climb gradient is decreased.

Flaps or gear reduce maximum climb gradient and decrease VX.

Therefore retracting the gear u on establishing a ositive rate of climb and limiting a
o eration beyond a retraction s eed allow the aircraft to attain the largest climb angle
ossible. As we have reviously seen the ur ose of a s is to decrease the takeoff and landing
run. If it is necessary to use a s for the takeoff run retract them in stages after takeoff as soon
as it is safe to do so to attain a clean configuration. The regulatory a retraction schedule will
be discussed later.

The next factor that affects the rate of climb is the configuration of the aircraft in other words the
use of a s and gear. If the gear and a s are extracted then the rofile drag of the aero lane
will increase. This increases total drag, and the drag curve moves upwards and to the left. The
power required curves will follow the same movement as the drag curve.

54
4 032.01 General

Figure 1.54 Jet power required

Figure 1.55 Propeller power required

55
4 032.01 General

otice in both figure . and figure . the reduction in excess ower available as shown by
the blue double headed arrows. You may recall that a reduction in excess power reduces the
rate of climb. owever the im ortant effect here is that the s eed for maximum excess ower
is no longer the same. It is now lower. So with the gear and or a s extracted the rate of climb
is decreased and VY is decreased. If a s are used for takeoff remove them in stages when you
have attained a ositive stable climb ensuring you check through the aero lane ight manual for
the correct actions for your aeroplane.

As you do so, the rate of climb and the speed to attain the best rate of climb will increase, so you
should accelerate to ensure you remain at VY.

e ect o ngine ailure on X

and VY
10 escribe the effect of engine failure on climb erformance (angle and rate of climb and
x and y).

An engine failure dramatically reduces excess thrust or power therefore reducing climb
performance and angle and rate of climb. If parasite drag increases, VMD is decreased.

Figure 1.56 Engine failure reduced Figure 1.57 Reduced rate of climb
excess thrust

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 4 032.01 General

Calculating Climb Gradient

11 Calculate the all-engine and one-engine-out climb gradient from given values of engine
thrust and aeroplane drag and weight.
[Link].07

In review of the above formula certain facts are self evident

• or a given weight the greater the excess thrust (T ) the more times weight will
divide into the bigger value and therefore, the steeper the climb gradient. The less
excess thrust, the shallower the climb gradient.
• or a given excess thrust (T ) the greater the weight the fewer times weight will
divide into the same value and therefore, the shallower the climb gradient. The less
the weight the steeper the climb gradient.
Increased weight reduces maximum climb gradient and increases VX.

Example
sing the formula of gradient let s look at a ty ical exam uestion
Question A four engine jet aero lane whose mass is kg is established on climb with all
engines o erating. The lift over drag ratio is . Each engine has a thrust of .
The gradient of climb is (given g m s2)
a. .
b. 27%
c. .
d. 92%
Answer . . or a single engine failure the thrust is reduced by giving a new
reduced climb gradient of .

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5 032.01 General

05.00 Descending
05.01 Descending (Descent Performance)
Aerodynamic Forces in the Descent and Glide
01 Resolve the forces during steady descent and in the glide.

Descent performance will focus mainly on the forces in the descent and what factors govern the
descent. In a normal ight the descent will occur at a oint we define as the top of descent which
may be up to 200 miles before the destination aerodrome. A descent will also be required following
certain emergency procedures such as an engine failure or depressurization. In this latter situation
the descent is forcibly initiated, and it is important for the pilot to be aware of what determines the
characteristics of the descent so that obstacle clearance can be maintained. There are two ways of
measuring the descent erformance of an aircraft either by angle of descent (sometimes called
descent range) or rate of descent (sometimes called descent endurance).

Angle of Descent

In order to initiate a steady descent, thrust is normally reduced. The forward force of thrust is
now less than the rearward force of drag, and the aircraft slows down. The value of drag that
exceeds the thrust force is called excess drag. In order to balance the forces and maintain speed,
the nose is lowered until the weight apparent thrust provides enough forward force to balance
the excess of drag as can be seen in figure . . ow the aircraft will maintain this steady descent
angle at a constant s eed. The forward and rearward forces are in balance once again. rag ( A)
is being balanced by the thrust (T) and the weight a arent thrust (W sin ).

Figure 1.58 Balancing angle of descent forces

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5 032.01 General

The weight apparent thrust can be calculated by multiplying weight by the sine of the angle
gamma. If thrust were reduced even more as shown in figure . then there would be a greater
amount of excess drag. More weight apparent thrust is therefore needed to balance the greater
amount of excess drag. To gain more weight apparent thrust the aeroplane nose must be lowered
even more. The result is an increase in the descent angle. For the purpose of the examinations,
lowering the nose is a decrease in pitch.

Figure 1.59 Increasing the angle of descent

From this demonstration it is the excess drag which determines the angle of descent. Notice that
the angle gamma is the same angle as the angle of descent. Rearranging the formula shown in
figures . and . ( rag T W sin ) so that angle gamma can be calculated gives us the
formula for the angle or gradient of descent.

Drag minus thrust will give excess drag. To summarise, the angle or gradient of descent is
controlled by the excess drag. In order to visualise this excess drag, it is necessary to return to
the thrust and drag graphs that were used in the climbing lesson.

During a glide, the thrust force is missing therefore a higher weight apparent thrust can be
achieved allowing a steeper angle of descent or glide angle.

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5 032.01 General

Descent Performance in Relation to Thrust Available and Power

02 Ex lain descent erformance in relation to thrust available and thrust re uired (drag) and
power available and power required.
03 Ex lain the meaning of excess thrust re uired (excess drag) and excess ower re uired
in a steady descent.

Figure 1.60 Excess drag – jet aeroplane

Figure 1.61 Excess drag – propeller aeroplane

Shown in figures . and . are the thrust and drag curves for a jet and ro eller aero lane.
We have learnt that in order to descend, there must be an excess of drag. On the graphs, excess
drag can be found by taking the areas where thrust required is greater than thrust available. The
solid purple highlighted areas represent excess drag. Notice that if thrust is reduced at any given
speed, then excess drag increases, therefore the descent angle increases.

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 5 032.01 General

04 Inter ret the thrust ower re uired and thrust ower available curves in a steady descent.

[Link]
The graphs in 04.01.05 indicate the locations of VMD and VMP which are very important speeds for
locating excess drag especially if a minimum angle of descent is required.

aria les ecting lide escent

05 Ex lain the effect of mass altitude wind s eed and configuration on the glide descent.

First and foremost, allow us to concentrate on the minimum angle of descent or the glide angle
with idle power.

Figure 1.62 Angle of descent (3)

In figure . an aero lane with a higher weight will have a larger amount of weight a arent
thrust but if the aero lane is still ying at MD (which will be faster with a higher weight) it will
also have a greater amount of drag. You will recall this from knowing that a higher weight moves
the drag curve u and right. In figure . the forward and rearward forces along the ight
path are still balanced, albeit a bit longer. It should be noted that the angle of descent remains
unchanged. It is im ortant for you to understand that weight has no effect on the minimum
angle of descent or glide angle, but it will increase the speed of the descent.

Therefore in summary weight has no effect on the minimum angle of descent but it will increase
the speed along the descent gradient and as a result increase the rate of descent.

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5 032.01 General

The next factor to affect the angle and rate of descent is the aero lane s configuration. As with
the effect of weight configuration changes are best understood when assuming idle thrust. In
figure . if the a s or undercarriage were extracted then notice that excess drag increases.
To balance this increase in excess drag, the nose is lowered. This action increases weight
apparent thrust and a balance of forces is restored, but the balance is attained at a higher angle
of descent, and therefore a higher rate of descent.

Figure 1.63 Angle of descent (4) Figure 1.64 Angle of descent (5)

The effect of configuration can also be seen using gra hs. Shown in figure . is the drag curve
for the jet and ro eller aero lane with excess drag shown by the ur le area. With a s and
undercarriage extracted you will recall that the curves move u and left. This has the effect of
increasing the excess drag and therefore increasing the angle of descent for any given speed.
Notice too, that the speed for the minimum angle of descent, VMD, is lower.

Figure 1.65 Configuration change increases excess drag

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5 032.01 General

The same effect can be seen in figure . when examining the rate of descent and by using the
power required graph. Similarly, the purple area represents excess power required.

Figure 1.66 Configuration change increases excess power required

With a s and gear extracted you will recall that the ower curves move u and left. This has
the effect of increasing the excess ower re uired and therefore increasing the rate of descent.
Notice too, that the speed for the minimum rate of descent, VMP, is lower.

In summary with the gear and a s extracted the angle and rate of descent increase but the
speeds for minimum angle and minimum rate of descent decrease.

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5 032.01 General

igure . shows the effect of headwinds and tailwinds on the angle of descent. eadwinds
steepen the glide angle and decrease the descent range, whereas tailwinds decrease the glide
angle but increase the descent range. However, notice that the aeroplane in a headwind or
tailwind reaches the same descent altitude at the same time as the aero lane ying in ero wind
conditions. This demonstrates that a headwind or tailwind has no effect on the rate of descent.

Figure 1.67 The effect of headwinds and tailwinds on angle and rate of descent

The effect of the wind on the angle of descent can be examined a little further because of the
adverse effect of a headwind on descent range it would be of benefit to increase the aero lane s
forward s eed slightly. This has the effect of reducing the time s ent in the headwind and it
means that the aeroplane will not be pushed back as much by the wind and be exposed for a
rolonged eriod. Similarly with a tailwind since a tailwind benefits the glide by increasing the
descent range, it would be better to try and stay in this situation for longer. So, this time the
aero lane s forward s eed can be decreased so that the aero lane can stay under the tailwind
effect for longer and therefore be ushed further forwards and decrease ight time.

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 5 032.01 General

When ying on a training sortie make sure you know the wind s eed and direction both for the
surface and aloft. This will help you plan a better descent giving you more accurate circuit
patterns. More importantly, knowledge of what the wind is doing will ensure you obtain
maximum descent performance if an engine failure should occur.

The effect of s eed would dictate where the s eed and ower lines interce t and therefore
decide the excess drag. Likewise the effect of altitude decides the thrust available and therefore
the excess drag positions.

aria les ecting o ered escent

06 Ex lain the effect of mass altitude wind s eed and configuration on the owered descent.

[Link].05
As there is a thrust vector during a powered descent, the weight apparent thrust must be less to
balance the drag this will reduce the glide angle. The effects of mass altitude wind s eed and
configuration remain the same as in a glide descent but at a lower rate.

References
• CAP CAA A CL Examinations Aero lane Performance anual rd
edition,
uly
• CAE xford ass and alance Performance ATPL round Training Series ook
EASA 1st edition

65
032.02 CS-23/Applicable Operational Requirements Performance Class B
0 Section 2 Table of Contents

032.02 CS-23/Applicable Operational

2
Requirements Performance Class B – Theory

01.00 Airworthiness Requirements................................. 67

01.01 Airworthiness Requirements and Definitions ......................... 67

. a eo and anding ............................................... 74

03.01 Takeoff and Landing (Definitions and Effects)......................... 74

04.00 Climb, Cruise and Descent ..................................... 89

04.01 Climb, Cruise and Descent
(Requirements and Calculations) .......................................................... 89

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01.00 Airworthiness Requirements

. ir ort iness e uire ents and e nitions

peed e nitions
01 efine the following s eeds stall s eeds S, VS0 and VS1 rotation s eed R
s eed at ft
above the take off surface level reference landing s eed REF.

VS is the stalling speed, at which an aircraft is controllable. This is also referred to as minimum
steady ight s eed.

VS0 is the stalling s eed with the a s at the landing setting or minimum steady ight s eed at
which the aero lane is controllable in the landing configuration.

VS1 is the stalling s eed for the configuration under consideration.

VS1g is the stalling s eed at g (or the g stall s eed) at which the aero lane can develo a lift
force (normal to the ight ath) e ual to its weight. This is assumed to be the same s eed as SR.

VR is the rotation speed. This is the speed at which the pilot initiates action to raise the nose gear
off the ground with the intention of becoming airborne. The ilot action is to ull back on the
control column. This action de ects the elevators to create a downward aerodynamic force. This
force rotates the aero lane about its lateral axis and will raise the nose wheel off the ground.

V2 is the takeoff safety s eed which is the s eed ft above the takeoff surface. In CAP it
states that V2 is the target speed to be attained with one engine inoperative. In other words, V2
must be reached at or prior to the screen height.

There are two main s eeds which when ying close to may be unsafe. The first of these is stall
speed and the second is the minimum control speed. Therefore, for V2 to be called a safe speed
it must be faster than these speeds. There is another reason why V2 is called the takeoff safety
speed. In the event of engine failure, V2 must be own until the aero lane reaches ft above
airfield elevation (AAE). Therefore the other safe feature about 2 is that the aeroplane is able to
achieve a positive climb. In fact, V2 is the slowest speed which will enable the aeroplane to have
su cient excess thrust to climb above the minimum acce table climb gradients.

VREF From the approach down to the landing screen height the aeroplane must have attained
the landing reference s eed this s eed is known as REF. It is a very important speed to attain
since the landing distances in the aero lane ight manual are based on aero lanes ying at REF.
Therefore, if a landing aeroplane is not at VREF, the landing distance given by the manual will not
be achieved by the pilot and substantially increase the landing roll. A landing carried out at a
speed other than VREF could seriously jeopardise the safety of the landing.

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Limitations and Values on VR, V2 and VREF for SEP Aeroplane

02 Describe the limitations on VR on the s eed at ft above the take off surface and on REF,
and given the appropriate stall speed, estimate the values based on these limitations for a
single-engine, class B aeroplane.

The certification s ecifications state that for the single engine aero lane the R speed must not
be less than VS1. VS1 being the stall s eed or the minimum steady ight s eed of the aero lane
obtained in a s ecified configuration. The configuration concerned is the configuration which is
used for the takeoff.

The second of the certification s ecification concerns the s eed of the aero lane at the screen
height. The s ecifications state that the s eed at m or ft above the takeoff surface must
be more than the higher of a speed that is safe under all reasonably expected conditions, and
1.2VS1. It has been discussed before that the speed which must be attained at the screen height
is commonly referred to as the takeoff safety s eed or 2.

The certification regulations about R and the takeoff safety s eed ( 2) are not found in CAP
and therefore must be committed to memory.

The regulatory speed at the landing screen height is called VREF and, for a single-engine Class B
aero lane it had to be no less than . times the stall s eed in the landing configuration ( . S0).
A pilot must adhere to the VREF speeds because they are the speeds which have been used to
construct the landing gra hs or tables in the aircraft ight manual (A ). If a ilot were to deviate
from these speeds, the required aircraft performance would not be achieved.

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Limitations and Values on VR, V2 and VREF for MEP Aeroplane

03 Describe the limitations on VR on the s eed at ft above the take off surface and on REF,
and given the appropriate stall speed, estimate the values based on these limitations for a
multi-engine, class B aeroplane.

The gross takeoff distance for Class aero lanes (other than those in the commuter category) is
the distance from the start of takeoff to a screen height of ft above the takeoff surface with
takeoff ower set rotating at R and achieving the s ecified s eed at the screen.

VR rotation s eed must not be less than

• 1.05VMC
• 1.1VS1
V2 takeoff safety s eed (screen height s eed) must be not less than the greater of

• A speed that is safe under all reasonably expected conditions

• 1.1VMC
• 1.2VS1
• VMC for takeoff must not exceed . S1

The landing screen height is called VREF, and for a single-engine Class B aeroplane it had to be no
less than . times the stall s eed in the landing configuration ( . S0). A multi engine aero lane
must also be above VMCL during the approach and landing phase to ensure that the aeroplane
has su cient rudder and aileron authority to maintain directional and lateral control. A ilot
must adhere to the VREF speeds because they are the speeds which have been used to construct
the landing gra hs or tables in the aero lane ight manual. If a ilot were to deviate from
these speeds, the required aircraft performance would not be achieved. These are speeds are
important and must be committed to memory for future examinations.

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CS23.43 - 78 General Performance

04 Describe the European Union airworthiness requirements according to CS-23 relating to
aero lane erformance (CS S PA T A E E AL PE A CE CS .
to CS . inclusive).

All ilots and trainee ilots should understand and com ly with CS sub art A CS . .
the erformance re uirements for Class aero lanes. (Source htt s [Link] [Link])

Some of the main highlights include

• Performance is calculated in still air and a standard atmos here Aerodrome altitude
from sea level to m( ft).
• Takeoff distance is determined on a smooth dry hard surfaced runway. The effect
on these distances of o eration on other ty es of surface (e.g. grass gravel) when
dry, may be determined or derived and these surfaces listed in accordance with CS
. ( ).
• VS0 and VS1 are the stalling s eeds or the minimum steady ight s eed (CAS) at which
the aeroplane is controllable.
• Centre of gravity in the position which results in the highest value of VS0 and VS1.
• For single-engined landplanes, VR, must not be less than VS1.
• The s eed at m ( ft) above the takeoff surface level must not be less than ( )
or twin engined aero lanes the highest of (i) A s eed that is shown to be safe for
continued ight (or land back if a licable) under all reasonably ex ected conditions
including turbulence and com lete failure of the critical engine or (ii) . MC
or (iii)
1.20 VS1. ( ) or single engined aero lanes the higher of (i) A s eed that is shown to
be safe under all reasonably expected conditions, including turbulence and complete
engine failure or (ii) . S1
.
• VEF is the calibrated airspeed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail. The VEF
must be selected for the aeroplane but must not be less than 1.05 VMC determined
under CS . (b) or at the o tion of the a licant not less than MCG determined
under CS . (f).
• The takeoff decision s eed 1, is the calibrated airspeed on the ground at which,
as a result of engine failure or other reasons, the pilot is assumed to have made a
decision to continue or discontinue the take off. The takeoff decision s eed ( 1) must
be selected for the aeroplane but must not be less than VEF plus the speed gained
with the critical engine inoperative during the time interval between the instant at
which the critical engine is failed and the instant at which the pilot recognises and
reacts to the engine failure as indicated by the ilot s a lication of the first retarding
means during the accelerate-stop determination of CS 23.55.

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• The rotation speed, VR, in terms of calibrated airspeed, must be selected for the
aero lane and must not be less than the greatest of the following
V1 or (ii) . MC
determined under CS . (b) or (iii) SI
or (iv) The s eed
that allows attaining the initial climb-out speed, V2, before reaching a height of
m ( ft) above the takeoff surface in accordance with CS . (c) ( ).

• The takeoff safety s eed 2, in terms of calibrated airspeed, must be selected for
the aero lane to allow the gradient of climb re uired in CS . (c) ( ) and (c) ( )
but must not be less than 1.10 VMC or less than SI
.

SEP General Considerations

• Performance classification
The specimen aeroplane is a low wing monoplane with retractable undercarriage.
It is powered by a single reciprocating engine and a constant speed propeller

The aero lane which is not certificated under CS A is a land lane

classified in Performance Class

• 1.2 General requirements

An o erator shall not o erate a single engine aero lane

at night.

in instrument meteorological conditions exce t under s ecial visual ight rules.

unless surfaces are available which permit a safe forced landing to be executed.

above a cloud layer that extends below the relevant minimum safe altitude.

• 1.3 Aeroplane limitations

Structural limitations

• aximum takeoff mass lb

• aximum landing mass lb
• Maximum runway cross wind 17 kt

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1 032.02 CS-23/Applicable Operational Requirements
Performance Class B – Theory

eneral onsiderations

• Performance classification
The specimen aeroplane is a low wing monoplane with retractable undercarriage.
It is owered by twin reci rocating engines (both of which are su ercharged).
These drive counter-rotating, constant speed propellers.

The aero lane which is not certificated under CS A is a land lane and is
classified in Performance Class .

• 1.2 General requirements

This class of aeroplane includes all propeller-driven aeroplanes having 9 or less
assenger seats and a maximum takeoff weight of kg or less. Performance
accountability for engine failure, on a multi-engine aeroplane in this class, need
not be considered below a height of 300 ft.

• 1.3 Aeroplane limitations

Structural limitations

• aximum takeoff mass lb

• Maximum landing mass 4,513 lb
• Runway crosswind limitation
• Maximum demonstrated crosswind 17 kt

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Critical Engine on MEP

05 efine and identify the critical engine of a multi engine ro eller aero lane.

Critical engine is the engine whose failure would most adversely affect the erformance or
handling qualities of an aircraft. If both engines rotated clockwise the critical engine would be
the left engine.

Figure 2.1 Critical engine

ects o ngine ailure on o er e uired otal rag

and Climb Performance on a MEP
06 Ex lain the effect of an engine failure on the ower re uired the total drag (thrust re uired)
and climb performance of a multi-engine aeroplane.

An engine failure would cause more drag and therefore the total drag would increase, requiring
more power to balance the forces. As the excess power has been reduced, the climb performance
would be degraded.

ects o ngine ailure on ini u ontrol peed

07 Ex lain the effect of engine failure on the minimum control s eed of a multi engine
aero lane under given conditions (tem erature and ressure altitude).

If the temperature or pressure altitude were to increase, the thrust from an engine would
decrease. This would lessen the effect from the critical engine failure and allow the minimum
control s eed to reduce. The o osite effect would ha en with a tem erature and ressure
altitude decrease and otentially im act take off erformance and s eeds.

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. a eo and anding
. a eo and anding e nitions and ects
arious istances and ass e nitions or lass
01 efine the following distances and masses take off distance landing distance ground roll
distance maximum allowed take off mass maximum allowed landing mass.

ross a eo istance

The gross takeoff distance for Class aero lanes (other than those in the commuter category)
is the distance from the start of takeoff to a screen height of ft above the takeoff surface with
takeoff ower set rotating at R and achieving the s ecified s eed at the screen.

The rotation speed VR must not be less than VS1.

The takeoff safety s eed (screen height s eed) must not be less than the greater of

• a speed that is safe under all reasonably expected conditions, or

• 1.2VS1

Landing Distance
Landing distance is the distance from the point on the surface of the aerodrome above which
the aero lane can commence its landing (screen height) having regard to the obstructions
in its approach path, to the nearest point in the direction of landing at which the surface of
the aerodrome is incapable of bearing the weight of the aeroplane under normal operating
conditions or at which there is an obstacle ca able of affecting the safety of the aero lane.

Ground Roll
Ground roll is that portion of the landing distance from where the aeroplane wheels are on the
surface to a full stop.

a i u llo ed a eo ass

Maximum allowed takeoff mass is the maximum mass of an aeroplane, including everything
and everyone contained within it at the start of the takeoff run. This is calculated with
reference to aerodrome dimensions atmos heric conditions and climb gradients (mass
altitude tem erature ( AT) etc.

Maximum Allowed Landing Mass

Maximum allowed landing mass is the maximum mass an aeroplane can land at an
aerodrome based on aerodrome dimensions, atmospheric conditions and climb gradients/
MAT in case of a go around.

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lap etting ect on a eo anding and round oll istances

02 Ex lain the effect of a setting on the take off landing and ground roll distances.

The greater the a setting on takeoff more lift is generated and R and V2 speeds are lower,
resulting in less takeoff distance (T ) being re uired. Similarly on landing a s allow a lower
VREF and stalling speed which results in a shorter landing distance and ground roll distance.

ect o un ay aria les on a eo istances

03 Ex lain the effects of the following runway ( W ) variables on take off distances W
slo e W surface conditions dry wet and contaminated W elevation.

Runway Slope

If the runway is sloping, a component of the weight will act along the longitudinal axis of the
aeroplane. This will either augment thrust, or augment drag which will increase or decrease the
accelerating force. The amount of weight augmenting either thrust or drag is called either weight
apparent thrust or weight apparent drag. It can be calculated by multiplying the force of weight
by the sine of the angle of the runway slope. On a downslope, a proportion of weight acts in the
direction of thrust. A downhill slo e will increase the accelerating force and reduce the takeoff
distance whereas an u hill slo e will reduce the accelerating force and increase the takeoff
distance. or class aero lanes the takeoff distance should be increases by for each of
upslope. No factorisation is permitted for downslope.

Runway Surface Condition

Even on a smooth runway there will be rolling resistance due to the bearing friction and tyre
distortion. If the runway is contaminated by snow, slush or standing water, there will be additional
drag due to uid resistance and im ingement. This drag will increase with s eed until a critical
speed is reached, the hydroplaning speed, above which the drag will start to decrease. Any
contamination will increase the drag and hence increase the takeoff distance. If the takeoff is
rejected and braking is re uired the coe cient of braking friction is severely reduced on a runway
which is wet, icy or contaminated by snow or slush. This means that the brake pressure must be
severely reduced to prevent skidding. Thus, the stopping distance is greatly increased. Additionally,
grass runways are affected as the friction is reduced between the wheels and grass surface.

Runway Elevation
unway elevation will affect the density altitude. The ower or thrust of the engine is less when
there is a high-density altitude, and therefore reduce the thrust and/or power that the engine
can generate. Therefore acceleration will be less and the takeoff distance will increase. educed
density will increase the true airs eed for a given indicated airs eed. or exam le if the takeoff
safety speed was an indicated airspeed of 120 kt, then in low density this may represent a true
airspeed of 130 kt. Getting to a true speed of 130 kt will require more distance. Therefore, low
density will increase the takeoff distance.

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ect o irspeed on rust uring a eo or i ed itc and onstant

Speed Propeller Aeroplanes
04 or both fixed itch and constant s eed ro eller aero lanes ex lain the effect of
airs eed on thrust during the take off run.

For a propeller driven aircraft, thrust is produced by a propeller converting the shaft torque
into ro ulsive force. or a fixed itch ro eller angle of attack decreases as forward s eed
increases. Thrust therefore decreases with increasing speed.

or a variable itch ro eller the ro eller will initially be held in the fine itch osition during
takeoff and the ro eller angle of attack will decrease with increasing s eed. Above the selected
rpm the propeller governor will come into operation, increasing the propeller pitch, and reducing
the rate at which the thrust decreases. In summary, the thrust of a propeller aeroplane decreases
with forward speed.

Figure 2.2 Propeller thrust

olling a eo ec ni ue
05 escribe the effects of brake release before take off ower is set on the T and AS .

A rolling takeoff allows the aeroplane to accelerate slowly as the power is applied to the engines.
This increases the takeoff distance and would result in a longer accelerate sto distance (AS ).

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e ect o ind on a eo and anding istances

06 Ex lain the effect of wind on take off and landing distances and determine the actual
headwind/tailwind component given the runway direction, wind speed and direction, by
use of wind component graphs, mathematical calculations, and rule of thumb.

Winds affect the ground s eed of the aero lane for any given true airs eed (TAS). eadwinds will
reduce the ground s eed at the re uired takeoff airs eed and reduce the takeoff distance. or
exam le consider a headwind of kt a TAS for the takeoff safety s eed being kt and the
ground speed is only 100 kt. Reaching to a ground speed of only 100 kt will require less distance
for an aircraft.

Another benefit is that headwinds also increase the angle of the initial climb which will further
reduce the re uired distance. eadwinds reduce the takeoff distance and it is this reason why
ilots always aim to takeoff into wind. A tailwind does the o osite of a headwind. Tailwinds
will increase the ground s eed and increase the takeoff distance. The regulations for all classes
of aircraft re uire that in calculating the takeoff distance no more than of the headwind
component is assumed and no less than 150% of a tailwind component is assumed. This is to
allow for variations in the re orted winds during takeoff. or exam le it would not be wise to
lan a distance limited takeoff with kt headwind if at the actual time of take off the wind was
less than kt. In this case the aero lane would not be able to com lete the takeoff within the
available distance.

Most aeroplane performance manuals and operating handbooks already have the wind rules
factored into the takeoff gra hs or tables. In this case sim ly use the forecast wind and the
gra h or table will automatically correct the takeoff distance to account for the restriction on
wind. ote that for any headwind the distance re uired to takeoff will be less than the calculated
distance, as only half the headwind is allowed for. Equally for any tailwind the distance required
will be less, as a stronger tailwind is allowed for. If the wind is a 90° crosswind, the distance
re uired to take off will be the same as the distance calculated for ero wind com onent.

During a landing with a headwind, the forward speed over the landing surface is much less, and
as a result the distance required to bring the aeroplane to rest is decreased. A tailwind will have
the o osite effect and it will increase the ground s eed for a given indicated airs eed. Thus
during a tailwind, the forward speed over the landing surface is much greater, and as a result the
distance required to bring the aeroplane to rest is increased.

When examining the effects that winds have on landing erformance it is recommended not
to use the actual wind that is given just in case the wind changes to a worse condition than the
one the pilot has planned for. When calculating actual landing distances, it is recommended
to assume only 50% of the headwind component, and 150% of the tailwind component. Most
performance graphs that calculate the landing distance have the 50% headwind and 150%
tailwind recommendations already factored in.

An important note is that there is no allowance for crosswinds, and therefore no applicable safety
factor. Crosswinds present an additional complication because of the complexity of crossed
control technique required to maintain the runway centre line. Additionally, there are also
considerations of air ow into the engine intake to consider. These issues mean that aero lanes
are given maximum crosswind limits.

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Performance Class B – Theory

Determination of Wind Component

Considering the gra h in figure .

• Calculate the relative direction of the wind to the runway. i.e. (wind direction runway
direction) or (runway direction wind direction).
• Enter graph at left vertical axis with windspeed.
• Follow circle until relative direction intercepted.
• From the intersection draw a line horizontally left to the vertical axis to read the along
track component. Negative values are tailwinds.
• From the intersection drop a vertical line to intersect the horizontal axis to read the
crosswind component.
• The windspeed grids have already been factorised 50% for headwinds and 150% for
tailwinds. Therefore, the grids may be entered with the reported or calculated along
track component.

Example
W/V 330/30 Runway 02
Wind angle
eadwind kt crosswind kt left to right.
ote this gra h is for use with takeoff and landing com utations only.

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Performance Class B – Theory

Figure 2.3 Wind component calculator

Mathematic Solution

Wind angle cos ( ) x wind s eed . kt (negative values are tailwinds)

Rule of thumb:
egrees of heading crosswind headwind

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Performance Class B – Theory

Aeroplane Crosswind Limitations

07 Ex lain why an aero lane has maximum crosswind limit(s) and determine the crosswind
component given the runway direction, wind speed and direction, by use of wind
. . . . component graphs, mathematical calculations, and rule of thumb.

The maximum crosswind limitations between aircraft differ because of aerodynamic and
handling differences. enerally the larger the vertical stabiliser com ared to the rest of the
aircraft the more the lane will be affected by a crosswind. The tail acts as a weathervane in
the wind pushing the tail and altering the direction of the nose. As the aeroplane aligns with
the runway the controls become less effective. There are also additional limits for wet runways
door opening limits, and occasionally taxi limits.

The calculation for the crosswind component is shown above, while the mathematical equation
is degrees off heading

Correction Factor to Headwind and Tailwinds

08 Explain the percentage of accountability for headwind and tailwind components during
take off and landing calculations.
. . . .

When examining the effects that winds have on landing erformance it is recommended that
you do not use the actual wind that is given just in case the wind changes to a worse condition
than the one you have planned for. When calculating actual landing distances, it is recommended
that you assume only 50% of the headwind component, and 150% of the tailwind component.
Most performance graphs that calculate the landing distance have the 50% headwind and 150%
tailwind recommendations already factored in.

An important note is that there is no allowance for crosswinds and therefore no applicable safety
factor. Crosswinds present an additional complication, because of the complexity of cross control
technique required to maintain the runway centre line. These issues mean that aeroplanes are
given maximum crosswind limits.

ect o un ay onditions on anding istances

09 Ex lain the effect of runway conditions on the landing distance.

Most landing performance graphs assume a paved hard surface where the friction between the
wheels and runway surface is good. If the condition of the runway is not like this then the effect
on the landing distance needs to be understood and corrections applied.

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Grass

A lot of small airfields have grass runways causing an increase of drag on the wheels. This is
known as impingement drag and it will help to decelerate the aeroplane. However, grass severely
reduces the wheel friction to the runway compared to a paved runway, and therefore the wheel
cannot be retarded e ciently by the brakes otherwise the wheel will lock and the wheel friction
with the runway will reduce even further.

Figure 2.4 Effect of grass

The overall effect of grass runways is that they will increase the landing distance. In light general
aviation aeroplanes, this increase in landing distance is about 15% compared to a landing on
a paved surface. However, most landings that you will carry out throughout your professional
career will undoubtedly be on hard paved runways.

Contamination
If the runway is covered partially or fully by contaminants such as standing water, snow, slush
or ice then ay s ecial attention to the effect that they will have on the landing distance. These
substances will have two main effects.

The first effect is that the contaminants will create im ingement drag much like grass did.
The second effect is more critical the active contaminants will substantially reduce the friction
between the wheel and the runway. Therefore the wheel cannot be retarded e ciently by the
brakes. As a result of the reduced friction, and reduced braking action, any contamination of the
runway due to water snow slush or ice will significantly increase the landing distance.

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Performance Class B – Theory

ou can see the effect of the various contaminations to the landing distance in figure . .

Figure 2.5 The effect of contamination on braking distance

Ty ically on a dry runway the braking coe cient of friction is between . to . but on wet
sli ery or icy runways the braking coe cient of friction can fall to less than . . ecause of the
lack of effective braking on sli ery surfaces the aerodynamic drag and reverse thrust become
more im ortant in bringing the aero lane to a sto as shown in figure . . n ooded or icy
runways, reverse thrust accounts for 80% of the deceleration force.

Figure 2.6 Stopping force and runway friction codes

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An im ortant oint to note is that there is a distinction between the definitions of a dam wet or
contaminated runway. A runway is damp when there is moisture present on the surface which
changes its colour but insu cient moisture to roduce a re ective surface. A wet runway is one
whose moisture level makes the runway a ear re ective but there are no areas of standing
water in excess of 3 mm deep. Wet runways can cause the average dry landing distance to
increase by as much as 50%.

A contaminated runway is one where more than 25% of the runway is covered in a layer of
moisture whose s ecific gravity is e uivalent to a de th of mm or more of water. The
importance of runway contamination cannot be stressed enough, as many fatal accidents may
have been avoided had due account been taken of the situation.

It is vital that the pilot be aware of the type of runway contamination, its depth, its extent, its
effect on the braking and of course its overall effect on the o eration concerned in this case
the landing. The information on the runway contamination and braking effect can be given to
the pilot through a report. These reports are either by SNOWTAM, runway state code PIREPS
or s oken by air tra c control and may include braking action or braking coe cient. se any
runway re orts together with your aero lane ight manual or standard o erating rocedure to
best gauge the landing technique and landing performance.

ect o aria les on a eo istance a eo li anding istance

and Approach Climb
10 Ex lain the effects of ressure altitude and tem erature on the take off distance take off
climb, landing distance and approach climb.

Density is determined by pressure altitude, temperature and humidity.

The power or thrust of the engine. Reduced density will reduce combustion inside the engine
and reduce the thrust and/or power that the engine can generate. Therefore, acceleration will be
degraded and the takeoff distance will increase.

With reduced density the lift is reduced and the effect from reverse thrust is less causing the
landing distance to be increased.

Since there is less excess thrust and/or power is low at higher pressure altitudes and high
tem erature the angle of climb will reduce. Therefore getting to the screen height on takeoff
will require a longer horizontal distance. Similarly, the approach climb will be degraded.

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Landing Airborne and Ground Roll Distances

11 escribe the landing airborne distance and ground roll distance and estimate the effect on
the landing distance when the aeroplane is too fast or too high at the screen.

Speed management is crucial for a successful landing as the momentum of modern fast
commercial aircraft is significant. The landing stage of ight is defined as being that stage of ight
commencing from 50 ft above the landing threshold and terminating when the aeroplane comes
to a com lete sto as shown in figure . . The ft oint is sometimes referred to as the landing
screen height. The landing screen height is fixed at ft for all classes of aero lane unlike the
takeoff screen height which is ft for Class A aero lanes and ft for Class aero lanes.

From the approach down to the landing screen height the aeroplane must have attained the
landing reference speed, known as VREF. VREF for Class A aeroplanes must be no less than the
greater of . times the stall reference s eed in the landing configuration ( . SR0
) and the
velocity of minimum control in the landing configuration ( MCL). REF for all other classes of
aero lane must be no less than . times the stall s eed ( . S0) in the landing configuration.
VREF is a very im ortant s eed to attain since the landing distances in the aero lane ight manual
are based on aero lanes ying at REF. Therefore, if a landing aeroplane is not at VREF, the landing
distance given by the manual will not be achieved by the pilot. A landing carried out at a speed
other than VREF or crossing the screen height at the correct height, could seriously jeopardise the
safety of the landing.

Figure 2.7 Landing distance breakdown

The landing distance can be divided into two parts. We call these the airborne section and the
ground run or landing roll. The first art the airborne section starts from the landing screen
height of ft and ends when the aero lane s main wheels touch the landing surface. The airborne
section is usually given as being about 1,000 ft in length. Within the airborne section certain critical
actions take place. On descending through the screen height, the thrust is reduced to zero and the
aeroplane pitch attitude is increased slightly so that the aeroplane is in a slight nose-up attitude.
The increase in pitch attitude helps to arrest the rate of descent and the reduction in thrust to
zero reduces the speed. This procedure of reducing thrust and increasing pitch is known as the
landing flare, although other terms like round out are commonly used. The landing are will
allow the aero lane to touch down onto the runway using the main wheels first. It is im ortant to
understand that the techni ue of aring the aero lane differs from one aero lane to another and
especially so between light general aviation aeroplanes and large commercial jet airliners.

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The second part of the landing is the ground run, ground roll or landing roll. This is the distance
covered from touchdown until the aeroplane comes to full stop. As with the airborne section,
there are a few critical actions that are carried out. Once the main wheels have settled onto the
landing surface reverse thrust and lift spoilers can be activated, and as the speed decreases
further, the nose wheel will then settle onto the landing surface. Braking force is now applied,
and the aeroplane will slow to a stop. However, in normal operations, the aeroplane does not
sto on the runway rather the aero lane is slowed to a safe s eed where it can then be steered
off the runway and taxied to the disembarkation oint or ram .

The combined length of the airborne section and the ground run or landing roll are known as
the landing distance required. Pilots need to make sure that the landing distance required does
not exceed the landing distance available. Additionally, as VREF is a s ecific s eed and based on a
s ecific height any deviation from these conditions could have a significant effect on the safety
of the aeroplane.

a eo lig t at or lass eroplane

12 escribe the take off ight ath for a multi engine class aero lane.

The ight ath rofile erformance should take account of

• The mass of the aero lane at the commencement of the takeoff run
• The pressure altitude at the aerodrome
• The ambient temperature
• Not more than 50% of the reported headwind component and not less than 150% of
the reported tailwind component

Construction of the Flight Path

The ight ath rofile will de end on whether visual reference is lost before reaching ft.

Visibility Clear to 1,500 ft

• etermine the T re uired for the takeoff mass.
• etermine all the engine net gradient (gross gradient . ).
• ivide the height gain ( ft) by the gradient to determine the distance travelled
(feet) from ft to ft.

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The rofile may be lotted as shown in figure . and clearance of obstacles assessed.

Figure 2.8 Takeoff flight path all engines no cloud

Alternatively for a single obstacle find the T re uired and the gradient from the exam le
above then multi ly the distance from reference ero to the obstacle by the gradient to find the
height gain and then add ft to find the aero lane height at the obstacle distance. This must
exceed the obstacle height by 50 ft.

If the obstacle is not cleared by ft a lower takeoff mass must be assumed and a revised
height calculated. The maximum mass which will just clear the obstacle by 50 ft can then be
determined by interpolation.

Cloud Base Below 1,500 ft

If visual reference is lost before ft the ight ath will consist of two segments.

Segment (from ft to cloud base)

Segment (from cloud base to ft)

The rofile may be lotted as shown in figure . and clearance of obstacles assessed. If the
re uired clearance is not achieved a reduced takeoff mass must be assumed and a second ight
path calculated. As before, the maximum permissible weight may be determined by interpolation.

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Figure 2.9 Takeoff flight path with cloud cover

If the climb data is given in terms of rate of climb this can be converted to gradient

Alternatively the time on each segment can be calculated using this formula

The distance on each segment can be obtained from

i ensions o a eo lig t at ccounta ility rea

13 escribe the dimensions of the take off ight ath accountability area (domain).

ulti engine Class aircraft must demonstrate clearance of obstacles after takeoff u to a height
of ft. All the obstacle clearance re uirements can be found in CAP and therefore do not
need to be learnt.

bstacles must be cleared by

• a vertical margin of at least ft or

• a hori ontal distance of at least m . where is the distance from the end
of the TODA, or the end of the TOD if a turn is scheduled before the end of the TODA.
or aero lanes with a wings an of less than m the hori ontal distance may be
taken as m lus half the wings an lus . .
The following conditions must be assumed

• The ight ath begins at a height of ft above the surface at the end of the T
and ends at a height of 1,500 ft above the surface.
• The aeroplane is not banked before it has reached the height of 50 ft, and thereafter
that the angle of bank does not exceed 15°.
• ailure of the critical engine occurs at the oint on all engine takeoff ight ath where
visual reference for the purpose of avoiding obstacles is expected to be lost.

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• The gradient to be assumed from 50 ft to the point of engine failure is equal to the
average all engine gradient during climb and transition to the en route configuration
multiplied by a factor of 0.77.
• The gradient from the point of engine failure to 1,500 ft is equal to the one engine
inoperative en-route gradient.

Figure 2.10 Obstacle accountability area

If the ight ath does not re uire track changes of more than obstacles do not need to be
considered if the lateral distance is greater than 300 m if in VMC or m for all other conditions.
If the ight ath re uires track changes of more than obstacles need not be considered if
the lateral distance is greater than m in MC or 900 m for all other conditions.

Figure 2.11 Maximum semi-width of accountability area

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04.00 Climb, Cruise and Descent

04.01 Climb, Cruise and Descent
(Requirements and Calculations)

Climb and En-Route Requirements

01 Describe the climb and en-route requirements according to the applicable
operational requirements.

The takeoff climb re uirements for single engine Class aero lanes are stated in E PS
but the takeoff re uirements and the climb regulations can be found in CAP on age
of section . At the to of age of section under oint . notice that there are no obstacle
clearance limits, or minimum acceptable climb gradients. Let us break down the two elements
in this statement.

The regulations state that there is no requirement for a single-engine Class B aeroplane to
demonstrate that it can clear an obstacle within the takeoff ight ath. owever other classes
of aero lane must demonstrate that obstacles within the takeoff ight ath can be cleared by a
set limit of 50 ft or 35 ft. So why is there no regulatory requirement for obstacle clearance in the
case of a single engine Class aero lane Surely the idea of the regulations is to enforce a safety
margin. The important information to retain is that the pilot of a single-engine Class B aeroplane
must, always, have visual contact with the ground. Consequently, the pilot will always be able to
identify and clear any obstacles within the takeoff ight ath.

The second part of the regulation states that there is no minimum acceptable climb gradient for
a single-engine Class B aeroplane. For operational purposes it would be expected that a certain
level of safety margin would be enforced. owever the certification s ecs listed in CS are
stringent enough on their own to guarantee the safe operation with this regulation.

Even though there is no operational requirement for a minimum climb performance. It is

advisable to o erate the aircraft within the arameters of its ight manual to ensure its safe
operation. Operation outside this envelope could compromise both performance and safety.

Presentation of Data

Provided in most ilot o erating manuals or aero lane ight manuals are climb gra hs that hel
the ilot calculate the gradient of climb. Such a gra h can be found in CAP in section . As with
any graphs, ensure you are familiar with the associated conditions of the graph before use. In this
gra h the throttles are at maximum mixture is rich a s and gear are retracted and the cowl
a s set as re uired. The climb s eed for the gra h is kt indicated airs eed for all masses.

The graph has an example that can be practised using the dashed black lines. Graph accuracy
is very important, while using them try to be as precise as possible. Be especially careful when
working out your true airspeed which is needed when you approach the right-hand side of the
graph. You may require your navigation computer for assistance as the TAS may not be provided.

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Climb Graph Data

There are two main uses of the climb gra h. The first use of the gra h is to calculate the time
to climb to cruise altitude. For this, the pilot would need to know the cruise altitude and the
associated rate of climb. However, if the gradient from this graph is used for the calculation of
obstacle clearance or the ground distance then the gradient must be adjusted for the effect
of wind. This climb graph makes no correction for wind. The reason why the gradient must be
corrected for wind is because obstacle clearance calculations or ground distance calculations use
ground gradients and ground gradients are affected by wind.

u ary o radients
Air gradient: This is the vertical distance gained in a body of air divided by the horizontal distance
travelled through the same body of air. The fact that the body of air might be moving over the
ground is T considered. Thus wind has no effect on air gradient. Air gradient is used by
aviation authorities to lay down minimum climb performance limits.

Figure 2.12 Still air conditions

igure . shows the body of air stationary relative to the ground this is referred to as zero
wind or still air. The aeroplane has climbed to the top right corner of the body of air and the air
gradient is shown as a (gamma a).

ote To sim lify the study of climbing for climb angles less than a roximately it is
considered that doubling the climb angle will double the climb gradient.

Ground climb gradient: igure . illustrates the effect of a tailwind. ecause the body of air is
moving over the ground in the direction of ight the ground gradient is less than the air gradient.
A tailwind does not change the air gradient but decreases the ground gradient.

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Figure 2.13 Tailwind effect

igure . shows the effect of a headwind. The body of air is moving over the ground o osite
to the direction of ight and the resulting ground gradient is larger than the air gradient. A
headwind does not affect the air gradient but increases the ground gradient. The only time wind
is used to calculate climb gradient is when obstacle clearance is being considered. In all other
cases of climbing, still air is used, even if a wind value is provided.

Figure 2.14 Headwind effect

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Calculating Ground Gradient

It is possible to calculate the ground gradient by using a wind factor to correct the air gradient for
wind. Any gradient is the vertical distance divided by the horizontal distance.

Figure 2.15 Headwind effect on ground gradient

Figure 2.16 Tailwind effect on ground gradient

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There are some exam le calculations in CAP that can be used for ractice. or exam le in
section 2 there is an example on how to calculate the climb gradient using the graph. There is
another example to determine what the maximum permissible mass is in order to achieve a 4%
climb gradient. This maximum permissible mass is sometimes referred to as the MAT or WAT limit.

A third example in section 2 shows how to calculate the horizontal ground distance required to
climb to a given height.

En-route and Descent Requirements

The en route art of the ight is from ft above the airfield from which the aero lane has
taken off to ft above the destination airfield. Although the CAP manual does show the
en-route performance requirements, these requirements are scattered through the document,
and are not easy for referencing.

EU-OPS 1.542 states that “an operator must ensure that the aeroplane, in the meteorological
conditions ex ected for the ight and in the event of engine failure is ca able of reaching a
place, at which a safe forced landing can be made.” In order to be able to comply with the rule,
an o erator has to know certain details about the route to be own and the erformance of
the aeroplane. First, for any given-route, an operator must know the safe forced landing areas
or alternate airports. The next detail that the operator needs to know is whether his aeroplane
will be able to reach these areas if the engine were to fail while en-route. Whether or not this is
possible will depend on two things.

• The altitude chosen for the ight

• The descent gradient of the aeroplane following engine failure
If these two parameters are known, it is possible to calculate how far the aeroplane will travel
following engine failure.

Example
Let us assume a cruise altitude of 10,000 ft, and a gradient of descent of 7% following an engine
failure. What is the descent range
We can work out the horizontal distance travelled or descent range by taking the height of the
aeroplane above the ground, dividing this by the gradient and then multiplying by 100.

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Figure 2.17 Descent range

In this case we see that in still air the aeroplane will cover in the glide a horizontal distance of
142,857 ft or roughly 23.5 NM following engine failure. This means that the aeroplane must not
exceed 23.5 NM from any safe forced landing location. We can then draw a circle of 23.5 NM
radius around each of the safe forced landing locations (the yellow dots) as you can see in
figure . . Then draw a track line from Airfield A to Airfield that is within each circle. If the
ight track deviates from the circles then following an engine failure the aero lane will not
make it to a safe forced landing area.

Figure 2.18 Flight path using safe forced landing areas

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If the aeroplane were to operate at a higher altitude, then it would be able to cover a greater
distance in the glide following an engine failure. For example, operating at 15,000 ft instead of
ft would increase the aero lane s still air glide range to . Therefore the circles
around each forced landing location will grow as shown in figure . .

Figure 2.19 Effect of altitude on descent range and safe forced landing area

otice that now the aero lane can always y along a straight track to airfield because
throughout the ight the aero lane is within glide range of a suitable forced landing location.
Conse uently small iston engine aero lanes should be own at their maximum altitudes so
that direct routes can be own. owever when lanning the altitude another regulation must
be respected.

E PS . (b) ( ) states that when com lying with the safe forced landing rule the aero lane
must not be assumed to be ying with the engine o erating at maximum continuous ower at an
altitude exceeding that at which the aero lane s rate of climb e uals ft er minute. This rule is
to limit the maximum altitude which can be used in order to comply with the forced landing rule.
An aeroplane may operate at a higher altitude than this regulation prescribes, but the operator
may not use the higher altitude in his calculation of glide range to a safe landing area.

There is one last detail to be considered about complying with the forced landing rule. EUOPS
. (b) ( ) states that in order to com ly with the safe forced landing rule the assumed en
route gradient will be the gross gradient of descent, increased by a gradient of 0.5%. In our
example we had a gradient of descent of 7%. Unfortunately, the regulations do not permit this
gradient to be used in our calculation. The gradient must be increased by 0.5% to 7.5% as shown
in figure . .

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Figure 2.20 Net descent range

This will lower the assumed descent performance of the aeroplane. The new deteriorated
gradient that the regulations insist we use is called the net gradient, and in this case, it is 7.5%.

If this net gradient must be used, the glide distance will reduce to 22 NM. So, although the aeroplane
may achieve 23.5 NM following an engine failure, it must be assumed to glide only 22 NM.

Figure 2.21 illustrates that the circles around each safe landing area must be reduced to a radius
of 22 NM.

Figure 2.21 Net descent range

Consequently, the planned track will have to be altered so that all points along the route respect
the boundary re uired in the event of a safe forced landing. The track shown in figure
2.21, meets the entire set of requirements as stated in EU-OPS.

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Information in CAP 698

It was reviously mentioned that CAP has the en route regulations listed within it but that
they were scattered through the manual and not conveniently located in one place.

We find in section in the general re uirement aragra h the regulation about ensuring that
the aeroplane is not operated unless surfaces are available which permit a safe forced landing to
be carried out in the event of an engine failure. However, the other regulations about complying
with this rule are found a few pages further. The remaining en-route requirements can be found
in section 2.

The first art of the regulations to be found here states that the aero lane may not be assumed
to be ying above the altitude at which a rate of climb of feet er minute can be attained.
Underneath that rule, there is the requirement which states that the net gradient of descent, in
the event of engine failure, is the gross gradient plus 0.5%.

Calculate Obstacle Clearance for SEP Aeroplane

02 or a single engine aero lane calculate the ex ected obstacle clearance (in visual
meteorological conditions ( C)) given gross climb erformance obstacle height and
distance from reference zero.

A ty ical exam uestion could be to find out the obstacle clearance over an obstacle given some
basic information. This can be calculated by using the knowledge gained in Performance, General
Princi les and by using the trigonometry triangles shown in figure . .

Calculate the obstacle clearance over an obstacle 918 ft high, 2 NM from reference zero in a
single engine class B aeroplane climbing at 7.9%.

Figure 2.22 Objects clearance

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Example
ote that aircraft s height above reference ero e uals to height gained in climb lus ft.
Calculate aircraft s obstacle clearance.

03 For a single-engine aeroplane, calculate the net glide gradient and net glide distance, given
aero lane altitude terrain elevation gross gradient or lift drag ratio (L ratio) and
[Link].01 headwind or tailwind component.

The trigonometry triangles in figure . allow the com letion of com lex glide uestions. ake
sure the units are consistent and be careful when using air gradients and converting them into
ground gradients.

Figure 2.23 Trigonometry triangles – assistance to formula calculations

References
• CAP CAA A CL Examinations Aero lane Performance anual rd edition
uly
• CAE xford ass and alance Performance ATPL round Training Series ook
EASA 1st edition

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0 Section 3 Table of Contents

CS-23/Applicable Operational Requirements

3
Performance Class B - Use of Aeroplane
Performance Data for Single- and
Multi-Engine Aeroplanes

03.00 Use of Aeroplane Performance Data .................. 100

03.01 Takeoff ........................................................................................ 100
03.02 Climb ........................................................................................... 114
03.04 Landing ....................................................................................... 122

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03.00 Use of Aeroplane Performance Data

. a eo
01 etermine the field length limited take off mass and take off s eeds given defactored
distance configuration ressure altitude tem erature and headwind tailwind com onent.

The LO states that defactored distances will be given. If the defactored distances are also required
to be calculated the correction factors to obtain the defactored (gross) distances are described
in figure . .

Field Length Requirements

a) When no sto way or clearway is available the takeoff distance when multi lied by
1.25, must not exceed TORA.
b) When a sto way and or clearway is available the takeoff distance must
• not exceed TORA.
• when multiplied by 1.3, not exceed ASDA.
• when multiplied by 1.15, not exceed TODA.
c) If the runway surface is other than dry and aved the following factors must be used
when determining the takeoff distance in a) or b) above

Figure 3.1 Runway surface factors

d) Takeoff distance should be increased by for each u slo e. o factorisation is

permitted for downslope.

Note The same surface and slo e correction factors should be used when calculating T or AS .

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Example
This is an exam le of a s a roach which can be found in CAP . Calculate the field length
limited T W given that

Aerodrome pressure altitude ft

Ambient temperature C

Wind component 10 kt head

Runway slope 2% uphill

Runway surface Grass

Runway condition Dry

TORA 4,250 ft

ASDA 4,470 ft

TODA ft

Solution
To calculate the field length limited takeoff mass it is necessary to a ly the re uirements
of E PS. nly the takeoff distance gra h is used but the right vertical axis is entered with
shortest available de-factored distance. The factors to be considered are those of slope, surface,
condition and regulation.

Figure 3.2 Defactored distances

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Performance Data for Single- and
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Procedure
a) Enter at the ambient temperature. Move vertically to the aerodrome pressure
altitude.
b) From this point, travel horizontally right to the mass reference line. Mark this position
with a pencil.
c) Enter the right vertical axis with the shortest available de-factored distance at the
ft height ft. Parallel the grid lines down to the reference line.
d) Now travel horizontally left to the appropriate wind component input. Parallel the
grid lines to the wind component reference line.
e) From this point, draw a horizontal line left through the mass grid.
f) From the position marked, above, parallel the grid lines to intersect the horizontal line.
g) At the intersection dro vertically to read the field length limited T W.

Figure 3.3 SEP TOD flaps approach

Source: Figure 2.2, Takeoff distance Flaps approach, Section 2 CAP

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Performance Data for Single- and
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Figure 3.4 SEP TOD Flaps approach - Speeds

Source: Figure 2.2, Takeoff distance Flaps approach ,Section 2, CAP 698

Answer
ield length limited T W lb using ft
otation s eed kt and
ft (screen height) obstacle s eed kt

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Calculation of Accelerate-Go and Accelerate-Stop Distance

02 Determine the accelerate-go distance and accelerate-stop distance data.

Although there is no requirement to calculate an accelerate-go distance and accelerate-stop

distance for MEP, it is wise to make use of these calculations. There are two graphs presented in
CAP

• Accelerate Sto istance la s

• Accelerate Sto istance la s

The associated conditions on the graph allow an easy example method, as indicated on the
gra h to gain the relevant distances. The use of a s rovides additional drag during
deceleration. Also note the effect heavy duty brakes have on the final distance.

Figure 3.5 MEP Accel/Stop Distance 0° Flaps

Source: Figure 3.2, Accelerate/Stop Distance 0° Flaps, Section 3, CAP 698

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Performance Data for Single- and
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Figure 3.6 MEP takeoff max effort

Source: Figure 3.4, Accelerate/Stop Distance 0° Flaps, Section 3, CAP 698

Answer
In figure . la AS ft
In figure . la AS ft

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alculation round oll and a eo istance

03 etermine the ground roll distance and take off distance from gra hs.

The takeoff distance gra hs for a ty ical multi engine Class aero lane can be found in CAP .
There is one for normal takeoff and one for maximum effort takeoff in other words a short field
takeoff with a °.

There are several exam les in CAP . ake sure to go through these exam les to ractice
graph work, and to help understand when to apply various factors.

Figure 3.7 MEP takeoff maximum effort

Source: Figure 3.3, Takeoff – maximum effort, Section 3, CAP 698

or exam le in figure .
Total ground roll ft
Takeoff distance ft
All are gross distances and the airborne element of the T ft

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ll ngine ut and ritical ngine ut a eo li ata

04 etermine the all engine out and critical engine out take off climb data.

a eo e uire ents
The takeoff re uirements for multi engine Class aircraft (other than those in the commuter
category) are the same as for single engine aircraft exce t that multi engine Class aero lanes
must additionally demonstrate a minimum climb gradient performance and an obstacle
clearance capability.

Gradient Requirement EU-OPS 1.530

Three climb gradient requirements must be considered, and the most limiting will determine the
maximum ermissible mass. These can be found in CAP in Section .

All Engines Operating

A minimum climb gradient of is re uired with

• Takeoff ower on each engine

• Landing gear extended, except that if the landing gear can be retracted in not more
than 7 seconds, it may be assumed to be retracted
• The wing a s in the takeoff osition
• A climb speed of not less than the greater of 1.1VMC and 1.2VS1

Figure 3.8 All engine obstacle climb profile

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One Engine Inoperative

The climb gradient at an altitude of ft above the takeoff surface must be measurably ositive
with

• The critical engine inoperative and its propeller in the minimum drag position
• The remaining engine at takeoff ower
• The landing gear retracted
• The a s in the takeoff osition
• A climb speed equal to that achieved at 50 ft

Figure 3.9 Obstacle climb profile with cloud cover

The climb gradient must not be less than . at an altitude of ft above the takeoff
surface with

• The critical engine inoperative and its propeller in the minimum drag position
• The remaining engine at not more than maximum continuous power
• The landing gear retracted
• The a s retracted
• A climb speed not less than 1.2VS1

alculate stacle learance on a eo lig t at

05 etermine take off ight ath for a EP aero lane of given mass and given airfield
conditions and calculate the obstacle clearance based on the take off ight ath.
[Link].12
[Link].13

With the assumed aero lane weight and airfield conditions given a cloud base at ft and a
ground gradient of 12% to the engine failure point and a one engine gradient of 1.54%, the
necessary calculations can be applied. The obstacle is 750 ft high and 9,000 ft from the TODR.

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ulti engine Class aircraft must demonstrate clearance of obstacles after takeoff u to a
height of ft. All the obstacle clearance re uirements can be found in CAP section
and therefore they do not need to be learnt. The maximum takeoff ower setting is limited to
minutes from the commencement of the takeoff climb at which oint it must be reduced to the
maximum continuous power setting.

bstacles must be cleared by

• a vertical margin of at least 50 ft, or

• a hori ontal distance of at least m . where is the distance from the end
of the TODA, or the end of the TOD if a turn is scheduled before the end of the TODA.
or aero lanes with a wings an of less than m the hori ontal distance may be
taken as m half the wings an . .

The following conditions must be assumed

• The ight ath begins at a height of ft above the surface at the end of the T
and ends at a height of 1,500 ft above the surface.
• The aeroplane is not banked before it has reached the height of 50 ft, and thereafter
that the angle of bank does not exceed 15°.
• ailure of the critical engine occurs at the oint on the all engine takeoff ight ath
where visual reference for the purpose of avoiding obstacles is expected to be lost.
• The gradient to be assumed from 50 ft to the point of engine failure is equal to the
average all engine gradient during climb and transition to the en route configuration
multiplied by a factor of 0.77.
• The gradient from the point of engine failure to 1,500 ft is equal to the one engine
inoperative en-route gradient.

igure . de icts what the takeoff ight ath for a EP aero lane would look like.

Figure 3.10 Takeoff flight path with cloud

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alculation o ind e uired or a iven a eo ass and ir eld

Conditions
06 etermine the minimum headwind or maximum tailwind com onent re uired for take off
for a given mass and given airfield conditions.

To determine the wind re uired the ste s are

a) se the AT and ressure altitude.

b) Then roceed to the aero lane mass and along to the wind com onent vertical scale
and make a mark.
c) rom the T continue down to the vertical ground roll reference line and draw a
straight horizontal line through the wind component section.
d) rom the vertical reference line ero wind mark interce t the hori ontal drawn line
to obtain the minimum headwind or maximum tailwind component as required.

Example
What headwind or tailwind is required to achieve the TODR 1,900 ft given the following
conditions
AT C
Pressure altitude ft
ass lb
T A ft

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Figure 3.11MEP takeoff - Normal procedure

Source: Figure 3.1, Takeoff – Normal procedure, Section 3, CAP 698

Answer kt headwind is re uired to achieve T of ft at lb

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Calculation of Defactored Distances

07 iven take off run available (T A) T A and AS A slo e and surface conditions calculate
the defactored distance to be used for commercial air transport using the appropriate
take off gra hs

a i u ort a eo ort ield

Example
This exam le is given using the factors in CAP as shown in . . . . . Calculate
defactored (gross) distances to be used for commercial air trans ort. The factors are not
compounded together, and each correction factor must calculated individually. The following
conditions are given
or normal takeoff
Aerodrome pressure altitude 2,000 ft
Ambient temperature C
Wind component 5 kt tail
Runway slope 2 % uphill
Surface type Grass
Surface condition Dry
TORA 2,400 ft
TODA ft
ASDA 2,500 ft

Answer

Figure 3.12 Defactored field distances

Source: Example 1, MEP Takeoff, Section 4, CAP 698

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alculation o ini u a eo istances iven e actored istances

08 Calculate the minimum TORA or TODA for commercial air transport given the defactored
take off distance or run runway surface and slo e.
[Link].01
[Link].07

This question requires the opposite procedure to [Link].01 and 07 to obtain the net distance.

Example
Calculate the minimum TORA or TODA for commercial air transport. The following information
is given.
efactored T A ft and T A ft
Slo e hill
Surface ry grass
Appropriate regulatory factor

Answer
TORA TODA
Length 1,700 ft 1,900 ft
Slope correction 1.1 1.1
Dry grass correction 1.2 1.2
Regulatory factor 0 1.15
Corrected length 2,244 2,884

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03.02 Climb
Determine Rate of Climb
01 Determine rate of climb.

The gra h from CAP allows the calculation of a rate of climb and is an exam le which uses
the associated conditions. The climb speed must be converted into a TAS.

Figure 3.13 SEP climb

Source: Figure 2.3, Climb, Section 2, CAP 698

Follow the example in the graph to obtain a rate of climb of 515 fpm
Note Still air gradient it cannot be used for obstacle clearance calculations unless factored
by the wind.

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Calculation of Obstacle Clearance Climb Data

02 Calculate obstacle clearance climb data.

An obstacle is located in the obstacle accountability area (domain). sing the given conditions
calculate the obstacle clearance. For this MEP problem, two graphs will be used, and the obstacle
clearance will be based on timings from the graphs. The timings will be converted into distance,
as MEP use rate of climb and not gradients.

Example
Calculate the vertical clearance of the obstacle by the aero lane. The following information is given

Aerodrome pressure altitude ft

Ambient temperature °C
Takeoff mass 4,500 lb
ear u (undercarriage retracted)
Flaps 0°
Climb speed 92 kt IAS
Cloud base 400 ft above reference zero
Wind component 13 kt tail
bstacle in the domain at ft from the end T and ft above reference ero

Solution:
igure . All engines rate of climb at takeoff ower f m
igure . ne engine ino erative rate of climb at takeoff ower f m
Figure 3.15 - One engine inoperative rate of climb at maximum continuous power 220 fpm

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Figure 3.14 MEP takeoff climb performance - Takeoff power

Source: Figure 3.6, Takeoff Climb performance – Gear retracted, Section 3, CAP 698

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Figure 3.15 MEP climb performance - max continuous power

Source : Figure 3.7, Climb performance – Gear retracted Maximum Continuous Power, Section 3, CAP 698

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Therefore maximum takeoff ower can be maintained throughout the takeoff climb.

The clearance is 7.3 ft and the obstacle cannot be cleared by 50 ft.

Figure 3.16 MEP obstacle clearance

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Calculation of Still-Air and Flight Path Gradients

03 etermine the still air and ight ath gradients for given IAS altitude tem erature
aeroplane weight and, if relevant, wind component.

All the information is contained in CAP and there are associated conditions given as an exam le.

Figure 3.17 MEP takeoff climb performance - takeoff power

Source: Figure 3.6, Takeoff Climb Performance – Gear Retracted, Section 3, CAP 698

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Because the graphs provided only permit the calculation of the rate of climb, it is necessary to
utilise the following formula to solve takeoff climb roblems.

Summary of Gradients

Air gradients are used by air tra c and will not correct the effect of the wind for uestions
on obstacle clearance. It will be necessary to factor the wind into a TAS and TGS to calculate a
ground gradient to answer questions on obstacle clearance.

Figure 3.18 Summary gradient

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Performance Data for Single- and
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The trigonometry of triangles can be quite complex, and it is easy to make mistakes. To aid the
com letion of com lex formula the triangles in figure . rovide a ra id and accurate means
of answering exam questions given 2 variables. For example, to calculate the air gradient, vertical
distance can be divided by horizontal distance or ROC divided by TAS.

Figure 3.19 Trigonometry of triangles

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Performance Data for Single- and
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03.04 Landing
Calculation of Landing Mass and Speeds Given Defactored Distances
01 etermine the field length limited landing mass and landing s eeds given defactored
distance configuration ressure altitude tem erature and headwind or tailwind com onent.

There are two EP landing field length gra hs one for normal landings with landing a and
the other for short field landings with landing a . with a slower barrier s eed.

The rocedure for calculating the field length limited landing mass is

a) The defactored landing distance is ft.

b) Enter at the ambient tem erature. ove vertically to the aerodrome ressure altitude.
c) rom this oint travel hori ontally right to the mass reference line and mark with
a pencil.
d) Enter right vertical axis with the distance from a) above. Parallel the grid lines to the
ground roll reference line.
e) rom this oint travel hori ontally left to the a ro riate wind com onent in ut.
Parallel the grid lines to the wind component reference line.
f) ow draw a line hori ontally from this oint through the mass grid.
g) rom the encil mark in c) above arallel the grid lines to intersect the hori ontal
line. ro vertically to read field length limited landing mass.

Example
This is an exam le of short field landing.

Aerodrome pressure altitude 3,000 ft

Ambient temperature C
Wind component 10 kt head

In figure . field length limited landing mass is lb and barrier s eed is kt

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Performance Data for Single- and
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Figure 3.20 MEP landing distance short field

Source: Figure 3.10, Landing Distance Short Field, Section 3, CAP 698

Calculation of Landing Climb Data

02 Determine landing climb data in the event of balked landing.

Landing Climb Requirements / Gradient Requirement

If (for any reason) a landing was not ossible then the aero lane should have a level of
erformance that would enable it to climb safely away from the airfield. This must be ossible
with either both engines operating, or with one engine inoperative.

The landing climb re uirements originate from the certification s ecification rules in CS but
are adopted in a brief format into EU-OPS 1. EU-OPS 1 divides the landing climb requirements
into all engines operating and one engine inoperative. These requirements can be found in
Section of CAP and may not need to memorise.

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All Engines Operating / Balked Landing Requirement

With all engines operating, the steady gradient of climb must be at least 2.5%. This gradient must
be achieved with

• The ower develo ed seconds after moving the ower controls to the takeoff
position
• The landing gear (undercarriage) extended
• Flaps at the landing setting
• Climb speed equal to VREF
Note In order to demonstrate this climb ca ability for certification and for o erational ur oses
the undercarriage is assumed to be extended and the wing a s in the landing osition.

Figure 3.21 MEP balked landing climb performance

Source: Figure 3.8, Balked Landing Climb Performance, Section 3, CAP 698

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Performance Data for Single- and
Multi-Engine Aeroplanes

The gra h rovided for this ur ose is constructed for the maximum landing mass of lb (in
CAP Section ).

To use the graph,

a) Enter at the ambient tem erature. Travel vertically to the aerodrome ressure altitude.
b) rom this oint travel hori ontally right to interce t the rate of climb gra h line. ow
drop a vertical to read the rate of climb.
c) Covert the rate of climb to a still air gradient of climb using the formula

Example
Calculate the climb gradient. The following information is given
Aerodrome ressure altitude ft
Ambient tem erature C

Solution
ra h C f m
IAS 85 kt from the graph and using the CRP this converts into 91 kt TAS

Calculation of Landing and Ground-Roll Distance

03 etermine landing distance and ground roll distance for given a osition aero lane
weight and airfield data.

The landing distance requirements for multi-engine Class B aircraft are the same as for single
engine aircraft. These re uirements can be found in Section of CAP .

EU-OPS 1.550 states that an operator must ensure that the landing mass of the aeroplane, for
the estimated time of arrival, allows a full stop landing from 50 ft above the threshold within 70%
of the landing distance available at the destination aerodrome and at any alternate aerodrome.

This means that the aeroplane must be able to land within 70% of the landing distance available.
The factor to use for such calculations is 1.43.

The regulations in CS-23 state that when calculating the gross landing distance, certain details
must be accounted for. These are listed here.

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The gross landing distance shall take account of

• The pressure altitude at the aerodrome

• Standard temperature
• The runway surface conditions and the type of runway surface
• The runway slope
• Not more than 50% of the reported headwind component or not less than 150% of
the reported tailwind component
• The dis atch rules for scheduled or lanned landing calculations E PS . (c)

Figure 3.22 MEP landing distance - normal procedure

Source: Figure 3.9, Landing Distamce Section 3, CAP 698

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sing the conditions from the gra h the following gross distances are obtained
Landing ground roll ft
Total landing distance ft (airborne section is ft)

Calculating Defactored Landing Distance Available

04 Calculate given the landing distance available (L A) slo e and surface ty e and condition
the defactored distance to be used for commercial air transport using the appropriate
landing graphs. [Link].01

The rocedure for calculating the field length limited landing mass is

a) efactorise the landing distance available by dividing by the slo e correction factor
the surface type correction factor, the surface condition correction factor and the
regulatory factor.
b) Enter at the ambient tem erature. ove vertically to the aerodrome ressure
altitude.
c) rom this oint travel hori ontally right to the mass reference line. ark with a
pencil.
d) Enter right vertical axis with the distance from a) above. Parallel the grid lines to the
ground roll reference line.
e) rom this oint travel hori ontally left to the a ro riate wind com onent in ut.
Parallel the grid lines to the wind component reference line.
f) ow draw a line hori ontally from this oint through the mass grid.
g) rom the encil mark in c) above arallel the grid lines to intersect the hori ontal
line. ro vertically to read field length limited landing mass.

Example
This is an exam le of short field landing taken from CAP Section . Calculate the field length
limited landing mass. The following information are given.

Aerodrome pressure altitude 3,000 ft

Ambient temperature C
Landing distance available 3,733 ft
Wind component 10 kt head
Runway slope 1% down
Runway surface Grass
Runway condition Wet

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Solution
Landing distance available 3,733 ft
Slope correction factor ÷ 1.05
Surface type correction factor ÷ 1.15
Surface condition correction factor ÷ 1.15
Regulatory factor ÷ 1.43
Defactorised LDA 1,880 ft
Field length limited landing mass 3,800 lb

Figure 3.23 MEP landing distance - short field

Source: Figure 3.10, Landing Distance Short Field,Section 3, CAP 698

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Calculation of Minimum Landing Distance Given Defactored Distance

and Variables

05 Calculate the minimum landing distance (L ) that must be available for commercial air
transport given the defactored landing distance, runway surface and slope.
[Link].01
[Link].04

For this question the reverse procedure for LOs 01 and 04 must be carried to obtain a net
distance. An example is given here.

Calculate minimum landing distance given that

efactored L A ft
Slo e downhill
Surface Wet grass
egulatory factor .

LDA
Defactored Length ft
Slope Correction 1.1
Wet Grass Correction 1.3
Regulatory Factor 1.43
Corrected Length 3,374 ft

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Performance Class A - Theory

0 Section 4 Table of Contents

032.04 CS-25/Applicable Operational

4
Requirements Performance Class A - Theory

. a eo ................................................................... 132
01.01 Takeoff Performance, Definitions of and Relationships
Between Terms .......................................................................... 132
01.02 Takeoff Distances ...................................................................... 151
01.03 Accelerate-Stop Distance.......................................................... 155
01.04 Balanced Field Length Concept ............................................... 159
01.05 Unbalanced Field Length Concept .......................................... 161
01.06 Field-Length-Limited Takeoff Mass (FLLTOM)......................... 164
01.07 Contaminated Runways ........................................................... 167
01.08 Takeoff Climb ............................................................................. 174
01.09 Obstacle-Limited Takeoff ......................................................... 178
01.10 PLTOM and RTOM Tables ......................................................... 186
01.11 Takeoff Performance on Wet and
Contaminated Runways ........................................................... 188
01.12 Use of Reduced (Flexible or Flex) and Derated Thrust ......... 191
01.13 Takeoff Performance Using Different Takeoff Flap Settings ... 193
01.14 Takeoff Performance Using Increased V2 Speeds
(‘Improved Climb Performance’) .............................................. 194
01.15 Brake-Energy and Tyre-Speed Limit ........................................ 196

02.00 Climb ....................................................................... 197

02.01 Climb Techniques ...................................................................... 197
02.02 Influence of Variables on Climb Performance ....................... 200

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4
Requirements Performance Class A - Theory

03.00 Cruise ...................................................................... 202

03.04 Long-Range Cruise .................................................................... 202
03.06 Cruise Altitudes ......................................................................... 203
03.07 Cost Index ................................................................................... 209

04.00 En-Route One-Engine-Inoperative ...................... 212

04.01 Drift Down .................................................................................. 212
04.02 Influence of Variables on En-Route
One-Engine-Inoperative Performance .................................... 216

05.00 Descent ................................................................... 218

05.01 Descent Techniques .................................................................. 218
05.02 Energy Management in Descent.............................................. 221

06.00 Approach and Landing ......................................... 224

06.01 Approach Requirements........................................................... 224
06.02 Landing-Field-Length and Landing-Speed Requirements .... 228
06.03 Influence of Variables on Landing Performance ................... 230
06.04 Quick Turnaround Limit ........................................................... 233

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Performance Class A - Theory

. a eo
. a eo er or ance e nitions o and elations ips
Between Terms
orces uring a eo un
01 Ex lain the forces affecting the aero lane during the take off run.

The two formulae shown will hel to understand the key com onents the forces in calculating
the takeoff distance. The u er formula is used to calculate the distance re uired (s) to reach
a s ecified s eed ( ) with a given acceleration (a). eneath the first formula is the formula to
calculate that acceleration.

Here

or an aircraft taking off the acceleration is thrust minus drag. owever these forces will change
as the s eed changes and as a result the acceleration will not be constant during the takeoff.
Also during the airborne art of the takeoff the laws of motion will be somewhat different and
the upper formula will change to a certain degree, but the distance required will still depend on
the speed to be achieved and the acceleration.

Figure 4.1 Forces during takeoff

Looking back at the formula for acceleration during takeoff thrust and drag lay a crucial
art in the takeoff erformance. Therefore a little extra detail will be covered on these two
important forces.

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Performance Class A - Theory

Thrust

The engine thrust will vary during takeoff and the variation of thrust with s eed will be
different for jet and ro eller engines and has been covered in detail in eneral Performance
Takeoff Theory.

Drag
The total drag (D) of an aero lane during takeoff is a roduct of both aerodynamic drag ( A
) and
wheel drag wheel friction ( ) as shown in the formula.

• Aerodynamic drag: There are mainly two forms of aerodynamic drag, parasite drag
and induced drag. Parasite drag is increased by the square of the speed. Therefore,
this form of drag will increase during the takeoff. Induced drag is a function of the
angle of attack. This angle of attack is constant until the aeroplane rotates at which
point the angle of attack increases dramatically. Consequently, induced drag will
increase during the takeoff.
• Wheel drag: The wheel drag de ends on the load on the wheel (W L) and the runway
surface resistance ( ). At the start of the takeoff the load on the wheels is the entire
weight of the aeroplane. Therefore, wheel friction and wheel drag are high. However,
as forward speed increases, lift starts to counteract the weight force, and this reduces
the load on the wheels. As a result, the wheel friction and the wheel drag will reduce,
eventually being ero at lift off.

The increase of aerodynamic drag is much higher than the decrease of wheel drag, therefore
total drag during the takeoff increases.

Summary of Forces
In summary for all aero lanes during takeoff thrust decreases and drag increases. The
acceleration force is determined by subtracting the total drag from the total thrust. This is
visually represented in the next graph by the area between the total drag line and the thrust line.
When thrust is more than drag, the term excess thrust is used. Excess thrust is what is needed
to accelerate the aeroplane. Figure 4.2 illustrates that the excess thrust and consequently the
acceleration of the aero lane decreases during the takeoff. The term excess thrust will be used
again when climb theory is introduced.

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Performance Class A - Theory

Figure 4.2 Variation of forces during takeoff

ects o rust to eig t atio and lap etting on round oll

02 State the effects of thrust to weight ratio and a setting on ground roll.

The greater the thrust to weight ratio the greater the excess thrust available for acceleration.
With more a selected the greater the amount of lift generated resulting in lower takeoff
speeds, and leading to a shorter ground roll.

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CS 25.101 to 109 and 113

03 Describe the European Union airworthiness requirements according to CS-25 relating to
large aero lane erformance ( eneral and Take off) (S PA T LI T PE A CE
CS . to CS . inclusive and CS . ).

This is a com lex document that defines the erformance re uirements for various stages of
ight. The document can be downloaded for discussion.

• eneral
• Stall
• Takeoff
• Takeoff S eeds
• Accelerate Sto istance
• Takeoff un and Takeoff istance

A brief summary of the re uirements is listed here. This can also be located in CAP .

The variation of takeoff climb and landing erformance with weight may be extra olated without
conservatism to a weight greater by up to 10%, than the maximum weight tested and to a weight
lower by up to 10%, than the lowest weight tested. These ranges may not be applicable if there
are significant discontinuities or unusual variations in the scheduling of the relevant s eeds
with weight, in the weight ranges covered by extrapolation.

The takeoff s eeds rescribed by CS . the accelerate-stop distance prescribed by CS

. the takeoff ath rescribed by CS . the takeoff distance and takeoff run prescribed
by CS . and the net takeoff ight ath rescribed by CS . must be determined in the
selected configuration for takeoff at each weight altitude and ambient tem erature within the
operational limits selected by the applicant.

The takeoff path extends from a standing start to a oint in the takeoff at which the aero lane
is m( ft) above the takeoff surface or at which the transition from the takeoff to the
en route configuration is com leted and FTO is reached, whichever point is higher.

At each oint along the takeoff ath starting at the oint at which the aero lane reaches m
( ft) above the takeoff surface the available gradient of climb may not be less than

(i) . for two engined aero lanes

(ii) . for three engined aero lanes
(iii) . for four engined aero lanes

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The takeoff ath must be determined by a continuous demonstrated takeoff or by synthesis

from segments. If the takeoff ath is determined by the segmental method

a) Takeoff distance on a dry runway is the greater of

( ) The hori ontal distance along the takeoff ath from the start of the takeoff
to the oint at which the aero lane is m( ft) above the takeoff surface
determined under CS . for a dry runway or
( ) of the hori ontal distance along the takeoff ath with all engines o erating
from the start of the takeoff to the oint at which the aero lane is m(
ft) above the takeoff surface as determined by a rocedure consistent with CS
. . (See A C . (a)( ) (b)( ) and (c)( ))
b) Takeoff distance on a wet runway is the greater of
( ) The takeoff distance on a dry runway determined in accordance with sub
aragra h (a) of this aragra h or
( ) The hori ontal distance along the takeoff ath from the start of the takeoff to the
oint at which the aero lane is . m ( ft) above the takeoff surface achieved
in a manner consistent with the achievement of V2 before reaching m ( ft)
above the takeoff surface determined under CS . for a wet runway. (See
A C . (a)( ) (b)( ) and (c)( ))
c) If the takeoff distance does not include a clearway the takeoff run is e ual to the
takeoff distance. If the takeoff distance includes a clearway
( ) The takeoff run on a dry runway is the greater of
(ii) The hori ontal distance along the takoff ath from the start of the takeoff
to a point equidistant between the point at which VLOF is reached and the
oint at which the aero lane is m( ft) above the takeoff surface as
determined under CS . for a dry runway or
(iii) of the hori ontal distance along the takeoff ath with all engines
o erating from the start of the takeoff to a oint e uidistant between the
point at which VLOF is reached and the point at which the aeroplane is 11 m
( ft) above the takeoff surface determined by a rocedure consistent with
CS . . (See A C . (a)( ) (b)( ) and (c)( ).)
( ) The takeoff run on a wet runway is the greater of
(i) The hori ontal distance along the takeoff ath from the start of the takeoff
to the oint at which the aero lane is . m ( ft) above the takeoff surface
achieved in a manner consistent with the achievement of V2 before reaching
m ( ft) above the takeoff surface determined under CS . for a wet
runway or
(ii) of the hori ontal distance along the takeoff ath with all engines
o erating from the start of the takeoff to a oint e uidistant between the
point at which VLOF is reached and the point at which the aeroplane is 11 m
( ft) above the takeoff surface determined by a rocedure consistent with
CS . . (See A C . (a)( ) (b)( ) and (c)( ))

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d) The takeoff ight ath must be considered to begin m ( ft) above the takeoff
surface at the end of the takeoff distance determined in accordance with CS . (a)
or (b) as a ro riate for the runway surface condition.
e) The net takeoff ight ath data must be determined so that they re resent the
actual takeoff ight aths (determined in accordance with CS . and with sub
aragra h (a) of this aragra h) reduced at each oint by a gradient of climb e ual
to
(i) 0.8% for two-engined aeroplanes
(ii) 0.9% for three-engined aeroplanes
(iii) 1.0% for four-engined aeroplanes

ircra t lassi cation u er and ave ent lassi cation u er

04 escribe the terms aircraft classification number (AC ) and avement classification
number (PC ) and the re uirements and ha ards of o erating on aerodrome surfaces
with PCNs smaller than the ACNs.

The operating mass of the aircraft may be limited by runway strength considerations. The
bearing strength of a pavement is expressed by a pavement classification number (PCN) and
this is compared to the aircraft classification number (ACN) at maximum structural takeoff limit
mass. The AC for de endent on its variation is . The system of classification is
the load classification number (LCN), but this can be converted into the PCN system. The PCN is
compared to the ACN. Operation on the pavement is permissible if the ACN is less than or equal
to the PCN. Because the PCN includes a safety factor, a 10% increase of ACN over PCN is generally
acceptable for pavements that are in good condition and occasional use by aircraft with ACNs
up to 50% greater than the PCN may be permitted. In such circumstances the movement of the
aircraft must be very closely monitored for damage to the aeroplane and pavement.

Figure 4.3 Pavement classification number

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Interdependence and Restrictions of V Speeds

05 efine and ex lain the following s eeds in accordance with CS or CS efinitions

reference stall s eed ( S ) reference stall s eed in a s ecific configuration ( S ) g stall
s eed at which the aero lane can develo a lift force (normal to the ight ath) e ual to its
weight ( S g) minimum control s eed with critical engine ino erative ( C) minimum
control s eed on or near the ground ( C ) minimum control s eed at take off climb
( CA) engine failure s eed ( E ) take off decision s eed ( ) rotation s eed ( ) take
off safety s eed ( ) minimum take off safety s eed ( I ) minimum unstick s eed
( ) lift off s eed ( L ) maximum brake energy s eed ( E) maximum tyre s eed
( ax Tyre).
06 Explain the interdependence between the above-mentioned speeds where relevant.

Ground Minimum Control Speed (VMCG)

As described in CAP VMCG is the minimum s eed on the ground at which the takeoff can
be safely continued, when the critical engine suddenly becomes inoperative with the remaining
engine(s) at takeoff thrust.

When an engine fails the remaining engine(s) still generate(s) thrust and this causes the aero lane
to yaw away from the live engine. The amount of yaw is a function of the amount of thrust the
live engine is generating. Greater thrust from the live engine would generate more yaw. The
only way to counteract this is to use the ailerons and the rudder to try and steer the aeroplane
along the axis of the runway. However, when the aeroplane is on the ground, you cannot use the
ailerons to control the yaw otherwise you might bank the wing into the ground. Therefore, the
only available aerodynamic surface left to control the asymmetric yaw is the rudder. However,
for the rudder to be effective enough at controlling the yaw there must be su cient air ow over
it to ensure it has the re uired aerodynamic force. This minimum air ow s eed over the rudder
is VMCG. If the engine were to fail below this s eed then there is insu cient ow over the rudder
to counteract the asymmetric yaw and therefore it is not ossible to continue the takeoff.

The only factor that controls the value of VMCG is thrust and since takeoff thrust is more or less
constant then the only variable on the amount of takeoff thrust generated is air density. The
higher the air density, the more thrust that can be generated and therefore, the more yaw that is
generated when the engine fails. The air ow over the rudder must be faster to make the rudder
effective enough to counteract the yaw.

The effect of air density on MCG can be seen by looking at the VMCG table in section of CAP .
This table shows the variable of temperature on one side and the variable of pressure altitude
on the other. Look at the VMCG in the table and notice that at low temperatures and low-pressure
altitudes where the air density would be high, the value of VMCG is also high. Therefore, we can say
that as density increases, VMCG increases.

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Calibrated Airspeed (VEF)

VEF is the calibrated airspeed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail. It is used for the
purpose of performance calculations. It is never less than VMCG. The speed VEF is a rather strange
one. As er the certification s ecification definition EF means the speed at which the critical
engine is assumed to fail during takeoff. EF is selected by the aeroplane manufacturer for
ur oses of certification testing rimarily to establish the range of s eeds from which 1 may be
selected and secondly to help determine the accelerate stop distance required. The explanation
for VEF is given below.

V1
V1 is the s eed at which if the failure of the critical engine was recogni ed there is su cient
distance remaining to either reject the takeoff or continue the takeoff. owever recogni ing that
the engine has failed does take time, in fact it takes about one second. Therefore, to recognize
the engine failure at V1, the engine must have failed about one second before V1. The speed, at
which the critical engine fails, so that it may be recognized at V1, is called VEF.

V1 is the decision s eed. This is by far the most im ortant s eed in the takeoff for Class A
aeroplanes. It is called like that because V1 determines the outcome of a critical decision that
must be made following an engine failure or other major critical system failures.

V1 is defined as being the maximum s eed at which the ilot must take the first action in order
to stop the aeroplane within the remaining accelerate-stop distance. V1 is also the minimum
s eed following engine failure that the ilot is able to continue the takeoff within the remaining
takeoff distance.

VGO and VSTOP

VGO is the lowest decision s eed from which a continued takeoff is ossible within the takeoff
distance available. VSTOP is the highest decision speed from which the aeroplane can stop within
the accelerate-stop distance available. These two speeds are the extremes of V1.

There are some rules about the speed for V1. These are shown in CAP alongside the 1
definition. It states that 1

• may not be less than VEF plus the speed gained with the critical engine inoperative
for the time between engine failure and the oint at which the ilot a lies the first
means of retardation.
• must not exceed VR
• must not exceed VMBE
• must not be less than VMCG

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If the engine were to fail before V1 then the decision would be to abort the takeoff. The reason is
that with only one engine o erating there would be insu cient takeoff distance left to accelerate
the aeroplane to the screen height. If the engine were to fail after V1, the decision is to continue
the takeoff. The reason is that the aero lane is travelling too fast to be able to sto within the
remaining accelerate-stop distance available. In order to understand how V1 is derived, we need
to consider the gra h in figure . . The gra h lots the takeoff distance re uired and accelerate
stop distance required based on a varying engine failure speed.

Figure 4.4 Ideal position of V1

You can see that a V1 at the intersection point of the graph is the best V1 to use, simply because
a V1 at that s eed re uires the least amount of field re uired or the least amount of runway.
The V1 at the intersection point of the curves is sometimes called the idealised V1. It is also the
V1 which makes the takeoff distance re uired be the same length as the accelerate sto distance
required, and therefore, this V1 speed is also called the balanced V1, as it balances the required
distances for the aero lane this will be covered later in Takeoff istances. This gra h is also
useful to see the effect of using a higher or lower 1.

For example, if for any reason V1 was increased, notice that the accelerate-stop distance required
increases. n the other hand the takeoff distance re uired decreases and the total field re uired
increases. However, if V1 is reduced from the intersection point, the accelerate-stop distance
decreases. Alternatively the takeoff distance increases and the total field re uired increases.
Trying to figure these oints out without the use of this sim le gra h would not be easy. So this
gra h is re uired to be used to understand the effect of increasing or decreasing 1.

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actors ecting 1

It is im ortant to detail what factors can in uence 1. In essence, whatever factors change either
the accelerate sto distance re uired or the takeoff distance re uired curves shown above will
affect 1. owever there is a sim ler way to go through the list of factors affecting 1. In every
aero lane ight manual (A ) there will be a set of tables and or gra hs which will allow you
to calculate what V1 should be on any given day. In CAP similar tables can be found. These
tables list the three V speeds, including V1 against the aero lane mass that shows what the effect
of certain factors is.

Figure 4.5 Takeoff speeds, Flap 5°

Source: Figure 4.8, Takeoff Speeds, Section 4, CAP 698

• ect o ass on 1 otice under column A (figure . ) and under 1, if the

aeroplane mass is 50,000 kg, V1 will be kt but if the mass is increased to
kg then V1 would increase to 151 kt. Therefore, increasing mass increases V1
• ect o con guration on 1 The next factor to affect 1 is the aero lane configuration.
sing of a in column A again a kg mass re uires a 1 speed of 137 kt,
with degrees of a (table not shown) and for the same mass of kg the 1
s eed is now kt. Therefore we can see that increasing the a angle decreases 1

Figure 4.6 Density sub graph

Source: Density Sub Graph, Section 4, CAP 698

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• ect o density The next factor to affect 1 is density, but this is a little harder to
observe than the revious two factors. In CAP there is a density accountability
table (figure . ) at low altitudes and low tem eratures band A is obtained. This is
a high-density band, whereas band F is situated at higher temperatures and higher
altitudes, which equates to much lower densities. We can now use these bands to see
the effect density has on 1. Returning to notice that bands A, B, C, D, E and F are in
the speed tables. Taking a mass of 50,000 kg in band A, which is high density, V1 is 129
kt, but in bands B, C, D and E, the value of V1 is increasing. Therefore, as density falls,
shown by going through bands A to E, V1 increases.

Figure 4.7 Slope and wind adjustment

Source: Figure 4.8, Takeoff Speeds, Section 4, CAP 698

• ect o slope and ind The last two factors that affect 1 are runway slope and
wind. In CAP there is a table which is titled Slope and Wind V1 adjustment (figure
. ). If the runway had a downslo e of then with an aero lane mass of
kg, V1 would have to be reduced by 3 kt, whereas if the runway had an upslope of
2%, with the same mass, V1 must be increased by 4 kt. Therefore, downslopes reduce
V1 and upslopes increase V1. The right-hand side of the table is the correction for
wind. So, for example, if there was a 15 kt tailwind, then with a mass of 70,000 kg, V1
would have to be reduced by 3 kt, whereas if there was a headwind of 40 kt for the
same mass, V1 would have to increase by 1 kt. Therefore, tailwinds reduce V1, and
headwinds increase V1.

Maximum Brake Energy Speed (VMBE)

Two s eeds that can in uence 1, VMCG and VMBE. VMBE is the maximum brake energy speed and it
represents the maximum speed on the ground from which an aeroplane can safely stop within
the energy ca abilities of the brakes. Essentially this means that if the takeoff was rejected at a
speed higher than VMBE, and maximum braking force was applied, the brakes would not be able
to safely bring the aeroplane to a stop regardless of how much runway was left. The brakes
would most robably catch fire melt and or disintegrate.

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It is important to be aware of the factors that control VMBE. ost manuals and CAP has a MBE
gra h or table with all the variables and factors on it that can affect MBE. To see the effect of a
variable (i.e. mass) sim ly work through the gra h but use two different masses. In this case
the heavier mass has reduced VMBE. The variables that affect MBE are pressure altitude, ambient
air temperature, mass, slope and wind. Carefully examine each of these factors, so that you can
see for yourself how they change VMBE. emember the CAP gra h is used in the exam so if
there are any questions which relate to VMBE, you can rest assured that a lot of information on
VMBE is already provided.

Relationship Between VMCG, V1 and VMBE

Having looked at VMBE and VMCG we are now better placed to understand why these two speeds
lay a role in in uencing 1. According to the rule, V1 must not be less than VMCG.

Figure 4.8 The relationship between V1,VMCG and VMBE

V1 cannot be allowed to be less than VMCG because engine failure below VMCG means the aeroplane is
uncontrollable and the definition of 1 is that the takeoff can be continued following engine failure.

The rule also states, that V1 must not be greater than VMBE. Again, this is true, because at V1 the
aero lane must be able to sto or continue the takeoff but above MBE it is impossible to bring
the aeroplane safely to a stop.

Let us look at a scenario, where due to high density the value of VMCG is higher than the idealised V1.
In this case takeoff is rohibited. owever this roblem is solvable. The chosen 1 can simply be
increased until it is equal to or more than VMCG. However, notice that the accelerate-stop distance
increases the takeoff distance decreases and more im ortantly the total field length re uired
increases. If the runway is as long as the total field re uired then moving 1 to this point is not a
problem. By understanding this graph you are able to see the consequences to the required distance
should V1 need to be moved from its ideal or balanced position due to pressure from VMCG and VMBE.

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Minimum Unstick Speed (VMU)

VMU is the slowest calibrated airs eed at which the aero lane can safely lift off the ground and
continue the takeoff. owever des ite MU being the lowest speed the aeroplane can safely
lift off the runway in actual o erating conditions the aero lane does not lift off at this s eed.
The aero lane is own so that it lifts off at a slightly faster s eed. The reason is because MU is
very close to the stall speed, the aeroplane controllability is very sloppy, and lastly, in order to
actually lift off at MU some fairly dramatic actions take place which may be uncomfortable for the
passengers.

It may seem strange but the aero lane is actually able to lift off at a s eed where lift is less than
weight. The reason is that, as long as the nose can be raised to a high enough attitude, there
is a vertical component of thrust which, together with lift, balances weight. The amount of this
vertical thrust is controlled in part by the amount of thrust generated, but also by the amount
of nose-up attitude the aeroplane can attain. This nose-up attitude may be limited by the power
of the elevator to push the tailplane down, or by the tailplane striking the runway, in what is
described as a tail strike.

It is unwise in o erational conditions to lift the aero lane off the ground at MU
. The actual
s eed the aero lane will lift off in o erational ights is called LOF.

Air Minimum Control Speed (VMCA / VMC)

VMCA / VMC the minimum ight s eed at which the aero lane is controllable with a maximum of
bank when the critical engine suddenly becomes ino erative with the remaining engine(s) at
takeoff thrust. Although MCA is the minimum control s eed in the air the factors that affect MCA
can, for the purpose of the exam, be assumed to be the same as for VMCG.

Rotation Speed (VR)

VR is the s eed at which the ilot initiates action to raise the nose gear off the ground with
the intention of becoming airborne. The pilot action is to pull back on the control column.
This action de ects the elevators to create a downward aerodynamic force. This force
rotates the aero lane about its lateral axis and will raise the nosewheel off the ground.
VR may not be less than

• V1
• 1.05 VMC
• a speed such that V2 may be attained before 35 ft.
• a speed such that if the aeroplane is rotated at its maximum practicable rate, the
result will be a VLOF of not less than 1.1VMU (all engines o erating) or . MU
(engine
ino erative). If the aero lane is geometry limited or elevator ower limited these
margins are 1.08VMU (all engines) and . MU
(engine ino erative).

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Figure 4.9 VR relationship with VMC and VMU

Lastly like with other s eeds we need to examine the factors that affect R. As with V1, all the
factors that can affect R can be found in the tables in CAP . The table lists the three s eeds
including VR against the aero lane mass. This table can show what the effect of certain factors is.
For example, let us look at what aeroplane mass does to VR.

If the aeroplane mass is 50,000 kg, VR will be 131 kt under density column A, but if the mass is
increased to kg then R will increase to 155 kt. Therefore, increasing mass increases VR.

The next factor to affect R is the aero lane configuration. The com arison of the s eeds in these
tables should tell us the effect of the a s. In the table on of a a kg mass re uires
a VR s eed of kt but on of a and for the same mass of kg the R speed is now
kt. Therefore we can see that increasing the a angle decreases R.

Another factor to affect R is density. There are density gra hs in the CAP . and A is a high
density band, whereas band F equates to lower density. We can now use these bands to see the
effect density has on R. Taking a mass of 50,000 kg in band A, which is high density, VR is 131 kt,
but in bands B, C, D and E, the value of VR is increasing. Therefore, we can state that as density
decreases, VR increases.

In modern airliners, VR is calculated not by looking at speed tables, but it will be computed by the
aero lane once the relevant data is inserted in the ight management com uter or multi ur ose
computer display unit. Once V1 and VR have been calculated by the pilots, they can be entered into
the ight management system ( S) and thereafter shown to the ilots in the s eed scale on the
left hand side of the rimary ight dis lay (P ) or electronic attitude director indicator (EA I).

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it peed LOF
)

VLOF is the calibrated airs eed at which the aero lane first becomes airborne which is at the
moment when the main wheels have left the runway. VLOF should be faster than the minimum
unstick speed VMU. The margin above VMU is determined by several factors.

For example, VLOF must not be less than 110% of VMU in the all engines operating condition and
105% of VMU in the one engine inoperative condition. However, if the attitude of the aeroplane
in obtaining VMU was limited by the geometry of the aero lane (i.e. tail contact with the runway)
VLOF must not be less than 108% of VMU in the all engines operating condition and 104% of VMU in
the one engine inoperative condition.

Tyre Speed Limit (VMAX for Tyre)

Aeroplane tyres are designed to carry very high loads and operate at very high speeds. It is
common for a jet aeroplane tyre to carry loads as heavy as 27,000 kilograms while operating at
ground speeds up to 235 miles per hour or 204 kt. Tyres are carefully designed and tested to
withstand operation up to, but not necessarily beyond, these ratings.

ini u a eo a ety peed )

2MIN

This is the minimum takeoff safety s eed with the critical engine ino erative. V2MIN may not be
less than

• 1.13VSR for 2 and 3 engine turboprops and all turbojets without provision for obtaining
a significant reduction in the one engine ino erative ower on stalling s eed or . SR
for turboprops with more than three engines and turbojets with provision for obtaining
a significant reduction in the one engine ino erative ower on stalling s eed.
• 1.1VMC

Figure 4.10 The association of V2 Min with VSR and VMC

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a eo a ety peed 2
)

CAP states that V2 is the target speed to be attained with one engine inoperative. In other
words, V2 must be reached at or prior to the screen height.

There are two main s eeds which when ying close to may be unsafe. The first of these is stall
speed and the second is the minimum control speed. Therefore, in order for V2 to be called a
safe speed it must be faster than these speeds.

There is another reason why V2 is called the takeoff safety s eed. In the event of engine failure
V2 must be own until the aero lane reaches ft. Therefore the other safe feature about 2
is that the aeroplane is able to achieve a positive climb. In fact, V2 is the slowest speed which will
enable the aero lane to have su cient excess thrust to climb above the minimum acce table
climb gradients. V2 may not be less than

• V2MIN
• VR plus the speed increment attained up to 35 ft

Figure 4.11 The relationship of V2 with VR and V2 Min

To analyse all the factors that can affect 2 verify the tables in CAP . ou will recall from similar
discussions on V1 and VR that these ages can show the effect of mass configuration and density
on V2. So, ensure you can use these pages to see for yourself how these factors change V2.

Once V2 is calculated by the ilots it can be entered into the ight management com uter just
like V1 and VR were. Having done this, V2 will be displayed to the pilots in the speed scale on the
left-hand side of the PFD or EADI.

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Reference Stalling Speed (VSR)

VSR is assumed to be the same as VS1g. The VSR is a calibrated airs eed defined by the aircraft
manufacturer. VSR may not be less than a 1g stall speed. VSR is ex ressed as

VSR1 eference stalling s eed in the s ecified configuration.

VS1g - Stalling speed at 1g or the one-g stall speed at which the aeroplane can develop a lift force
(normal to the ight ath) e ual to its weight. This is assumed to be the same s eed as SR.

a eo istances
07 efine the following distances in accordance with CS take off run with all engines
o erating and one engine ino erative take off distance with all engines o erating and
[Link].03 one engine ino erative accelerate sto distance with all engines o erating and one
engine-inoperative.

A summary of the re uirements is listed here and is also found in CAP . A more detailed
ex lanation is found in the EASA Easy Access ules for Large Aero lanes (CS ) (Amendment
) ovember

If the takeoff distance includes a clearway

Net takeoff run is the greatest of

• All ower units o erating (dry and wet runway) the total of the gross distance from
the start of the takeoff run to the oint at which LOF is reached, plus one half of the
gross distance from VLOF to the point at which the aeroplane reaches 35 ft, all factored
by 1.15 to obtain the net TORR.
• ne ower unit ino erative (dry runway) the hori ontal distance from the brake
release oint ( P) to a oint e uidistant between LOF and the point at which the
aeroplane reaches 35 ft with the critical power unit inoperative.
• ne ower unit ino erative (wet runway) the hori ontal distance from the
brake release oint ( P) to the oint at which the aero lane is ft above the
takeoff surface achieved in a manner consistent with the attainment of 2 by
35 ft, assuming the critical power unit inoperative at VEF.
Net takeoff distance required is the greatest of the following three distances

• All engines operating - the horizontal distance travelled, with all engines operating, to
reach a screen height of 35 ft multiplied by 1.15.
• ne engine ino erative (dry runway) the hori ontal distance from P to the oint
at which the aeroplane attains 35 ft, assuming the critical power unit fails at VEF on a
dry, hard surface.

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• ne engine ino erative (wet runway) the hori ontal distance from P to the oint
at which the aeroplane attains 15 ft, assuming the critical power unit fails at VEF
on a wet or contaminated hard surface, achieved in a manner consistent with the
achievement of V2 by 35 ft.

Note: The reduction of the screen height from ft to ft is to hel reduce the takeoff mass
penalties that a wet runway will undoubtedly cause.

Net accelerate-stop distance on a wet runway is the greatest of

• All engines operating - the sum of the distances required to accelerate from BRP
to the highest s eed reached during the rejected takeoff assuming the ilot takes
the first action to reject the takeoff at the 1 for takeoff from a wet runway and to
decelerate to a full stop on a wet hard surface, plus a distance equivalent to 2 seconds
at the V1 for takeoff from a wet runway.
• One engine inoperative - the sum of the distances required to accelerate from BRP to
the highest s eed reached during the rejected takeoff assuming the critical engine
fails at VEF and the ilot takes the first action to reject the takeoff at the 1 for takeoff
from a wet runway with all engines operating and to decelerate to a full stop on a wet
hard surface with one engine inoperative, plus a distance equivalent to 2 seconds at
the V1 for takeoff from a wet runway.
• The accelerate-stop distance on a dry runway.

Figure 4.12 Field length criteria

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TORA Alignment
08 Explain how loss of TORA due to alignment is accounted for.

The length of the runway that is declared for the calculation of takeoff run available (TORA) does
not account for line u of the aero lane in the direction of takeoff on the runway in use. This
alignment distance depends on the aeroplane geometry and access possibility to the runway in
use. Accountability is usually required for a 90° taxiway entry to the runway and 180° turnaround
on the runway. There are two distances to be considered

• Minimum distance of the main wheels from the start of the runway for determining TODA
and T A (L)
• inimum distance of the most forward wheel(s) from the start of the runway for determining
AS A ( )

Figure 4.13 Loss of TORA due to alignment

Interdependence and Restrictions of V Speeds

09 Ex lain the effect of the interde endency of relevant s eeds in ( ) and the
situations in which these interdependencies can cause speed and performance restrictions.
[Link].05

The interde endency s eed and any erformance restrictions between takeoff s eeds are
contained in this reference.

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. a eo istances
un ay aria le ects on a eo istance
01 Ex lain the effects of the following runway ( W ) variables on take off distances W
slo e W surface conditions dry wet and contaminated W elevation.
[Link].01
Runway Slope

If the runway is sloping, a component of the weight will act along the longitudinal axis of
the aeroplane. This will either augment thrust or drag, which will increase or decrease the
accelerating force. The amount of weight augmenting either thrust or drag is called either weight
apparent thrust or weight apparent drag. It can be calculated by multiplying the force of weight
by the sine of the angle of the runway slope. A downhill slope will increase the accelerating force,
and reduce the takeoff distance whereas an u hill slo e will reduce the accelerating force and
increase the takeoff distance.

Runway Surface
Even on a smooth runway there will be rolling resistance due to the bearing friction and tyre
distortion. If the runway is contaminated due to snow, slush or standing water, there will be
additional drag due to uid resistance called hydro laning which limits braking action due to
contact se aration. Any contamination will increase the drag and hence increase the takeoff
distance. If the takeoff is rejected and braking is re uired the coe cient of braking friction is
severely reduced on a runway which is wet, icy or contaminated by snow or slush. This means
that the brake pressure must be severely reduced to prevent skidding. Thus, the stopping
distance is greatly increased.

Runway Elevation
The runway elevation will affect the density of the air and a high density altitude airfield will
reduce the thrust roduced by the engines. Therefore acceleration will be less and the takeoff
distance will increase. Reduced density will also increase the true airspeed for a given IAS and
achieving the increased true airs eed will re uire more takeoff distance.

eroplane aria le ects on a eo istance

02 Ex lain the effects of the following aero lane variables on take off distance aero lane
mass take off configuration bleed air configurations.

A greater aeroplane mass will require more lift and greater acceleration which means a longer
takeoff distance. ore a rovides greater lift and slower takeoff s eeds therefore reducing
takeoff s eeds and takeoff distance. leeding air off the engine for exam le to adjust the
conditioning of the cabin, will reduce excess thrust and acceleration, resulting in a greater
takeoff distance.

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eteorological aria les on a eo istance

03 Ex lain the effects of the following meteorological variables on take off distances wind
tem erature ressure altitude.
[Link].01
Wind

Winds will affect the true ground s eed of the aero lane for any given true airs eed. eadwinds
will reduce the ground s eed at the re uired takeoff airs eed and reduce the takeoff distance.
or exam le with a headwind of kt and a true airs eed for the takeoff safety s eed being
kt, the ground speed will only be 100 kt. Getting to a true ground speed of only 100 kt will require
less takeoff distance. Tailwinds will increase the ground s eed and increase the takeoff distance.

Pressure Altitude and Temperature

The ressure altitude and tem erature along with humidity affects the density and therefore

• Reduced density will reduce the thrust of the engine and therefore reduce the thrust and/
or ower that the engine can generate. Therefore acceleration will be less and the takeoff
distance will increase.
• Reduced density will increase the true airspeed for a given indicated airspeed. Therefore, low
density will increase the takeoff distance as mentioned earlier.

Errors in Aeroplane Rotation Technique

04 Ex lain the conse uence of errors in rotation techni ue on take off distance early and
late rotation too high and too low rotation angle too high and too low rotation rate.

If the aircraft is rotated to the correct attitude but at too low a s eed lift off will not occur until
the normal VLOF, but there will be higher drag during the increased time in the rotated attitude,
resulting in increased distance to lift off. n the other hand late rotation will com romise the
performance calculations based on the screen height. Rotation to an attitude greater than the
normal lift off attitude could bring the wing close to its ground stalling angle and also allow
the possibility of a tail strike. Too low a rotation angle will again compromise performance
calculations. Ground stall should not be possible with leading-edge devices correctly set, so it is
of extreme im ortance that these devices are set to the takeoff osition.

CS . re uires

• The takeoff distance using a rotation s eed of kt less than R

shall not exceed the
takeoff distance using the established R.
• Reasonable variations in procedures such as over-rotation and out-of-trim conditions
must not result in marked increases in takeoff distance.

Note The ex ression marked increase in the takeoff distance is defined as any amount in
excess of 1% of the scheduled distance.

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a eo istances
05 Com are the take off distance for s ecified conditions and configuration for all engines
operating and one-engine-inoperative.
[Link].03
[Link].07 et a eo un e uired

If the takeoff distance includes a clearway the takeoff run is the greatest of

• All ower units o erating (dry and wet runway) the total of the gross distance from
the start of the takeoff run to the oint at which LOF is reached, plus one half of the
gross distance from VLOF to the point at which the aeroplane reaches 35 ft, all factored
by 1.15 to obtain the net TORR.
• As an example, let us assume the distance from brake release to halfway between
VLOF and 35 ft is 1747 metres. This is then multiplied by 1.15. Multiplying 1747 metres
by 1.15 makes the total distance 2,009 metres.
• ne ower unit ino erative (dry runway) the hori ontal distance from the brake
release oint ( P) to a oint e uidistant between LOF and the point at which the
aeroplane reaches 35 ft with the critical power unit inoperative.
• As an example, let us assume that this distance is 1,950 metres.
• ne ower unit ino erative (wet runway) the hori ontal distance from the brake
release oint ( P) to the oint at which the aero lane is ft above the takeoff
surface, achieved in a manner consistent with the attainment of V2 by 35 ft, assuming
the critical power unit inoperative at VEF.
• As an example, let us assume that this distance is 2,001 metres.
• Once these three distances have been calculated by the manufacturer, the greatest of
the three is then ublished as the certified net takeoff run re uired. In our exam le
the net takeoff run re uired is metres. In the exam you will be resented with
various distances and you must be able to work out which of the distances is selected
as the net takeoff run re uired.

ect o sing lear ay on a eo ass and 1

Calculations
06 Ex lain the effect of using clearway on the field length limited take off mass.

sing clearway in the takeoff field length allows the advantage of an unbalanced field length
calculation. This means a higher takeoff mass and lower 1 than the balanced field calculation
because the additional clearway allows a lower Vgo. This allows the aeroplane to accelerate to
reach V2 at a later point even after an engine failure.

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aria le ect on 1,
V2 and V2MIN
07 Ex lain the in uence of aero lane mass air density and a settings on and I
and thereby on take off distance.

In isolation increasing mass or reducing density and a setting will increase takeoff distance. As
lift, acceleration and excess thrust have all been reduced these impacts the aerodynamic speeds
of the aeroplane. Increasing mass increases V1 since acceleration and deceleration are both a
function of mass, and V2MIN increases because more lift is required. Reducing density increases V1
but has little effect on 2MIN and a lower a increases 1 and V2MIN as the lift coe cient has reduced.

Error in V1 on t e esulting ne ngine ut a eo istance

08 Ex lain the effect of an error in on the resulting one engine out take off distance.

As previously mentioned, V1 is the takeoff decision s eed. This is by far the most im ortant
s eed in the takeoff for Class A aero lanes. It is called decision s eed because it determines the
outcome of a critical decision that must be made following an engine failure or other major critical
system failures. Should an error in calculating V1 occur it would void the takeoff erformance
calculations and potentially endanger the aeroplane and its occupants. The aeroplane may be
unable to get airborne following an engine failure after the incorrect V1 calculation.

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01.03 Accelerate-Stop Distance

Variables on ASD All Engines Operating and One-Engine-Inoperative
01 Ex lain how the accelerate sto distance is affected by given conditions and configuration
for all engines operating and one-engine-inoperative.
[Link].03

For an increased OAT or pressure altitude the accelerate-stop distance (ASD) required will
increase as the braking effect is reduced. In addition if mass is increased or if there is a tailwind
the ASD required will also increase because of the greater momentum and increased ground
s eed. owever more a would reduce the AS re uired.

ect o sing top ay on a eo ass and 1

Calculations
02 Ex lain the effect of using a sto way on the field length limited take off mass.

If a sto way is added to T A the field length becomes unbalanced and AS increases. This
allows a higher field length takeoff mass to be achieved and a higher 1 speed because a higher
VSTOP can be achieved in the additional distance com ared to a balanced field calculation.

Error in V1 on the Resulting ASD

03 Ex lain the effect of an error in on the resulting accelerate sto distance.

As previously mentioned, V1 is the takeoff decision s eed. Should an error in calculating 1 occur,
it would void the takeoff erformance calculations and otentially endanger the aero lane
and its occupants. The aeroplane may overrun the runway stopway following an engine failure
and subsequent slowing down from the wrong V1. Too low a V1 could compromise VMCG with
subse uent control di culties.

ect o aria les on

04 Ex lain the effect of runway slo e or wind com onent on the accelerate sto distance.

Upslope will help reduce the ASD required as there is a rearward component of weight added
to drag to slow the aero lane down and reduce the momentum effect. ownslo e will increase
the ASD due to forward component of weight. A tailwind will increase the aeroplanes ground
s eed adding to the momentum effect and increasing the AS re uired. eadwind will reduce
the aeroplane ground speed and reduce ASD.

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Determination of ASD and Deceleration Procedure

05 Explain how the accelerate-stop distance is determined and discuss the deceleration
procedure.
[Link].03

CS . ex lains how the accelerate sto distance is determined

a) The accelerate sto distance on a dry runway is the greater of the following distances
(See A C . (a) and (b))
( ) The sum of the distances necessary to
(i) Accelerate the aero lane from a standing start with all engines o erating to
VEF for takeoff from a dry runway.
(ii) Allow the aero lane to accelerate from EF to the highest speed reached
during the rejected takeoff. Assuming the critical engine fails at EF as well as
the ilot takes the first action to reject the takeoff at the 1 (for takeoff from
a dry runway) and
(iii) Easy access rules for large aero lanes come to a full sto on a dry runway
from the s eed reached as rescribed in sub aragra h (a)( )(ii) of this
aragra h lus
(iv) A distance e uivalent to two seconds at the 1
for takeoff from a dry runway.
( ) The sum of the distances necessary to
(i) Accelerate the aero lane from a standing start with all engines o erating to
the highest s eed reached during the rejected takeoff assuming the ilot
takes the first action to reject the takeoff at the 1 for takeoff from a dry
runway and
(ii) With all engines still o erating come to a full sto on a dry runway from the
s eed reached as rescribed in sub aragra h (a)( )(i) of this aragra h lus
(iii) A distance e uivalent to two seconds at the 1
for takeoff from a dry runway.
b) The accelerate sto distance on a wet runway is the greater of the following distances
(See A C . (a) and (b))
( ) The accelerate sto distance on a dry runway determined in accordance with
sub aragra h (a) of this aragra h or
( ) The accelerate sto distance determined in accordance with sub aragra h
(a) of this aragra h exce t that the runway is wet and the corres onding wet
runway values of VEF and V1 are used. In determining the wet runway accelerate-
sto distance the sto ing force from the wheel brakes may never exceed
(i) The wheel brakes sto ing force determined in meeting the re uirements of
CS . (i) and sub aragra h (a) of this aragra h and
(ii) The force resulting from the wet runway braking coe cient of friction
determined in accordance with sub aragra hs (c) or (d) of this aragra h as
applicable, taking into account the distribution of the normal load between
braked and unbraked wheels at the most adverse centre of gravity position
a roved for takeoff.

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The most effective way to sto the aero lane is to close the throttles and a ly full braking. There
is an element of aerodynamic drag from s oilers which should de loy with a rejected takeoff
and from the selected a s. Although not included in the takeoff calculations reverse thrust is
reasonably effective to about to kt when the reverse thrust re enters the air intake and
may cause foreign object damage ( ) from the runway to be ingested and otentially damage
the engine. everse thrust is very effective on contaminated runways.

yste ects on and ra e e perature ise

06 Ex lain how the accelerate sto distance is affected by the use of brakes anti skid reverse
thrust ground s oilers (lift dum ers) and by brake energy absor tion limits delayed
temperature rise and brake temperature indication.

Any form of retardation will reduce the AS although some devices are more effective than
others. n a normal dry runway used symmetrically brakes are the most e cient form of
braking. Wheel drag is the friction force between the wheel and the runway and with the wheel
bearings, whereas brake drag is the friction force between the brake discs and the brake pads.
Wheel drag will come into play as soon as the aeroplane touches down on the runway. However,
as friction is a function of the force pushing two surfaces together, because there is still a lot of
lift being generated, wheel load is small during the initial part of the landing run, and therefore
wheel drag is also small. As speed reduces and as lift is destroyed by the spoilers, the wheel load
increases, which in turn increases the wheel drag. Therefore, wheel drag increases throughout
the landing roll and will reach a maximum value just before the aeroplane comes to rest.

rake drag is by far the most im ortant and the most effective of the various drag forces during
the landing since it rovides the greatest retarding force. owever brake drag is only effective if
there is also su cient wheel drag or wheel friction between the tyres and the runway. If wheel drag
is low brake drag will also be low. Conse uently the brakes are effective only if there is su cient
friction between the tyres and the runway. During the early part of the landing run there is not much
load on the wheels and therefore not much wheel friction. rake drag is conse uently ineffective in
slowing down the aeroplane. However, as the lift reduces and more weight is placed on the wheels,
brake drag does become more effective in slowing down the aero lane. Therefore brake drag
increases as the landing roll progresses. This concept explains why pilots need to destroy lift as
soon as ossible after touchdown so that the braking action can be at its eak effectiveness early
in the landing. In most large commercial aeroplanes, however, the braking action may not actually
be carried out by the ilots. Instead it can be carried out by a highly effective automatic anti-skid
braking system which is designed to prevent wheels from stopping on contaminated runways and
then applying full braking on a subsequent dry surface with a substantial probability of damage.
This braking system can be set to low, medium or high braking levels, or levels 1 through 3. High or
level would be used on the takeoff roll in the event of an T and low to medium or would be
used for normal landings or contaminated surfaces.

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However, used at high speed, or applied at the maximum level, braking will generate considerable
heat energy through friction. Above a certain brake energy absorption limit the brakes become
ineffective as the brakes are inca able of releasing the heat energy. usible lugs in the rims can
help prevent mechanical wheel damage, but the highest temperatures are invariably delayed due
to the transfer of heat energy. Although modern aeroplanes have brake temperature indicators
and some have brake cooling fans built into the wheel hub, it can take a considerable time period
to reduce the temperature to a safe limit, and there is a lag between brake application and
temperature rise.

The ground spoilers create aerodynamic drag on the aeroplane and reduce the lift on the wing to
allow the aero lane weight to transfer to the aero lane wheels effectively.

Although the reverse thrust is not considered in the normal planning process, it applies a
consistent braking effect to the aero lane. It is most e cient at high s eed and articularly
useful on contaminated runways.

a ards o ig round peed or ig a eo ass on e ected a eo

07 Ex lain the ha ards of rejecting a take off from high ground s eed or high take off mass
and how to manage these hazards.

ejecting a takeoff at high s eed or high takeoff mass involves skilful management of systems
and use of SOPs, to prevent severe damage to the brakes and wheels, as the aeroplane possesses
significant momentum and kinetic energy. tilising the aero lane s auto braking and anti skid
systems gives a high degree of protection against wheels locking, overheating and damaging
brakes. Once the aircraft is under control and it is obvious the ASD is not going to be exceeded,
the braking action can be relaxed. Sto ing on the runway or just off the active runway is a
consideration and prevents the delayed temperature increase from causing a brakes failure
during taxi. However, the application of the parking brake may cause brakes to lock on and
prevent clearance from the runway.

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01.04 Balanced Field Length Concept

Balanced Field Length
01 efine the term balanced field length .

A balanced field exists if the takeoff distance is e ual to the AS . An aerodrome which has no
sto way or clearway has a balanced field. or an aero lane taking off if an engine failure occurs
the later the engine fails, the greater the accelerate-stop distance required will be but the lower
the takeoff distance re uired will be. At some s eed the two distances will be e ual. igure .
shows the variation of these distances graphically.

Figure 4.14 Balanced field V1

elations ip et een a eo istance and ccelerate top istance

02 Describe the relationship between distance and accelerate-stop distance and identify on
a diagram the balanced field length and balanced .
03 escribe the a licability of a balanced field length.

A balanced field exists if the takeoff distance is e ual to the accelerate sto distance. An
aerodrome which has no sto way or clearway has a balanced field. As reviously stated in an
aero lane if an engine failure occurs while taking off the later the engine fails the greater the
AS re uired will be however the less the takeoff distance re uired will be. At some s eed the
two distances will be equal.

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The distance oint A in figure . is the balanced field length re uired for the revailing
conditions. It represents the maximum distance required for those conditions, because at the
engine failure speed, the distance is adequate, either to stop if the failure occurs before V1 or to
com lete the takeoff if the failure occurs after 1.

Figure 4.15 Balanced field V1

A com lete analysis of takeoff erformance re uires any sto way and clearway available be taken
into account. As this is time consuming and will often give a maximum ermissible takeoff mass
in excess of the re uired one sim lified data is often resented to ermit a ra id assessment of
the takeoff mass. ne method of doing this is to use balanced field data.

If the takeoff aerodrome is not a balanced field the balanced field data can be used by assuming
a balanced field e ual to the lesser of the takeoff distance available and the accelerate sto
distance available. This distance may exceed the takeoff run available unless the T A becomes
limiting. The takeoff mass obtained will of course be less than that which could have been
obtained by taking account of sto way and clearway. owever if the mass is su cient for the
ight it will not be necessary to go into a more detailed analysis.

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01.05 Unbalanced Field Length Concept

Applicability of an Unbalanced Field Length
01 escribe the a licability of an unbalanced field length.

Allowing the use of a sto way or clearway will roduce an unbalanced field length. Although more
time consuming as a calculation, it allows a new V1 s eed and higher takeoff from an aerodrome.

or a given weight and conditions the balanced field 1 will give the optimum performance,
since the TODR and the ASDR are equal. In some circumstances, however, this V1 will not be
acceptable, as V1 must lie within the limits of VMCG, VR and VMBE. The following situations will give
an unbalanced field

• V1 less than VMCG - at low weights and altitudes V1 for the balanced field may be less
than VMCG. In this case V1 would have to be increased to VMCG and so the TODR would
be less and the AS would be greater than the balanced field length. The field
length required would be equal to the ASDR at VMCG.

Figure 4.16 V1 less than VMCG

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• V1 greater than VMBE at high weight altitude and tem erature the balanced field 1
may exceed the VMBE. V1 would have to be reduced to VMBE giving a TODR greater, and
an AS which is less than the balanced field length. The field length re uired would
be equal to the TODR at VMBE.

Figure 4.17 V1 greater than VMBE

• V1 greater than VR - for aircraft with good braking capabilities, the stopping distance
will be short giving a high balanced field 1 speed. If this exceeds VR for the weight, V1
will have to be reduced to VR and the field length re uired will be e ual to the T
at VR.

Figure 4.18 V1 greater than VR

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ect o top ay
02 Ex lain the effect of additional sto way on the allowed take off mass and a ro riate
when using an unbalanced field.

If a sto way is added to T A the field length becomes unbalanced and AS increases. This
allows a higher field length takeoff mass to be achieved and a higher 1 speed, because a higher
sto can be achieved in the additional distance com ared to a balanced field calculation.

ect o lear ay
03 Ex lain the effect of additional clearway on the allowed take off mass and a ro riate
when using an unbalanced field.

sing clearway in the takeoff field length allows the advantage of an unbalanced field length
calculation. This means a higher takeoff mass and lower 1 than the balanced field calculation
because the additional clearway allows a lower Vgo. This allows the aeroplane to accelerate to
reach V2 at a later point even after an engine failure.

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. ield engt i ited a eo ass

01 Ex lain the factors that affect the LLT .

This section will focus on calculating the various limiting masses for takeoff. Class A aero lanes
have data resented to the ilot in a different way than smaller Class aero lanes. Whereas
Class aero lane data for takeoff would show what length of runway would be used for any given
mass, Class A aeroplane data shows what maximum mass could be taken for a given runway
length. This is correct, since Class A aeroplanes are used commercially, and the interest of the
airlines is to carry the maximum ayload ossible for the ight. Therefore most erformance
gra hs or tables will give a mass as their outcome. The first of these erformance masses is the
field limit brake release mass.

The field-length-limited takeoff mass (FLLTOM) at brakes release, is the maximum mass that will
allow the aero lane to meet its field length re uirements at the airfield concerned. Therefore
to be heavier than the field limit mass would mean that either the one engine ino erative or the
all engine o erative takeoff run takeoff distance or AS exceeds the available distance at the
airfield.

ote that airfields can have different lengths of takeoff run takeoff distance and accelerate sto
distance (AS ) available. Therefore there should be many mass gra hs. The mass gra hs should
ensure that the mass is such that the takeoff run re uired is within the takeoff run available
and the takeoff distance re uired is within the takeoff distance available. And lastly another
mass graph is required to ensure the accelerate-stop distance required is within the accelerate-
stop distance available. However, to simplify, there is only one graph and only one assumed
available distance to calculate the LLT . The gra h assumes that the takeoff run available
the takeoff distance available and the accelerate sto distance available are the same length
even though the takeoff distance available and accelerate sto distance available may be longer.
Therefore no sto ways or clearways are accounted for. When the takeoff distance available and
the accelerate sto distance available are the same the field is described as being balanced.
In this case the balanced field length also ha ens to be the same length as the takeoff run
available because there are no stopways or clearways. To use the graph, make sure you only
enter the takeoff run available as the length of field available. All other factors variables are
located above the field length.

An exam le of a ty ical balanced field length gra h is shown in figure . . This gra h is
exactly like the one shown in CAP . otice at the bottom of the gra h there is only one field
distance to enter the gra h but an airfield has many distances such as the T A and the AS A.
ecause there is only one distance to enter into the gra h it must be balanced field length. The
introduction to the gra h is in CAP and it reiterates that the gra h assumes a balanced field.
or unbalanced fields use the information contained in CAP . This latter information is for
adjusting V1 when the field is unbalanced.

The gra h in figure . clearly shows what factors affect the LLT .

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Figure 4.19 Field length limit mass calculation

Source: Figure 4.4, Takeoff Performance – Field Length Limit Graph, Section 4, CAP 698

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Range of V1
02 Ex lain the conce t of a range of and ex lain reasons for the lacement of the
designated V1 towards the faster or slower end of the range.

If the balanced field available is greater than the balanced field re uired for the re uired takeoff
mass and conditions, there will be a range of speed within which V1 can be chosen. This situation
is illustrated in figure . .

Figure 4.20 Range of V1

VGO is the first s eed at which the takeoff can be com leted within the distance available and
VSTOP is the last speed at which the accelerate-stop could be completed within the distance. The V1
speed can therefore be chosen anywhere between VGO and VSTOP. Company Standard Operating
Procedures (S P) will usually dictate whether a high or low 1 is chosen and the relationship with
VMCG. An example of a low V1 would be used on a runway with reduced braking capacity and high
V1 for an improved V2 climb procedure which will be taught later.

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01.07 Contaminated Runways

Dry and Contaminated Runway
01 efine a contaminated runway wet runway and a dry runway .

This rocedure is detailed on age of section in CAP . A runway is considered to be

contaminated when more than of the runway surface area (whether in isolated areas or not)
within the required length and width being used is covered by surface water, more than 3 mm
deep, or by slush or loose snow, equivalent to more than 3 mm of water.

Damp runway: A runway is considered damp when the surface is not dry, but the moisture on it
does not give it a shiny appearance.

Wet runway: A runway is considered wet when the runway surface appears shiny with less than
3 mm of water and the outside temperature is normally higher than 5° C.

Dry runway: A runway which is neither wet nor contaminated and includes those paved runways
which have been specially prepared with grooves or porous pavement and maintained to retain
effectively dry braking action even when moisture is resent.

Slush loose snow or standing water on the runway will affect both the takeoff distance re uired
and the accelerate sto distance re uired. The takeoff distance re uired will increase because
of the additional wheel drag and impingement drag. The accelerate-stop distance will increase
because of the increased distance to accelerate and the increased distance to stop resulting from
the reduced runway coe cient of braking friction. or given distances available the maximum
takeoff mass and 1 will therefore be reduced compared to the dry runway. The greater the
depth of contamination, the greater the mass reduction and the less the V1 reduction.

Types of Contamination
02 escribe the different ty es of contamination wet or water atches rime or frost covered
dry snow wet snow slush ice com acted or rolled snow fro en ruts or ridges. Source
[Link].01 ICAO Annex 15, Appendix 2

Rime/frost ice forms when supercooled water liquid droplets freeze onto cold surfaces.

Dry snow is powdery, easily blown around by the wind and is not sticky. The wetness or dryness
of the snow is determined by the amount of liquid content within the falling snow.

Slush is a slurry mixture of small ice crystals (e.g. snow) and li uid water.

Ice is water frozen into a solid state.

Compacted snow is a specially prepared winter runway when temperature is very low, at or
below -15°C.

A rut or ridge is a furrow or track in the ground, especially one made by a passage of a vehicle.

Frozen ruts refer to those tracks in the ground that have now become hard due to frost.

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Figure 4.21 Runway surface conditions

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i erence et een oe cient riction and sti ated ur ace riction

03 Identify the difference between friction coe cient and estimated surface friction. Source
ICAO Annex 15, Appendix 2

The coefficient of friction ( ) is the ratio defining the force that resists the motion of one body
in relation to another body in contact with it. This ratio is dependent on material properties, and
most materials have a value between 0 and 1.

Aircraft braking coe cient is de endent u on the estimated surface friction between the
tyres on the aircraft wheels and the pavement surface. Less friction means less aircraft braking
coe cient and less aircraft braking res onse. Friction is ex ressed as the coe cient of friction
this is the ratio of the friction force (F) between two surfaces in contact and the normal force
(N) which exists between the object resting on the surface and the surface (i.e. ).

Estimated Good Braking Action

04 State that when friction coe cient is . or higher the ex ected braking action is good.
Source ICA Annex ol. I Attachment A

Numerous documents contain the estimated surface friction decode allowing a quick reference
to the estimated braking action to assess the braking conditions of the runway.

Figure 4.22 Friction coefficient

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Figure 4.23 Stopping force and runway friction

Types of Hydroplaning
05 efine the different ty es of hydro laning. Source ASA T Tire riction
Performance . to

There are three principal types of aquaplaning or hydroplaning as it is now more commonly known.

Dynamic Hydroplaning
When an aircraft lands fast enough on a wet runway, with at least 3 mm of standing water,
inertial effects revent water esca ing from the foot rint area and the tyre is buoyed or held off
the pavement by hydrodynamic force. Most people have experienced this type of hydroplaning
when they have driven over a patch of water at high speed.

The speed at which dynamic hydroplaning occurs is called VP. There is a simple formula to help
calculate the dynamic hydroplaning speed. For rotating tyres, the dynamic hydroplaning speed
in knots is equal to nine times the square root of the tyre pressure in psi. For a typical 737 the
dynamic hydroplaning speed is between 90 and 120 kt.

However, for non-rotating tyres the dynamic hydroplaning speed is equal to 7.7 times the square
root of the tyre pressure.

The danger from hydro laning is the virtually nil braking and steering effect. The most effective
methods of preventing this type of hydroplaning are to groove the tyres, transversely groove the
runway, ensure the runway pavement is convex from the centre line and ensure the runway has
a macro-texture.

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Viscous Hydroplaning

It occurs because of the viscous ro erties of water acting like a lubricant. A thin film of uid not
more than 0.03 mm deep cannot be penetrated by the tyre in the footprint area, and the tyre
rolls on to of the film. Viscous hydroplaning can occur at a much lower speed than dynamic
hydroplaning, but it requires a smooth surface.

The most positive method of preventing this type of hydroplaning is to provide a micro-texture
to the avement surface which breaks u the film of water allowing it to collect into very small
pockets. This means that the tyre footprint will sit on the peaks of the textured surface and not
the film of water.

Reverted Rubber Hydroplaning

This is a complex phenomenon which over the years has been the subject of a variety of
explanations. Reverted rubber hydroplaning requires a prolonged, locked wheel skid, reverted
rubber, and a wet runway surface. The locked wheels create enough heat to vaporise the
underlying water film forming a cushion of steam that lifts the tyre off the runway and eliminates
tyre to surface contact. The steam heat reverts the rubber to a black gummy deposit on the
runway. Once started, reverted rubber skidding will persist down to very low speeds, virtually
until the aircraft comes to rest. During the skid there is no steering capability, and the braking
effect is almost nil. everted rubber hydro laning is greatly reduced in modern aero lanes due
to the standardisation of advanced anti-skid braking systems which prevent wheel lock up.

Hydroplaning Speeds
06 Ex lain the difference between the two dynamic hydro laning s eeds and state which of
them is the most limiting for an aircraft o erating on a wet runway. Source ASA T
Tire riction Performance .

or rotating tyres or tyres going from a dry surface to a ooded surface the hydroplaning speed
(VP) is calculated using this formula.

The hydro laning s eed for non rotating tyres or to find the s eed below which the a ua laning
will stop is shown here.

It is important pilots be aware that the lower hydroplaning spin-up speed, rather than the high
hydroplaning spin down speed, represents the actual tire situation for aircraft touch down on
ooded runways.

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Additional Wind Limitations for Contaminated Runways

07 State that some wind limitations may apply in case of contaminated runways. Those
limitations are to be found in Part B of the Operations Manual - Limitations.
. . . .

Effective directional control on a contaminated runway surface during landing re uires that all
wheels are firmly on the ground without undue delay. Therefore some aero lane o erators
impose additional wind limitations on adverse weather operations. These can be found in the
Operations Manuals.

Procedures for Operating on Contaminated Runways

08 State that the rocedures associated with take off and landing on contaminated runways
are to be found in Part B of the Operations Manual - Normal procedures.

An Operations Manual usually contains procedures, instructions and guidance for the pilots
to erform their duties. The rocedures for takeoff and landing on contaminated runways
are usually located in Part of the erations anual roviding a descri tion of the certified
limitations and applicable operational limitations.

Figure 4.24 Operation Manual Part B

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Performance Data for Operating on Contaminated Runways

09 State that the performance associated with contaminated runways is to be found in Part B
of the Operations Manual - Performance.

To assist pilots in calculating the performance associated with contaminated runways,

supplementary data can be located in Part B of the Operations Manual.

Figure 4.25 Operation Manual Part B

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. a eo li
Flat-Rated and Non-Flat-Rated Part in Performance Charts
01 Ex lain the difference between the at rated and non at rated art in erformance charts.

Figure 4.26 Takeoff performance – climb limit

Source: Figure 4.5, Takeoff Performance – Climb Limit, Section 4, CAP 698

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The flat rated or assumed temperature limit section allows for the reduced thrust developed in safe
reduced thrust procedures as will be seen later. Non-flat-rated part is effectively maximum ower.

Climb-Gradient Requirements
02 State the differences in climb gradient re uirements for two three and four engined
aeroplanes.

The takeoff climb or takeoff ight ath extends from ft above the takeoff surface to
ft above the takeoff surface. owever with a contaminated runway takeoff the takeoff climb
begins at 15 ft and not 35 ft. The point on the ground directly below the 35 ft screen is called
reference zero.

There are two main re uirements that must be met within the takeoff climb and these
requirements are based upon an engine failure occurring at VEF. Remember that performance
of Class A aero lanes must account for engine failure in all ight hases. The first re uirement
is that the aeroplane must be able to achieve the minimum climb gradients and secondly the
aero lane must be able to maintain su cient obstacle clearance. emember that the climb
gradient requirements are air-based gradients and the obstacle clearance requirement use
ground-based gradients.

When assessing compliance with the regulations, the manufacturer or operator may either use
a continuous demonstrated takeoff climb or a segmented takeoff climb. Segmenting the takeoff
climb does make the requirements and the procedure a little easier to comprehend. Therefore,
we will use a segmented takeoff climb rofile as most o erators and manufacturers do.

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eg ents o a eo li

The takeoff climb is generally s lit into four uni ue segments and these are shown in figure . .
Each segment is characteristic of a distinct change in aero lane configuration s eed and or
thrust with various actions and climb gradient requirements. Generally, there are four segments,
and you will need to learn what uni ue characteristics define each segment.

Figure 4.27 Climb gradient during takeoff climb

aria les ects on a eo li

03 Ex lain the effects of aero lane configuration and meteorological conditions on the take
off climb.
[Link].08
[Link].09
The additional drag caused by a or gear being left extended beyond normal o erational
retraction points will increase drag, and therefore reduce the excess thrust available and the
takeoff climb erformance. Similarly any meteorological conditions that affect density will also
affect thrust and ultimately the amount of excess thrust

eter ine li i ited a eo ass

04 etermine the climb limited take off mass.

The aeroplane must be able to achieve the minimum climb gradients and be able to maintain
su cient obstacle clearance. emember that the climb gradient re uirements are air based
gradients, and the obstacle clearance requirement use ground-based gradients. The graph in
CAP can be used to calculate the climb limit mass.

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Figure 4.28 Takeoff performance - climb limit

Source: Figure 4.5, Takeoff Performance – Climb Limit, Section 4, CAP 698

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. stacle i ited a eo
stacle learance in et a eo lig t at
01 escribe the o erational regulations for obstacle clearance in the net take off ight ath
( T P).

In E PS it is stated that an o erator must ensure that the net takeoff ight ath ( T P) must
clear all obstacles by a vertical margin of at least 35 ft. If the aeroplane is unable to do so, it must
turn away from the obstacle and clear it by a hori ontal distance of at least

90m+0.125D
ere the hori ontal distance the aero lane has travelled from the end of the takeoff
distance available.

or aero lanes with a wings an of less than m the hori ontal obstacle clearance is

owever obstacles further away than the values shown in figure . need not be considered.

Figure 4.29 Maximum semi-width of obstacle accountability area

The net gradient is the gross gradient reduced by

• 0.8% for 2-engine aircraft

• 0.9% for 3-engine aircraft
• 1.0% for 4-engine aircraft

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Actual/ NTOFP with One-Engine-Inoperative

02 efine the actual and T P with one engine ino erative in accordance with CS .

[Link].02
The actual or NTOFP with one-engine-inoperative is usually demonstrated as a continuous climb
or as a four segment takeoff climb which are described in . . . . .

aria les ecting stacle i ited a eo ass

03 Ex lain the effects of aero lane configuration and meteorological conditions on the
obstacle limited take off mass.

With more a selected the drag significantly increases as s eed increases resulting in a
reduced obstacle limited takeoff mass. Any meteorological conditions that reduce density will
also reduce the obstacle limited takeoff mass. owever headwinds im rove the obstacle limited
takeoff mass as the ground gradient is im roved.

eg ents o a eo lig t at
04 escribe the segments of the actual take off ight ath.
05 escribe the changes in the configuration ower thrust and s eed in the T P climb
segments.

The takeoff climb is generally s lit into four uni ue segments and these are shown in figure
4.30 or a continuous climb. Each segment is characteristic of a distinct change in aeroplane
configuration s eed and or thrust with various actions and climb gradient re uirements.
enerally there are four segments and you will need to learn what uni ue characteristics define
each segment.

Segment 1
The takeoff ight ath starts once the takeoff is com lete in other words at ft with the
aeroplane at V2 with one engine inoperative. The 35 ft screen marks the start point of segment
. The objective at this oint is to climb as ex editiously as ossible which is di cult because of
the lack of excess thrust due to the large amount of drag created by the gear and a s and the
fact that one engine is deemed ino erative. Therefore the strategy is to retract the gear and a s
as soon as a ositive rate of climb is established. Since retracting a s at low s eeds close to the
ground is dangerous, the only option is to retract the gear. Once the gear is up and locked then
the first segment is finished. uring this segment the steady gradient of climb must be ositive.

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Segment 2

The second segment starts at the end of the first segment (i.e. when the gear is u ). The objective
now is to retract the a s. owever a retraction is not ermitted below ft therefore the
action by the pilot is to climb, at no less than V2, until 400 ft is reached. Once 400 ft is reached and
a retraction can commence segment ends. Since the aero lane has had the main source of
drag removed, the minimum gradient requirement is more severe at no less than 2.4%.

Segment 3
Segment starts at or above ft and is the a retraction and acceleration segment. owever
retracting the a s will increase the stall s eed reducing the aero lane s safety margin. Therefore
the aero lane must accelerate during a retraction from 2 to the ero a s eed and then to
the final takeoff s eed. The final takeoff s eed is also called the final segment s eed and is
intended to be the one engine inoperative best angle of climb speed. Once this has happened,
thrust can be reduced from maximum takeoff thrust T A to maximum continuous thrust
CT. In fact maximum takeoff thrust is limited to only minutes. Therefore acceleration and
a retraction must be com lete within that time frame. We re uire excess thrust to enable us to
climb or accelerate, and since our priority in this segment is to accelerate, there is no minimum
climb gradient required. The only way we can quantify this acceleration requirement, is by stating
that the excess thrust available would be equivalent to a minimum climb gradient of 1.2%.

Segment 4
The fourth segment starts when the a s are retracted the final segment s eed is achieved and
the thrust is set to maximum continuous thrust. From this point the aeroplane is climbed to above
ft where the takeoff ight ath ends. The ilot will either recover to the airfield or continue
to his takeoff alternate. The climb gradient for this last stage must not be less than . .

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Figure 4.30 Segments of the takeoff climb

ect o a i u an ngle on tall peed and 2

06 State the standard maximum bank angle(s) in the first and second segment and determine
the effect on the stall s eed and im lication on .

Clearly it is not safe if the aeroplane needs to bank sharply to clear the obstacle by the regulatory
margins. Turning can increase the effective weight by im osing extra g loads resulting in a
reduced climb gradient and increased stall s eeds. Allowance must be made for the effect of the
turn on the climb gradient and speed.

The ight manual usually gives a gradient decrement for a banked turn at 2
. For greater
bank angles

• or bank use gradient decrement and 2

kt
• or bank use gradient decrement and 2
kt

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Turns in Flight Path

ue to the effects of turning as described above these are the recommended turns in a ight ath

• Turns are not allowed below a height of half the wingspan or 50 ft, whichever is greater.
• Up to 400 ft, bank angle may not be more than 15°.
• Above 400 ft, bank angle may not be more than 25°.
EU-OPS 1.495 does permit operators to exceed these bank angles provided that the operator uses
special procedures and that these procedures have been approved by the relevant authority.
The special procedures must take account of the gradient loss from such bank angles and these
must be ublished in the aero lane ight manual. The maximum bank angles that the s ecial
procedures allow are up to 20° between 200 and 400 ft and up to 30 ° between 400 and 1,500 ft.

If any turn of more than is re uired at any oint in the takeoff ight ath then the vertical
clearance is increased to 50 ft instead of 35 ft.

nfluence o irspeed on li radient

07 Ex lain the in uence of airs eed selection acceleration and turns on the climb gradient.

Any impact on the excess of thrust and best speed for the climb gradient will reduce the climb
gradient. As the lift increases in a turn, the load factor will increase requiring more thrust, causing
the climb gradient to reduce.

CS 25.111, 115, 117 and 121 – EU Airworthiness Requirements

08 Describe the European Union airworthiness requirements according to CS-25 relating to
aero lane erformance take off climb and ight ath (S PA T LI T PE A CE
CS . CS . CS . and CS . )

CS 25.111
a) The takeoff ath extends from a standing start to a oint in the takeoff at which the
aero lane is m( ft) above the takeoff surface or at which the transition
from the takeoff to the en route configuration is com leted and FTO is reached,
whichever oint is higher. In addition
( ) The takeoff ath must be based on the rocedures rescribed in CS . (f)
( ) The aero lane must be accelerated on the ground to EF, at which point the
critical engine must be made inoperative and remain inoperative for the rest of
the takeoff and
( ) After reaching EF
, the aeroplane must be accelerated to V2.
b) uring the acceleration to s eed 2 the nose gear may be raised off the ground at a
speed not less than VR. However, landing gear retraction may not be begun until the
aero lane is airborne (See A C . (b)).

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c) uring the takeoff ath determination in accordance with sub aragra hs (a) and (b)
of this aragra h
( ) The slo e of the airborne art of the takeoff ath must be ositive at each oint.
( ) The aero lane must reach 2 before it is m ( ft) above the takeoff surface
and must continue at a speed as close as practical to, but not less than V2 until it
is m( ft) above the takeoff surface.
( ) At each oint along the takeoff ath starting at the oint at which the aero lane
reaches m( ft) above the takeoff surface the available gradient of climb
may not be less than
(i) . for two engined aero lanes.
(ii) . for three engined aero lanes and
(iii) . for four engined aero lanes
( ) The aero lane configuration may not be changed exce t for gear retraction and
automatic propeller feathering, and no change in power or thrust that requires
action by the ilot may be made until the aero lane is m( ft) above the
takeoff surface and
( ) If CS . (a)( ) re uires the takeoff ath to be determined for ight in icing
conditions the airborne art of the takeoff must be based on the aero lane
drag
(i) With the Takeoff Ice accretion defined in A endix C from a height of m
( ft) above the takeoff surface u to the oint where the aero lane is m
( ft) above the takeoff surface and
(ii) With the inal Takeoff Ice accretion defined in A endix C from the oint
where the aero lane is m( ft) above the takeoff surface to the end of
the takeoff ath.
d) The takeoff ath must be determined by a continuous demonstrated takeoff or by
synthesis from segments. If the takeoff ath is determined by the segmental method
( ) The segments must be clearly defined and must relate to the distinct changes in
the configuration ower or thrust and s eed.
( ) The weight of the aero lane the configuration and the ower or thrust must
be constant throughout each segment and must correspond to the most critical
condition prevailing in the segment.
( ) The ight ath must be based on the aero lane s erformance without ground
effect and
( ) The takeoff ath data must be checked by continuous demonstrated takeoffs
u to the oint at which the aero lane is out of ground effect and its s eed is
stabilised, to ensure that the path is conservative to the continuous path. The
aero lane is considered to be out of the ground effect when it reaches a height
equal to its wingspan.
) ot re uired for CS .

Amdt. o.

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CS 25.115

a) The takeoff ight ath must be considered to begin m ( ft) above the takeoff
surface at the end of the takeoff distance determined in accordance with CS .
(a) or (b) as a ro riate for the runway surface condition.
b) The net takeoff ight ath data must be determined so that they re resent the actual
takeoff ight aths (determined in accordance with Annex to E ecision
Amendment CS CS . and with sub aragra h (a) of this
aragra h) reduced at each oint by a gradient of climb e ual to
( ) . for two engined aero lanes.
( ) . for three engined aero lanes. And
( ) . for four engined aero lanes.
c) The rescribed reduction in climb gradient may be a lied as an e uivalent reduction
in acceleration along that art of the takeoff ight ath at which the aero lane is
accelerated in level ight.

CS 25.117

Compliance with the requirements of CS 25.119 and 25.121 must be shown at each weight,
altitude, and ambient temperature within the operational limits established for the aeroplane
and with the most unfavourable centre of gravity for each configuration.

CS 25.121

Climb one engine ino erative (See A C . )

a) Takeoff landing gear extended. (See A C . (a).) In the critical takeoff configuration
existing along the ight ath (between the oints at which the aero lane reaches
L and at which the landing gear is fully retracted) and in the configuration used
in CS . but without ground effect the steady gradient of climb must be ositive
for two engined aero lanes and not less than for three engined aero lanes or
. for fourengined aero lanes at L and with
( ) The critical engine ino erative and the remaining engines at the ower or thrust
available when retraction of the landing gear is begun in accordance with CS
25.111 unless there is a more critical power operating condition existing later
along the ight ath but before the oint at which the landing gear is fully
retracted (see A C . (a)( )) and
( ) The weight e ual to the weight existing when retraction of the landing gear is
begun determined under CS 25.111.

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b) Takeoff landing gear retracted. In the takeoff configuration existing at the oint of
the ight ath at which the landing gear is fully retracted and in the configuration
used in CS . but without ground effect
( ) The steady gradient of climb may not be less than . for two engined
aeroplanes, 2.7% for three-engined aeroplanes and 3.0% for four-engined
aero lanes at with
(i) The critical engine ino erative the remaining engines at the takeoff ower
or thrust available at the time the landing gear is fully retracted, determined
under CS 25.111, unless there is a more critical power operating condition
existing later along the ight ath but before the oint where the aero lane
reaches a height of m ( ft) above the takeoff surface (see A C
. (b)( )(i)) and
(ii) The weight e ual to the weight existing when the aero lane s landing gear is
fully retracted, determined under CS 25.111.
( ) The re uirements of sub aragra h (b)( ) of this aragra h must be met
(i) In non icing conditions and
(ii) In icing conditions with the Takeoff Ice accretion defined in A endix C if in
the configuration of CS . (b) with the Takeoff Ice accretion
A. The stall s eed at maximum takeoff weight exceeds that in non icing
conditions by more than the greater of . km h ( kt) CAS or of SR or
B. The degradation of the gradient of climb determined in accordance
with CS . (b) is greater than one half of the a licable actual to net
takeoff ight ath gradient reduction defined in CS . (b).
c) inal takeoff. In the en route configuration at the end of the takeoff ath determined
in accordance with CS .
( ) The steady gradient of climb may not be less than . for two engined
aeroplanes, 1.5% for three-engined aeroplanes, and 1.7% for four-engined
aeroplanes, at VFTO and with
(i) The critical engine ino erative and the remaining engines at the available
maximum continuous ower or thrust and
(ii) The weight e ual to the weight existing at the end of the takeoff ath
determined under CS 25.111.
( ) The re uirements of sub aragra h (c)( ) of this aragra h must be met
(i) In non icing conditions and
(ii) In icing conditions with the inal Takeoff Ice accretion defined in A endix
C if in the configuration of CS . (b) with the Takeoff Ice accretion
A. The stall s eed at maximum takeoff weight exceeds that in non icing
conditions by more than the greater of . km h ( kt) CAS or of SR or
B. The degradation of the gradient of climb determined in accordance
with CS . (b) is greater than one half of the a licable actual to net
takeoff ight ath gradient reduction defined in CS . (b).

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d) A roach. In a configuration corres onding to the normal all engines o erating

procedure in which VSR for this configuration does not exceed of the SR for the
related all engines o erating landing configuration
( ) The steady gradient of climb may not be less than for two engined
aero lanes for three engined aero lanes and for four engined
aero lanes with
(i) The critical engine ino erative the remaining engines at the go around
power or thrust setting.
(ii) The maximum landing weight
(iii) A climb s eed established in connection with normal landing rocedures
but not more than S and
(iv) Landing gear retracted.
( ) The re uirements of sub aragra h (d)( ) of this aragra h must be met
(i) In non icing conditions and
(ii) In icing conditions with the A roach Ice accretion defined in A endix C.
The climb speed selected for non-icing conditions may be used if the climb
s eed for icing conditions com uted in accordance with sub aragra h (d)
( )(iii) of this aragra h does not exceed that for non icing conditions by
more than the greater of . km h ( knots) CAS or . Amdt. o.

01.10 PLTOM and RTOM Tables

and a eo i itations
01 efine PLT and T .
02 escribe the use of T tables or similar to find PLT and how this can also be done
using an EFB.
03 Inter ret what take off limitation (field length obstacle climb structural etc.) is restricting
a particular RTOM as it is presented in RTOM tables or similar.

Performance limited takeoff mass (PLTOM) is the takeoff mass subject to de arture aerodrome
limitations. Regulated takeoff mass (RTOM) is the lowest of the PLTOM and structural limited
takeoff mass (T ).

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Figure 4.31 PLTOM and RTOM

The obstacle can be avoided laterally and therefore the FLLTOM is the limiting PLTOM and RTOM.
any T tables will indicate the actual limiting factor. If the T is above kg the
structural limit T is the limit for takeoff.

The use of electronic ight bags makes the task of erformance lanning much easier and
more e cient.

RTOM Tables and Electronic Flight Bag

04 escribe why data from an E can differ from data derived from T tables or similar.

T tables rovide the necessary alterations to different variable criteria to calculate the
RTOM and PLTOM. This can be time consuming and subject to human errors interpolating grid
lines. An electronic flight bag (EFB) is an electronic information management device that helps
ight crews erform ight management tasks more easily and e ciently with less a er. It is
a general-purpose computing platform intended to reduce, or replace, paper-based reference
material often found in the ilot s carry on ight bag including the aircraft o erating manual
ight crew o erating manual and navigational charts (including moving ma for air and ground
o erations). In addition the E can host ur ose built software a lications to automate other
functions normally conducted by hand such as takeoff erformance calculations.

The data obtained from an E is more accurate than the figures com uted from an C or
RTOM because actual values are used in the EFB computation.

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Figure 4.32 Electronic flight bag

. a eo er or ance on et and onta inated un ays

a eo er or ance on onta inated and ry un ay
01 Ex lain the differences between the take off erformance determination on a wet or
contaminated runway and on a dry runway.

The takeoff distance re uired will increase because of the additional wheel drag and im ingement
drag. Therefore the takeoff erformance must be changed. The accelerate sto distance will
increase because of the increased distance to accelerate and the increased distance to stop the
aircraft resulting from the reduced runway coe cient of braking friction. or given distances
available the maximum takeoff mass and 1 will therefore be reduced compared to the dry
runway. The greater the depth of contamination, the greater the mass reduction and the less the
V1 reduction. Additionally, VMCG will have to checked against V1.

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Figure 4.33 Contaminated runway corrections

Source: Figure 4.14, Advisory Information – Contaminated Runways, Section 4, CAP 698

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Figure 4.34 Correction to ensure VMCG does not exceed V1

Source: Figure 4.14, Advisory Information – Contaminated Runways, Section 4, CAP 698

Wet V1
02 Describe a wet V1 and explain the consequences of using a wet V1.

[Link].01
e ending on the de th of water the runway can be considered to be wet and this will affect
the aero lanes ability to accelerate and sto . To reduce this effect the 1 is reduced (usually by
kts) to im rove the sto ing ca abilities. owever this degrades the takeoff erformance in
the event the takeoff is continued and the screen height is also reduced to ft.

Hazards of Operating on a Contaminated Runway

03 escribe the ha ards effects and management of o erating from a contaminated runway.

Whether taking off or landing a contaminated runway resents numerous ha ards to aero lane
operations. The lack of acceleration, friction, directional control, increased impingement drag
and ability to sto are obvious roblems. The hysiological and environmental effects on the
body also need to be understood and will be dealt with in the subject of Human Performance
and Limitations. Moreover, the added stress from employers to get airborne only add to the
ressures affecting ilots. ood airmanshi training ex erience and racticing these o erations
in a simulator all im rove the ilots ability to o erate in these otentially hostile conditions.

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Displacement Drag and Impingement Drag

04 Describe displacement drag, impingement drag, and the methods to monitor acceleration.

Displacement drag is the drag caused by displacement of precipitation when the wheels try to
accelerate on a contaminated runway. Spray impingement drag is the drag caused by spray
thrown up by the wheels that strike the airframe and cause further drag. The acceleration of
the aeroplane can be monitored with reference to the distance gone or by to-go markers. The
aero lanes grounds eed and handling effects can also be referenced to assess acceleration.

sing erated a eo on onta inated un ay

05 Ex lain the benefits and im lications of using a derated take off on a contaminated runway.

The benefit is that a derated takeoff thrust allows a lower MCG and VMCA as compared to a full
thrust takeoff. When erformance is limited by MCG, such as on a runway contaminated with
standing water/slush/snow/ice, a lower VMCG has advantages as this allows a lower V1. However,
not all o erators allow reduced thrust takeoff on contaminated runways.

01.12 Use of Reduced (Flexible or Flex) and Derated Thrust

Reduced (Flex) and Derated Thrust
01 Ex lain the advantages and disadvantages of using reduced ( ex) and derated thrust.
02 Ex lain the difference between and rinci les behind reduced ( ex) and derated thrust.
03 Ex lain when reduced ( ex) and derated thrust may and may not be used.
04 Ex lain the effect of using reduced ( ex) and derated thrust on take off erformance
including take off s eeds take off distance climb erformance and obstacle clearance.
05 Ex lain the assumed tem erature method for determining reduced ( ex) thrust
performance.

Introduction:

Reduced (flex) and derated thrust are the reduced thrust takeoff variable thrust takeoff or
assumed tem erature takeoff. Airbus uses the term flexible takeoff and Boeing derated. The
main reason for doing this procedure is to preserve engine life and to help reduce noise. The
rocedure can be used any time the actual takeoff mass is less than the maximum ermissible
takeoff mass and there is an available distance that greatly exceeds that which is re uired. The
maximum reduction in thrust from the full rated takeoff thrust value is . Although not a
rinci al advantage the fuel burnt during takeoff is less.

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Takeoff with reduced thrust is not ermitted with

• Icy or very slippery runways

• Contaminated runways
• Anti-skid inoperative
• Reverse thrust inoperative
• Increased V2 procedure
• P C off

educed thrust takeoff rocedure is not recommended if otential wind shear conditions exist.

The rinci al risks associated with a reduced thrust takeoff are the otential of miscalculating
the derate or assumed temperature values and the possibility of entering incorrect values into
the aircraft ight management system ( S).

i erences et een educed le and erated rust

ost takeoffs use derated thrust to save engine wear. or each takeoff erformance is calculated
the necessary power setting is determined, and the thrust setting is made. Usually this is below
the maximum available level and is known as a derated thrust takeoff. oth Airbus and oeing
use derated thrust which will reduce engine thrust by a fixed ercentage for exam le erate
will reduce thrust by and erate by . When derated thrust is used it rovides a fixed
reduction of thrust and because it is fixed then MCG and VMCA can also be reduced which can help
increase takeoff mass on a short runway. owever once erate is selected thrust cannot be
increased until the aero lane is accelerated during a retraction.

An assumed tem erature takeoff (also known as ex on Airbus okker aircraft) is where the
engine thrust is reduced to match the performance on a higher-temperature day, up to either
the maximum thrust reduction allowed, or the maximum assumed temperature that meets take
off distance re uirements.

ects o educed le and erated rust on a eo er or ance

VMCG and VMCA can be lower and as the acceleration is slower the takeoff distance is increased and
the climb performance is lower, as excess thrust is reduced. If the actual TOM is less than the
obstacle clearance T there is no effect. If an engine fails after 1 the pilot has the option to
a ly full thrust on the good engine(s).

Assumed Temperature Method

Essentially this procedure assumes that the temperature is a lot hotter than it is. Imagine that
the outside air temperature is continually increasing, and as a result, the thrust produced by the
engines is continually decreasing. There will eventually be a temperature beyond which there
will be insu cient thrust to com lete a takeoff. This tem erature is then used as the assumed
tem erature and the thrust e uating to this tem erature is then set as the takeoff thrust. The
rocedure described here can also be found in CAP .

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It is first necessary to determine the most limiting erformance condition. The only common
parameter to enable comparison is that of temperature. Thus, the maximum permissible
tem erature must be calculated for the actual takeoff mass from each of the following

• Field limit graph

• Climb limit graph
• Tyre speed limit graph
• Obstacle limit graph

From these temperatures, select the lowest and ensure that it does not exceed the environmental
limit. If it does, then the environmental limit becomes the assumed temperature.

. a eo er or ance sing i erent a eo lap ettings

Optimum Flap Position for PLTOM and CLTOM
01 Ex lain the advantages and disadvantages of using different take off a settings to
o timise the erformance limited take off mass (PLT ).
02 etermine the o timum a osition and PLT from given figures.

The advantage of using a s is now well understood. They increase the amount of lift and allow
a lower VR and V2 speed, ultimately reducing the TODR for a given mass. However, the larger the
a setting the worse the climb-limited takeoff mass (CLTOM) and potential obstacle clearance
due to the increases drag caused by the a s. This could ultimately reduce the PLT .

To o timise a for the runway limit takeoff mass (RLTOM) and the climb limit mass find the
lowest mass for each a setting (as underlined in figure . ) and then use the highest of those
numbers. This is the compromise between RLTOM and CLTOM.

Figure 4.35 Flap setting effect on PLTOM and CLTOM

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Figure 4.36 Optimum flap setting against PLTOM and CLTOM

. a eo er or ance sing ncreased 2

Speeds
(‘Improved Climb Performance’)
Increased V2 Procedure and Associated Hazards
01 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the increased V2 procedure.
02 Explain under what circumstances this procedure can be used.
03 Explain the hazards of the fast V1 and VLOF speeds associated with the increased V2
procedure and how they can be managed.

This procedure is used when the performance limited mass is the climb limit mass. In other
words, the climb performance is poor and is severely restricting the potential mass of the
aeroplane. It is important to understand that in the event of engine failure, the initial climb out
speed is V2. However, V2 is not the best climb angle speed. V2 is considerably slower than the
best angle of climb speed, which is called VX. As an example, for a typical new generation 737, VX
is 80 kt faster than V2 therefore climbing out at 2 produces a climb angle much less than if the
aeroplane were to climb out at VX.

What the improved climb procedure aims to achieve is to increase V2 to be closer to VX. This
will greatly enhance the climb performance. Understanding the concepts of the increased V2
rocedure would be best illustrated by working through an exam le where the field limit mass
is kg and the climb limit mass is kg. The erformance limited mass is always the
lower mass and therefore the mass for takeoff must be kg. evertheless the runway can
allow a far greater mass. Therefore taking off with only kg would mean there would be a
significant ro ortion of the runway left. This can rovide a clue as to the solution.

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With all the excess of runway it would be possible to stay on the runway for longer during the
takeoff to build u more s eed this will ensure that at rotation and at the screen height a
faster V2 will be reached, and this faster V2 will be much closer to VX. This ensures that the climb
erformance significantly im roves. As a result of the im roved climb erformance the climb
limit mass can increase which would increase the erformance limited takeoff mass and rovide
an im roved regulated takeoff mass.

Clearly the increased V1 causes some otential sto ing ( MBE) and tyre rotation s eed ( LOF) issues
but given correct training and adherence to S Ps this is a safe rocedure and shown in CAP .

Figure 4.37 Improved climb performance – Field length limit

Source: Figure 4.15 Improved Climb Performance – Field Length Limit, Section 4, CAP 698

Figure 4.38 Improved climb performance – Tyre speed limit

Source: Figure 4.15 Improved Climb Performance – Tyre Speed Limit, Section 4, CAP 698

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01.15 Brake-Energy and Tyre-Speed Limit

01 Ex lain the effects on take off erformance of brake energy and tyre s eed limits.
02 Explain under what conditions they are more likely to become limiting.

Maximum Brake Energy Speed (VMBE)

Maximum brake energy speed (VMBE) is the maximum speed on the ground from which an
aeroplane can safely stop within the energy capabilities of the brakes. Essentially this means that
if the takeoff was rejected at a s eed higher than MBE, and maximum braking force was applied,
the brakes would not be able to safely bring the aeroplane to a stop regardless of how much
runway was left. The brakes would most robably catch fire melt and or disintegrate.

Tyre Speed Limit

Aeroplane tyres are designed to carry very high loads and operate at very high speeds. It is
common for a jet aeroplane tyre to carry loads as heavy as 27,000 kilograms while operating at
ground speeds up to 235 miles per hour or 204 kt. Tyres are carefully designed and tested to
withstand operation up to, but not necessarily beyond, these ratings.

If either of these limits are exceeded the takeoff erformance will be degraded and the aero lanes
takeoff mass reduced.

The brake-energy and tyre-speed limits are most likely to be limiting with high temperatures,
high pressure altitude, mass, slope and wind.

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02.00 Climb
02.01 Climb Techniques
ects o li ing at onstant
01 Ex lain the effect of climbing at constant IAS on TAS ach number climb gradient
rate of climb.

Figure 4.39 Climb at constant CAS

If calibrated airspeed, or simply indicated airspeed is kept constant with increasing altitude, then,
as density falls the true airs eed will increase as shown in figure . . owever if true airs eed
increases with increasing altitude, while the local speed of sound decreases, then the Mach
number must increase. The climb gradient and rate of climb both reduce as the excess thrust
reduces due to the reduction in density and therefore thrust.

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ects o li ing at onstant ac u er

02 Ex lain the effect of climbing at constant ach number on TAS IAS climb gradient rate
of climb.

If Mach number were to be kept constant, the diagram could be drawn so that the Mach line
is straight u as illustrated in figure . . otice that TAS and CAS decrease with increasing
altitude. The climb gradient and rate of climb both reduce as the excess thrust reduces due to
the reduction in density and therefore thrust.

Figure 4.40 Climb at constant Mach number

Climb Speed Schedule

03 Explain the correct sequence of climb speeds for turbojet transport aeroplanes.

After a normal takeoff climbing to the en route altitude is a straightforward affair. nce the
aero lane configuration is clean a set climb rofile or climb schedule will be own. Initially the
aeroplane climbs at a constant indicated airspeed. However, continuously climbing at a constant
indicated airspeed causes the Mach number to rise. Beyond a certain altitude, the Mach number
gets too high and serious aerodynamic forces start to affect the aero lane. The high s eed shock
wave generates very turbulent air ow that affects the control surfaces and the tail lane of the
aeroplane. In the 737 family the maximum Mach number, MMO is 0.82. Therefore, at some lower
altitude the aero lane needs to change its climb rofile to a constant ach number climb. The
altitude at which this change occurs is called the crossover or changeover altitude.

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In summary the climb rofile involves the aero lane initially climbing at a constant indicated
airspeed, and then at the crossover altitude, the aeroplane climbs at a constant Mach number.
However, ICAO limits the maximum indicated airspeed to 250 kt below 10,000 ft. For the majority
of the family the climb rofile is kt indicated airs eed u to ft then the aero lane
is accelerated to 300 kt and the climb continued at 300 kt. As the aeroplane climbs, the Mach
number will increase and when the Mach number reaches 0.74, the aeroplane maintains a climb
s eed of . until the en route cruise altitude. In figure . you will notice that the crossover
altitude is at about 25,700 ft.

Figure 4.41 Climb speed schedule for turbojet

If the aeroplane climbs at a faster speed than 300 kt, the crossover altitude is reduced in height.

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ects on in li
04 etermine the effect on TAS when climbing in and above the tro os here at constant
Mach number.

In the troposphere the temperature and density are decreasing and TAS increases until the
crossover altitude, then the TAS reduces. At and above the tropopause, the temperature remains
constant, and as a result, the TAS remains constant.

Figure 4.42 Effect on TAS

. nfluence o aria les on li er or ance

Operational Speed Limits in Climb
01 Ex lain the effect on the o erational s eed limit when climbing at constant IAS and at
constant Mach number.
[Link].03

Should the VMO or MMO be close to the climb schedule speed, great care must be taken to avoid
exceeding these limits and the operational speed limit may need to be reduced to prevent the
aeroplane being overstressed.

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Figure 4.43 Operational speed limits in climb

Crossover Altitude
02 Ex lain the term crossover altitude which occurs during the climb s eed schedule
(IAS ach number).
[Link].03

At low altitudes the s eed of sound is high so an aircraft is limited by indicated airs eed (IAS)
- VMO. At higher altitudes, the speed of sound is lower, so the aircraft will be limited by Mach
number - MMO. Aircraft y towards the u er limit of their s eed boundary at range s eed so at
some point - the crossover altitude - they will have to switch from remaining under the IAS limit,
to remaining under the Mach limit to prevent MMO being exceeded.

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03.00 Cruise
03.04 Long-Range Cruise
Long-Range Cruise Speed vs Maximum-Range Speed
01 efine the term long range cruise .
02 Ex lain the differences between ying at long range s eed and maximum range s eed
with regard to fuel ow and s eed stability.

Figure 4.44 shows the relationship between the speed of the aeroplane and its range. The top
of the blue curve represents the point of maximum range and the speed at which this is found.
For a jet aeroplane this speed is 1.32VMD. In commercial operations this speed is more commonly
referred to as the maximum range cruise (MRC).

Figure 4.44 Long range cruise

owever maximum range cruise s eed is seldom own. sually a higher s eed for numerous
o erational reasons is used. Looking at the to of the gra h you notice the line is at. This
means that a significant s eed increase can be achieved with only a small com romise in range.
This higher speed is called the long-range cruise (LRC). The long-range cruise speed is about
higher than the maximum range cruise s eed and as such the s ecific range reduces by
about 1%. The reason for using this higher speed is simply that there are costs other than fuel
which need to be considered in commercial operations. This speed is used because by getting
to destination more uickly more revenue earning ights can be carried out in any given eriod.

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The long range cruise s eed does suffer from limitations. It does not consider the variable cost
of fuel from day to day or month to month and neither does it account for the operational costs.
When fuel prices are high, the extra fuel consumption may dramatically increase the overall cost
of the ight and a more o erationally economical s eed may need to be own. The relationshi
of these costs is explained by using a cost index and the s eed own based u on the cost index
is called “ECON”. This will be discussed further on.

As the L C s eed is higher than C it uses a slightly higher ower setting and the fuel ow is
slightly higher. As the aero lane s eed is significantly higher than MD it is located in the speed
stable area of the total drag curve.

03.06 Cruise Altitudes

Optimum Cruise Altitude
01 efine the term o timum cruise altitude .
02 Ex lain the factors that affect o timum cruise altitude.

[Link].07 The optimum cruise altitude is the altitude at which a given thrust setting results in the
corres onding maximum range s eed and s ecific range fuel consum tion. The o timum
altitude is not constant and changes over the eriod of a long ight as atmos heric conditions
and the weight of the aircraft change. Flying higher or lower than the optimum altitude may
decrease the range of the aeroplane.

As the aeroplane weight decreases with fuel burn, the optimum altitude increases. As the optimum
altitude increases the s ecific range increases. eteorological conditions may also affect the
o timum altitude height being own for exam le utilising jet streams and avoiding turbulence.

actors ecting a i u perating ltitude

03 Ex lain the factors that can affect or limit the maximum o erating cruise altitude.

[Link].07
To maximise the optimum altitude the aeroplane would be in a constant very gentle climb.
Climbing in this way is sometimes called a cruise climb. But carrying out a cruise climb is not
always ossible since air tra c control and airs ace congestion may redetermine ight cruising
levels. Metrological conditions may also limit the maximum operating cruise altitude, for example
turbulence or headwinds/tailwinds.

However, there is a limit to how high the aeroplane is permitted and able to operate. As the
aeroplane altitude increases, the thrust that is required to maintain a given speed increases.
Eventually, there will be an altitude where the thrust is increased to its maximum cruise value
and it would be impossible to climb any higher without exceeding the thrust limits. This altitude
is called the maximum altitude and is shown in figure . . owever the hotter the atmos here
the lower this altitude becomes and in exceptionally hot atmospheres, the maximum altitude is
almost the same as the optimum altitude. Although the aeroplane cannot operate above the
maximum altitude, there are other altitude limits placed upon the aeroplane. At some point the
low and high s eed buffet boundaries become a limiting factor.

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Figure 4.45 Important altitudes for MRJT and step climb

Purpose of Step Climb

04 Explain the purpose of, and operational reasons for, a step climb and when such a climb
would be initiated for optimum range.
05 escribe the buffet onset boundary ( ) and determine the high and low s eed buffet
(s eed ach number only).
06 Analyse the in uence of bank angle mass and the . g buffet margin on a ste climb.
07 escribe that the high s eed buffet can occur at s eeds slower or faster than .
08 Ex lain the reasons why a ste climb may not be used (e.g. for short sectors advantageous
winds avoiding turbulence and due to air tra c restrictions).

Step Climb
Step climb essentially means that the aeroplane climbs to about 2,000 ft above the optimum
altitude and levels off. As fuel is used and weight falls the o timum altitude will increase to a
oint where it is again ft above the aero lane s current level but it can take u to hours
for it to do so. At its current level the aero lane can then climb ft and level off so that it will
once again be 2,000 ft above the optimum altitude. However, if the last step climb is within 200
NM of the top of descent, then the fuel saving is negated, and the aeroplane should remain level.

The step climb process can be repeated throughout the cruise and it helps to explain why the
cruise altitudes at the end of the ight are higher than at the start. emaining within ft of
the o timum altitude ensures the range is of the maximum s ecific range.

Carrying out step climbs in this way, rather than always staying with the optimum altitude, will
increase fuel consumption by about 1%, and therefore decrease the maximum range by 1%.
This may not sound like much, but over a year a typical 747 would have used an extra 34,000
tonnes of fuel. If an aeroplane did not step climb and simply remained at a constant altitude

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during the cruise, then the aeroplane would increase its fuel consumption by 10% compared to
ying constantly via ste climbs at the o timum altitude. This demonstrates just how im ortant
altitude and s eed control are in the cruise for a ty ical commercial ight.

To take advantage of a step climb, more fuel is burnt getting to the new altitude and this must
be factored into the ight lan and fuel savings at the new altitude. If the sector is too short
(a roximately miles) the ste climb may be ine cient to consider. If the winds are
not as forecast or a jet or tailwind is reported at a lower level, the advantage in a higher ground
s eed by descending is worth considering. Additionally turbulence or air tra c restrictions may
in uence the ste climb rocedure

Any increase in lift increases the aeroplanes load factor. During a bank, the aeroplane must
produce more lift and the load factor and apparent weight of the aeroplane increases. As the
aero lanes mass increases the o timum altitude decreases. The . g buffet margin ensures
the aero lane has . g rotection to the low and high s eed buffet boundaries. Therefore all
these forces affect the aero lane s ability to o erate at the o timum altitude and are ste climb
consideration.

Limitations
erating close to the low and high s eed buffet boundaries can in uence the ste climb
procedure.

u et nset
The buffet onset boundary (BOB) defines the low s eed buffet associated with an a roach
to the stall and the high s eed buffet associated with shock wave develo ment. oth s eeds
causethe air ow over the wing to se arate from the wing creating turbulent air ow aft of the
se aration oint on the wing which cauese buffeting of the aero lane.

Figure 4.46 Buffet onset boundaries

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or a given weight and configuration the aero lane will always stall at the same indicated airs eed
but the e uivalent ach number for the low s eed buffet and stall increases with altitude as
illustrated by a sim listic gra h in figure . . The ach number for the low s eed buffet is
abbreviated to MMIN. A similar buffet can occur at high s eed. At very high s eeds close to the
speed of sound, the compressibility of the air ahead of the aeroplane leads to the formation of
shock waves or high ressure waves. These shock waves create a disturbance to the ow of air
over the wing causing it to se arate and create turbulent eddies. Similar to the low s eed buffet
these eddies will buffet the elevator. This henomenon is called the high s eed buffet. lying
faster than this speed may cause a high-speed shock stall in an aeroplane whose wings are not
designed to overcome such effects. The ach number for the high s eed buffet decreases with
increasing altitude, as shown. This speed is commonly abbreviated to MMAX and is shown by the
backward sloping red line to the right of the graph.

Taking into consideration the ach numbers for both low s eed and high s eed buffet it
means that there are two Mach numbers, below and above, which the aeroplane is unable to
y. This s eed range between the ach numbers for the low s eed stall and high s eed stall
is called the buffet margin. The important point to understand is that the margin between the
low s eed and high s eed buffets decreases with increasing altitude. There is an altitude where
the low s eed and high s eed buffets are e ual under g conditions and it is im ossible to y
higher than this altitude. lying slower or faster than the s eed shown will stall or buffet the
aeroplane. In fact, even manoeuvring the aeroplane will initiate a stall because manoeuvring the
aero lane will increase the effective weight and increase the stall s eed. This altitude is called
the aerodynamic ceiling, or coffin corner. To prevent aeroplanes from operating too close to
this altitude, an operational limit is set below this point. Notice that a 1.3g manoeuvre moves the
buffet s eed lines to the faded red osition in figure . . otice that the ach numbers for the
low s eed and high s eed buffets are now coincident at a lower altitude. This altitude is called
the 1.3g buffet limit altitude or manoeuvre ceiling and is usually about to ft below
the aerodynamic ceiling.

Any man uvre that accelerates or decelerates the air ow over the wing will have an im act
on high s eed buffet. Should the aero lane ex erience an unex ected AoA change whether
ositive or negative this will affect the formation of a shock wave at high cruise s eeds and
ultimately buffeting. The shock wave will a ear at a s eed above CRIT which can be lower or
higher than normal if the AoA changes slightly.

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u et nset

To more accurately calculate the high and low s eed buffets or the buffet boundary a ilot uses
the buffet onset chart found within the aircraft ight manual.

An exam le of such a chart taken from Airbus is shown in figure . . The following information
describes the rocess of calculating the manoeuvre ( . g) and aerodynamic ceilings ( . g).
. g altitude ( g . g . g) At this altitude a g increment of . can be sustained without
buffet occurring. sing the data su lied
Follow the vertical solid red line upwards from 1.3g to the 110 tons line, then horizontally to
the 30% CG vertical line, then parallel to the CG reference line, again horizontally to the M0.8
vertical line. The altitude curve must now be aralleled to read off the ight level of . The
1.3g altitude is 40,500 ft.
If the aircraft is operated above FL405 at this mass and CG, a gust, or bank angle of less than 40°,
could cause the aircraft to buffet. ( of bank at high altitude is excessive a normal o erational
maximum at high altitude would be to ).
u et restricted speed li its sing the data su lied
Follow the vertical dashed red line upwards from 1g to the 110 tons line, then horizontally to the
30% CG vertical line, then parallel to the CG reference line. Observe the FL350 curve. The curve
does not reach the hori ontal dashed red line at the high s eed end because . ( ) is the
maximum operating speed limit. At the low-speed end of the dashed red line, the FL350 curve
is intersected at . . Thus under the stated conditions the low s eed buffet restriction is
. and there is no high s eed buffet restriction because is the maximum o erating
Mach number which may not be exceeded under any circumstances.
Aerodynamic ceiling At tons can be determined by
Initially following the vertical dashed red line vertically upwards from 1g, continue to the 150
tons lot then move hori ontally to the left to . (via the C correction). The inter olated
altitude curve gives an aerodynamic ceiling of FL390.
oad actor and an angle at ic u et occurs sing t e data supplied
From M0.8, follow the dashed blue line to obtain 54° bank angle or 1.7g.

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Figure 4.47 Buffet onset chart and calculations

t er nfluences

Although a ste climb is the ideal rofile to achieve good range erformance consideration
should be given to other in uences such as short sectors advantageous winds avoiding
turbulence and due to air tra c restrictions. These have been covered in revious sections.

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03.07 Cost Index

01 escribe cost index .

The fundamental rationale of the cost index (CI) concept is to achieve minimum operation trip
cost by means of a trade off between time related and fuel related costs. The cost index is used to
take into account the relationship between fuel-related and time-related costs. With time-related
costs the faster the aircraft is own the more money is saves in time costs. This is because the
faster the aircraft is own the more miles can be own for time related com onents. It also
means that more miles can be own between ins ections when considering maintenance costs.
These costs are minimum at the maximum operating speed VMO/MMO. However, if the aircraft
is own at such a high s eed the fuel burn increases and total fuel cost for the tri increases.
uel costs on the other hand will be minimum at the maximum range cruise s eed ( C) and
maximum at the maximum operating speed. Adding the time-related and fuel-related costs
together roduces a direct o erating cost or more sim listically a total o erating cost. The ight
management system uses the time and fuel related costs to hel select the best s eed to y.

Economy Cruise Speed

02 Describe the reason for economical cruise speed.

Figure 4.48 Total operating costs

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Figure 4.48 illustrates the total cost curve. Notice that the speed which gives the minimum total
o erating cost is the most economical s eed to y. This s eed is called ECON, in other words
the minimum cost s eed. The value of the EC s eed is worked out by the ight management
system based upon the value of the cost index. As a formula the cost index is a ratio of cost of
time, CT, to the cost of fuel, CF.

When fuel costs are high and time costs are low, the cost index would be almost zero and the
blue total cost line is moved to the left. The intersection point of the other cost lines will lie very
close to the maximum range cruise s eed giving a cost index of ero. The EC s eed (found at
the bottom of the blue line) would now be at the maximum range s eed (see figure . ).

When time costs are high and fuel costs are low, the cost index would be very high, and the blue
total cost line moves to the far right of the graph. The ECON speed found at the bottom of the
blue curve would now be very close to the maximum o erating s eed (illustrated in figure . ).

To summarise, increasing the cost index from zero to maximum will increase the ECON speed
from the maximum range speed to maximum operating speed. For most aeroplanes, the cost
index varies from zero to 99 or from zero to 999 depending on manufacturer.

ect o ost nde on arious tages o lig t

03 escribe the effect of cost index on climb cruise and descent s eeds.

The cost index can be programmed into the FMS performance data to advise pilots of the
recommended or com any olicy on cost index and therefore the tri rofile. The rofile can be
managed to allow ilots to change the cost index to take advantage of local in uences i.e. fuel
costs. The climb and descent can be set u for a high or low cost index high cost roducing a
longer climb and steeper descent and vice versa. The cruise is optimised for the step climb at the
relevant cost index.

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Figure 4.49 Operating cost speeds

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04.00 En-Route One-Engine-Inoperative

04.01 Drift Down
Determine En-Route Flight Path Data with One-Engine-Inoperative
01 escribe the determination of en route ight ath data with one engine ino erative in
accordance with CS . .

a) or the en route configuration the ight aths rescribed in sub aragra hs (b)
and (c) of this aragra h must be determined at each weight altitude and ambient
temperature, within the operating limits established for the aeroplane. The variation
of weight along the ight ath accounting for the rogressive consum tion of fuel
and oil by the o erating engines may be included in the com utation. The ight
paths must be determined at a selected speed not less than VFTO with
( ) The most unfavourable centre of gravity
( ) The critical engines ino erative
( ) The remaining engines at the available maximum continuous ower or thrust
and
( ) The means for controlling the engine cooling air su ly in the osition that
provides adequate cooling in the hot-day condition.
b) The one engine ino erative net ight ath data must re resent the actual climb
performance diminished by a gradient of climb of 1.1 % for two-engined aeroplanes,
. for three engined aero lanes and . for four engined aero lanes.
( ) In non icing conditions and
( ) In icing conditions with the most critical of the En route Ice accretion(s) defined
in A endix C and as a licable in accordance with CS . (g) if
(i) A s eed of . S with the En route Ice accretion exceeds the en route
s eed selected in non icing conditions by more than the greater of . km h
( knots) CAS or of S or
(ii) The degradation of the gradient of climb is greater than one half of the
a licable actual to net ight ath reduction defined in sub aragra h (b) of
this paragraph.
c) or three or four engined aero lanes the two engine ino erative net ight ath
data must represent the actual climb performance diminished by a gradient climb of
0.3 % for three-engined aeroplanes and 0.5 % for four-engined aeroplanes.

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Minimum Obstacle-Clearance Height

02 Describe the minimum obstacle-clearance height prescribed in the applicable operational
requirements.

E PS regulations state (in art) The one engine ino erative en route net ight ath must
com ly with either sub aragra h (a) or (b) at all oints along the route.

a) The gradient of the net ight ath must be ositive at at least ft above all terrain
and obstructions along the route within 5 NM on either side of the intended track. If
an aeroplane is unable to satisfy this restriction, or when it would be too limiting in
terms of weight a drift down rocedure should be worked out as detailed here
b) The net ight ath must ermit the aero lane to continue ight from the cruising
altitude to an aerodrome where a landing can be made the net ight ath
clearing vertically, by at least 2,000 ft, all terrain and obstructions along the route
within the rescribed corridor .

In addition the net ight ath must have a ositive gradient at ft above the aerodrome
where the landing is assumed to be made after engine failure. Moreover, fuel jettisoning is
permitted to an extent consistent with reaching the aerodrome with the required fuel reserves.

Figure 4.50 Obstacle-clearance height

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ri t o n ro le
03 Describe the optimum speed that the pilot should select during drift-down.
04 Ex lain the in uence of deceleration on the drift down rofiles.

The optimum speed to drift down is the minimum angle of descent to give the greatest glide
endurance and if necessary, obstacle clearance. This speed gives the least drag and is located at VMD.

Figure 4.51 Drift down speed

As the aeroplane is cruising at a speed in excess of VMD and an engine failure occurs, use the
momentum of the cruise speed to slow down before descending. This will increase the descent
endurance and improve obstacle clearance range

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Figure 4.52 Deceleration effect on drift down profile

Source: Figure 4.25 Drift Down Profiles – Net Flight Path, Section 4, CAP 698

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. nfluence o aria les on n oute ne ngine

Inoperative Performance
actors ecting n oute et ri t o n lig t at
01 escribe and ex lain the factors which affect the en route net drift down ight ath.

In figure . any tem erature deviation above ISA will affect density and therefore thrust
being generated by the good engine at maximum continuous power. Additionally, any air bleeds
coming off the engine such as anti icing systems will affect the engine thrust available. The initial
ressure altitude and mass at which the engine failed will also affect the glide endurance and
obstacle clearance data.

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Figure 4.53 Factors affecting net drift down profile

Source: Figure 4.25 Drift Down Profiles – Net Flight Path, Section 4, CAP 698

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05.00 Descent
05.01 Descent Techniques
Descending at Constant Mach Number
01 Ex lain the effect of descending at constant ach number.

Descending at a constant Mach number will allow CAS to increase as the density and temperature
increase. As the local speed of sound increases, it allows the TAS to increase with the Mach
number remaining the same.

Figure 4.54 Descending at constant Mach number

Descending at Constant IAS

02 Ex lain the effect of descending at constant IAS.

Descending at a constant IAS would allow TAS and Mach to reduce because of the temperature
and density increase.

Figure 4.55 Descending at constant IAS

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ro le peeds in escent
03 Explain the correct sequence of descent speeds for turbojet transport aeroplanes.

When the aero lane gets close to the destination airfield it will reach a oint which marks the
beginning of the descent. This is called the top of descent. You may remember that in order to
initiate a descent firstly the thrust must be reduced and then the nose is lowered to get weight
to act forwards to balance the drag. The balance of forces ensures a constant speed can be
maintained during the descent. The descent rofile is almost the reverse of the climb rofile. The
climb for a ty ical is initially own at kt then at ft this changes to kt and then
at the crossover altitude ach . is maintained. The descent is own initially at ach . then
at the crossover altitude the speed is kept constant at 280 knots, but when 10,000 ft is reached
no more than kt must be own in accordance with airs ace regulations.

Figure 4.56 Descent speed and gradient profile

Shown in figure . are the characteristics of the descent so that you can see what ha ens to
the gradient and rate of descent throughout the descent rofile. If at any oint air tra c control
asks the pilots to expedite the descent, then the only action taken by the pilots would be to
deploy the speed brakes.

This increases the drag, which must be balanced by more weight apparent thrust. Therefore, the
nose is lowered which increases both the angle and rate of descent as per the instruction of air
tra c control.

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ects on en escending at onstant ac u er

04 etermine the effect on TAS when descending in and above the tro os here at constant
Mach number.

Above the tropopause the TAS remains reasonably constant due to the constant temperature.
Then it increases as the temperature increases below the tropopause for a constant Mach
number until the crossover altitude.

Figure 4.57 Effect on TAS

VMO and MMO

05 escribe the following limiting s eeds for descent maximum o erating s eed ( ) .
maximum ach number ( ).
. . . .

VMO is a velocity at maximum operating speed of an aero lane and revents high s eed buffet
and structural stresses at lower levels when ying an IAS.

MMO is a maximum mach operating number and revents high s eed buffet caused by the
shock wave formation.

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argin to o and ig peed u et uring escent

06 Ex lain the effect of a descent at constant ach number on the margin to low and high
s eed buffet.
. . . .

Descending at a constant Mach number from high altitude will initially cause the aeroplane to
be o erating near the high and low s eed buffet boundaries and care should be exercised in
turbulence. As the altitude reduces, the boundaries expand due to the change in density altitude
and temperature ensuring a greater margin to the high- and low-speed boundaries. However, at
lower altitudes VMO is a roached and once again high s eed buffeting could become a roblem.

05.02 Energy Management in Descent

Continuous Descent
01 Explain the advantages and principle of a continuous descent.

Continuous descent approach (CDA) also known as optimised profile descent (OPD), is a method
by which aircraft approach airports prior to landing. It is designed to reduce fuel consumption
and noise compared to other conventional descents. Instead of approaching an airport at
different intermediate altitudes throttling down and re uesting ermission to descend to each
new (lower) altitude C A allows for a smooth constant angle descent to landing. any air orts
especially in the UK will give mile markers to calculate your CDA via company charts associated to
a s ecific rate of descent for a designated mileage.

An ideal continuous descent approach starts from the top of descent, i.e., at cruise altitude, and
allows the aircraft ying its individual o timal vertical rofile down to runway threshold. Some
air orts a ly constraints to this individual o timal rofile.

Aeroplane Energy and Speed Management

02 Describe energy management in terms of chemical, potential and kinetic energy.

[Link].03
The ight crew s inability to assess or to manage the aircraft s energy condition during a roach
is often cited as a cause of unstabilised approaches. Crews should appreciate that fatigue will
increase the likelihood that they will have di culty in detecting that an a roach is going outside
normal arameters. Either a deficit of energy (low and or slow) or an excess of energy (high
fast) may result in an a roach and landing incident or accident. The aero lane ossesses
significant kinetic momentum energy from its low drag design and more chemical and otential
energy from the engines at light weights and low altitudes. Adherence to S Ps and sim le ight
techni ues such as rule of thumb can hel alleviate the roblem.

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If the Mach number is kept constant in a descent, the IAS will increase and without management
would ossess a significant ha ard on the descent rofile as would be exceeded and the
s eed of the aero lane is di cult to control in congested airs ace. The a roach to the crossover
altitude should be anticipated and corrected for any change in Mach number or IAS descent
s eed im osed by air tra c control

ect o ead ind and ail ind on escent ro le

03 escribe the effect of increasing decreasing headwind and tailwind on rofile management.

[Link].05
igure . shows the effect of headwinds and tailwinds on the angle of descent. eadwinds
steepen the glide angle and decrease the descent range, whereas tailwinds decrease the glide
angle but increase the descent range. However, notice that the aeroplane in a headwind or
tailwind reaches the same descent altitude at the same time as the aero lane ying in ero wind
conditions. This demonstrates that a headwind or tailwind has no effect on the rate of descent.

Figure 4.58 Effect of wind on profile management

Relationship Between Mach Number and IAS

04 escribe the effect of the ach number to IAS transition (s eed conversion) on rofile
management.
[Link].02

The relationshi between ach number and IAS are fundamental to understanding rofile
management and how to a ly the manage the rofile.

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Speed and Energy Management During Descent and Approach

05 Describe situations during the descent and approach in which a pilot could find that
an aeroplane flies high or fast and explain how the pilot can manage descent angle/
excess energy.

With airports having limited landing capacity, fast approaches and dedicated landing slot times,
there is indirect pressure to make landing times. This leads to rushed approaches and is not
helped by a change in runway, STAR changes or controller mismanagement.

Approximately 70 % of rushed and unstable approaches involve an incorrect management of the

aircraft energy level resulting in an excess or deficit of energy as follows

• Slow and or low on a roach of events

• ast and or high on a roach of events
The level of energy an aircraft can roduce is a function of the following rimary ight arameters
and of their rate of change (trend)

• Airspeed and speed trend

• Altitude and vertical s eed (or ight ath angle)
• Aircraft configuration (i.e. drag caused by s eed brakes slats a s and or landing
gear) and thrust level
ne of the tasks of the ilot is to control and monitor the energy level of the aircraft (using all
available cues) in order to

• maintain the aircraft at the a ro riate energy level throughout the ight hase.
• kee ight ath s eed thrust and configuration or
• recover the aircraft from a low energy or high energy situation i.e. from
o being too slow and or too low or
o being too fast and/or too high.

Controlling the aircraft energy level consists in continuously controlling each arameter airs eed
thrust configuration ight ath and in transiently trading one arameter for another. Auto ilot
and ight director modes aircraft instruments warnings and rotections are designed to assist
the ight crew in these tasks.

ood situational awareness and using the rule of thumb rinci les are also im ortant cues in
deciding if the aero lane is in a safe configuration and osition.

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06.00 Approach and Landing

06.01 Approach Requirements
Approach Climb
01 escribe the CS re uirements for the a roach climb (CS . ).

a) Takeoff landing gear extended. (See A C . (a).) In the critical takeoff configuration
existing along the ight ath (between the oints at which the aero lane reaches
L and at which the landing gear is fully retracted) and in the configuration used
in CS . but without ground effect the steady gradient of climb must be ositive
for two engined aero lanes and not less than for three engined aero lanes or
0.5% for four-engined aeroplanes, at VLOF and with
( ) The critical engine ino erative and the remaining engines at the ower or thrust
available when retraction of the landing gear is begun in accordance with CS
25.111 unless there is a more critical power operating condition existing later
along the ight ath but before the oint at which the landing gear is fully
retracted (see A C . (a)( )) and
( ) The weight e ual to the weight existing when retraction of the landing gear is
begun determined under CS 25.111.
b) Takeoff landing gear retracted. In the takeoff configuration existing at the oint of
the ight ath at which the landing gear is fully retracted and in the configuration
used in CS . but without ground effect the steady gradient of climb may not be
less than 2.4% for two-engined aeroplanes, 2.7% for three-engined aeroplanes and
3.0% for four-engined aeroplanes, at V2 and with
( ) The critical engine ino erative the remaining engines at the takeoff ower or
thrust available at the time the landing gear is fully retracted, determined under
CS 25.111, unless there is a more critical power operating condition existing later
along the ight ath but before the oint where the aero lane reaches a height
of m( ft) above the takeoff surface (see A C . (b)( )) and
( ) The weight e ual to the weight existing when the aero lane s landing gear is
fully retracted, determined under CS 25.111.

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c) inal takeoff. In the en route configuration at the end of the takeoff ath determined
in accordance with CS . the steady gradient of climb may not be less than
for two-engined aeroplanes, 1.5% for three-engined aeroplanes, and 1.7% for four-
engined aeroplanes, at VFTO and with
( ) The critical engine ino erative and the remaining engines at the available
maximum continuous ower or thrust and
( ) The weight e ual to the weight existing at the end of the takeoff ath determined
under CS 25.111.
d) A roach. In a configuration corres onding to the normal all engines o erating
rocedure in which S for this configuration does not exceed of the SR for the
related all engines o erating landing configuration the steady gradient of climb may
not be less than 2.1% for two-engined aeroplanes, 2.4% for three-engined aeroplanes
and . for four engined aero lanes with
( ) The critical engine ino erative the remaining engines at the go around ower or
thrust setting.
( ) The maximum landing weight
( ) A climb s eed established in connection with normal landing rocedures but
not more than 1.4 VSR and
( ) Landing gear retracted

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Figure 4.59 Approach climb mass

Source: Figure 4.29 Landing Performance – Climb Limit, Section 4, CAP 698

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Landing Climb
02 Describe the CS-25 requirements for the landing climb.

In the landing configuration the steady gradient of climb may not be less than . with

a) The engines at the ower or thrust that is available seconds after initiation of
movement of the ower or thrust controls from the minimum ight idle to the go
around ower or thrust setting (see A C . (a)) and
b) A climb s eed which is ( ) ot less than (i) . SR
for aeroplanes with four engines
on which the a lication of ower results in a significant reduction in stall s eed or
(ii) SR
for all other aero lanes ( ) ot less than MCL and ( ) ot greater than
E .A C . (a)
Landing climb all engines o erating. In establishing the thrust s ecified in CS .

a) either a. Engine acceleration tests should be conducted using the most critical
combination of the following arameters
(i) Altitude
(ii) Airs eed
(iii) Engine bleed
(iv) Engine ower off take likely to be encountered during an a roach to a landing
airfield within the altitude range for which landing certification is sought or
b) The thrust s ecified in CS . (a) should be established as a function of these
parameters.

aria les ecting pproac and anding li

03 Ex lain the effect of tem erature and ressure altitude on a roach and landing climb
performance.

Either a high temperature or high-pressure altitude will reduce the approach or landing-climb
erformance as the density affects the excess thrust.

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06.02 Landing-Field-Length and Landing-Speed Requirements

Landing Distance Determination
01 escribe the landing distance determined according to CS .
( demonstrated landing distance).

a) The hori ontal distance necessary to land and to come to a com lete sto from
a oint m ( ft) above the landing surface must be determined (for standard
temperatures, at each weight, altitude and wind within the operational limits
established by the a licant for the aero lane) as follows
( ) The aero lane must be in the landing configuration.
( ) A stabilised a roach with a calibrated airs eed of E must be maintained
down to the m ( ft) height. E may not be less than
(i) . SR0

(ii) MCL
established under CS . (f) and
(iii) A s eed that rovides the manoeuvring ca ability s ecified in CS . (g).
( ) Changes in configuration ower or thrust and s eed must be made in
accordance with the established rocedures for service o eration. (See A C
. (a)( ).)
( ) The landing must be made without excessive vertical acceleration tendency to
bounce, nose over or ground loop.
( ) The landings may not re uire exce tional iloting skill or alertness.
b) The landing distance must be determined on a level smooth dry hard surfaced
runway. (See A C . (b).) In addition
( ) The ressures on the wheel braking systems may not exceed those s ecified by
the brake manufacturer.
( ) The brakes may not be used so as to cause excessive wear of brakes or tyres
(see A C . (b)( )) and
( ) eans other than wheel brakes may be used if that means
(i) Is safe and reliable.
(ii) Is used so that consistent results can be ex ected in service and
(iii) Is such that exce tional skill is not re uired to control the aero lane.
c) ot re uired for CS .
d) ot re uired for CS .
e) The landing distance data must include correction factors for not more than of
the nominal wind components along the landing path opposite to the direction of
landing, and not less than 150% of the nominal wind components along the landing
path in the direction of landing.
f) If any device is used that de ends on the o eration of any engine and if the landing
distance would be noticeably increased when a landing is made with that engine
inoperative, the landing distance must be determined with that engine inoperative
unless the use of compensating means will result in a landing distance not more than
that with each engine operating.

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Landing-Field-Length Requirements for Dry and Contaminated Runways

02 escribe the landing field length re uirements for dry wet and contaminated runways
and the applicable operational requirements.

If the runway is forecast to be wet at the estimated time of arrival, the landing distance available
is at least 115% of the required landing distance. However, a lesser factor may be used so long
as it is ublished in the aero lane ight manual and the authority has a roved such a factor.

Landing Distance Available

03 efine the landing distance available (L A).

Landing distance available (LDA) The distance from the point on the surface of the aerodrome
above which the aeroplane can commence its landing, having regard to the obstructions
in its approach path, to the nearest point in the direction of landing at which the surface of
the aerodrome is incapable of bearing the weight of the aeroplane under normal operating
conditions or at which there is an obstacle ca able of affecting the safety of the aero lane.

The landing distance required on a dry runway for destination and alternate aerodromes, from

ft to a full sto must not exceed

• of the landing distance available for turbojet aero lanes ( . correction factor)
• of the landing distance available for turbo ro aero lanes ( . correction factor)
If the runway is wet ( addition) the combined correction factor is

• Turbojet 1.92
• Turbo ro .

Figure 4.60 Landing distance available (LDA)

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Landing V Speeds
04 efine and ex lain the following s eeds in accordance with CS or CS efinitions
reference stall s eed in the landing configuration ( S ) reference landing s eed ( E )
minimum control s eed a roach and landing ( CL).

VSR0 eference stalling s eed in the landing configuration.

VREF eference landing s eed. The s eed of the aero lane in the s ecified landing configuration
at screen height, which is used to determine the landing distance for manual landings. Not less
than VMCL and not less than 1.23 VSR0.

VMCL- Approach and landing minimum control speed. The minimum speed with a wing engine
ino erative where it is ossible to decrease thrust to idle or increase thrust to maximum takeoff
without encountering dangerous ight characteristics.

. nfluence o aria les on anding er or ance

ect o aria les on anding ass
01 Ex lain the effect of runway slo e surface conditions and wind on the maximum landing
mass for a given landing distance available in accordance with the applicable operational
requirements.

A downhill slope will reduce the maximum landing mass due to the addition of the weight apparent
thrust and increase the maximum landing mass for an upslope because of the additional weight
a arent drag. A dry runway surface gives the most effective braking conditions and therefore
improved maximum landing mass. Headwinds decrease the true ground speed of the aeroplane
for any given indicated airspeed. Thus, during a headwind, the forward speed over the landing
surface is much less, and as a result, the maximum landing mass can be increased.

ect o anding yste s on anding ass and istance

02 Ex lain the effect on landing distance and maximum allowable landing mass of the
following devices affecting deceleration reverse anti skid ground s oilers or lift dum ers
autobrakes.

Reverse Thrust

Jet aeroplane engines have the capability of redirecting the force of thrust forward in order to
generate a braking effect on the aero lane. This is known as reverse thrust. Reverse thrust helps
reduce the aero lane s forward s eed and is es ecially im ortant in conditions where braking
force is reduced due to ice or water contamination on the runway. However, it can take time to
configure the engine and the amount of time in reverse is limited. Although reverse thrust reduces
landing distance it is not factored into normal calculations. everse thrust becomes less effective
below approximately 80 kt and is usually cancelled to prevent FOD damage to the engine.

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Anti-Skid and Autobrakes

Anti-skid prevents the wheels from locking during landing and is an important aspect of
decelerating an aeroplane. Any failure would reduce maximum landing mass. The same
statement would be true of autobrakes which o timise the braking effect of the wheels.

Figure 4.61 Autobrakes and anti-skid

Ground Spoilers/Lift Dumpers

Ground spoilers or lift dumpers add additional drag to the aeroplane on landing, resulting in an
increase of the maximum landing mass or reduction in the landing distance.

ect o eteorological aria les on anding ass

03 Ex lain the effect of tem erature and ressure altitude on the maximum landing mass for
a given landing distance available.

Tem erature and ressure altitude both affect the density altitude and therefore affect the
maximum landing mass. A high temperature and pressure altitude would increase the landing
TAS, and therefore reduce the maximum landing mass for a given Landing distance available.

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ect o ydroplaning on anding istance

04 Ex lain the effect of hydro laning on landing distance re uired and methods of managing
landing on contaminated or wet runways.
[Link].03

Hydroplaning has a major im act on braking effect. It can make aero lane braking ineffective
and significantly increase the landing distance re uired. To hel manage the roblem the
following advice is given.

Check the current weather, and the runway conditions using the most accurate information
possible. Once this has been done, completely reassess the landing performance data to ensure
satisfactory compliance to the regulations. Ensure you are at VREF at the landing screen height
and prepare to land the aircraft in the touchdown zone within the 1,000 ft target of the airborne
segment. Land on the runway centre line with minimal lateral drift and without excess speed.

Arm autos oilers and autobrakes as a ro riate which ensures rom t sto ing effort after
touchdown. or aero lanes fitted with automatic anti skid brakes the brakes will be a lied
above the dynamic hydroplaning speed, but for aeroplanes without this system, only apply the
brakes below the dynamic hydroplaning speed.

The are should lead to a firm touchdown sometimes described as ying the aero lane onto
the runway. Positive landings will help place load on the wheels which will increase braking
effectiveness and s uee e out the water from the tyre foot rint area. o not allow the
aero lane to oat and do not attem t to achieve a erfectly smooth touchdown. An extended
are will extend the touchdown oint. Soft touchdowns will delay wheel s in u and delay
oleo compression, which will delay the weight on wheels sensors operating that is needed for
autobrake and autospoiler activation.

After main gear touchdown do not hold the nosewheel off the runway. Smoothly y the nosewheel
onto the runway by relaxing aft control column pressure. Deploy spoilers as soon as possible
after touchdown or confirm autos oiler de loyment. If the aero lane does not have autobrake
initiate braking once spoilers have been raised and the nosewheel has contacted the runway.

Apply brakes smoothly and symmetrically. Initiate reverse thrust as soon as possible after
touchdown of the main wheels and target the rollout to stop well short of the end of the runway.
Leave a margin for unexpected low friction due to wet rubber deposits or hydroplaning.

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06.04 Quick Turnaround Limit

ra e e perature ect on urnround i es
01 Describe how brake temperature limits the turnaround times.

Should full wheel braking be used on landing the brakes absorb a significant amount of kinetic
energy and generate heat. This heat continues to build after the brakes have been used and
can also be affected by additional braking during taxiing. nless the brakes are cooled with
brake cooling fans, the ability of the wheel brakes and hub to release the heat is limited and any
exceedance beyond a certain designated temperature will require maintenance assistance. This
will lengthen the time on the ground. ntil the brakes are su ciently cooled rior to the next
takeoff they ose a significant ight safety ha ard to the next taxi and takeoff. oreover if the
designated brake tem erature limitation has been exceeded the following scheduled ight may
need to be delayed, to cool the brakes, and have maintenance inspect the aircraft before a return
to service is ermitted. In the event a ight is o erated outside the tem erature limitations
hazardous situations could be encountered.

References
• CAP CAA A CL Examinations Aero lane Performance anual rd edition
uly
• EASA Easy Access ules for Large Aero lanes (CS ) (Amendment ) ovember
2018

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5
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Performance Data

. a eo ................................................................... 235
01.01 Takeoff (Performance Data) ..................................................... 235

02.00 Drift-Down and Stabilising Altitude .................... 261

02.01 Drift-Down and Stabilising Altitude (Performance Data) ..... 261

03.00 Landing ................................................................... 265

03.01 Landing (Performance Data) ................................................... 265

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. a eo
. a eo er or ance ata
Calculation of Field-Length-Limited Mass
01 etermine from given gra hs the field length limited take off mass ( LLT ) and describe
situations in which this limitation could be most restrictive for take off.

Airfields can have different lengths of takeoff run takeoff distance and accelerate sto distance
available. Therefore there should be multi le mass gra hs

• ne to ensure the mass is such that the takeoff run re uired is within the takeoff run
available.
• ne to ensure the takeoff distance re uired is within the takeoff distance available.
• And lastly, another one to ensure the accelerate-stop distance required is within the
accelerate-stop distance available.
However, to simplify the process, there is only one graph and only one assumed available
distance to calculate the field limit mass. The gra h assumes that the takeoff run available the
takeoff distance available and the accelerate sto distance available are the same length even
though the takeoff distance available and accelerate sto distance available may be longer.
Therefore no sto way or clearway are accounted for. When the takeoff distance available and
the accelerate sto distance available are the same the field is described as balanced. In this
case the balanced field length also ha ens to be the same length as the takeoff run available
because there is no sto way or clearway. To use the gra h make sure you only enter the takeoff
run available as the length of field available.

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Example
This is an exam le from CAP which demonstrates the calculation of field length limited
T . The following data is given

ield length available (T A) ft

Runway slope 1% uphill
Wind component 20 kt head
Flaps 15°
PMC ON
Ambient temperature C
Aerodrome pressure altitude 2,000 ft

Procedure
a) Enter field length available (T A). ove vertically to the runway slo e reference line.
b) Parallel the gridlines to the appropriate runway slope, then continue vertically to the
wind component reference line.
c) Parallel the gridlines to the appropriate wind component, then continue vertically to
the a reference line.
d) If a is arallel gridlines then with a encil draw a vertical line through the
weight grid. If a is draw a vertical line (with a encil) from the reference line
through the mass grid.
e) Enter at the aerodrome ambient temperature and proceed vertically to the
aerodrome pressure altitude.
f) Proceed horizontally right to the mass grid reference line.
g) From this point interpolate and follow the gridlines to intersect the vertical line drawn
in d) above.
h) rom this intersection draw a hori ontal line to read the field length limited T .
i) Apply any corrections necessary.

Answer
ield length limited T kg

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Figure 5.1 Field length limit graph

Source: Figure 4.4 Takeoff Performance – Field Length Limit Graph, Section 4, CAP 698

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The field limit brake release mass is the maximum mass that will allow the aero lane to meet its
field length re uirements at the airfield concerned. Therefore to be heavier than the field limit
mass would mean that either the one engine ino erative or the all engine o erative takeoff run
takeoff distance or accelerate sto distance exceeds the available distance at the airfield.

A combination of high tem eratures and a high ressure altitude would also reduce the field
length limited takeoff mass. Additionally a combination of u slo e tailwind and reduced a
would reduce the FLLTOM.

alculation o li i ited a eo ass

02 etermine from given gra hs the climb limited take off mass and describe situations in
which this limitation could be most restrictive for take off.

The climb limited mass is sometimes referred to as the weight altitude tem erature (WAT) limit
or mass altitude tem erature ( AT) limit. The climb limit mass is the maximum mass that will
enable the aeroplane to achieve a certain minimum climb performance. This minimum climb
performance is the most severe of the climb gradient requirements. The most severe climb
gradient requirement is in fact 2.4% which will be covered further on. In other words, if the
mass of the aeroplane was greater than the climb limit mass then the aeroplane may still be
able to climb, but it will not achieve the minimum air gradients that the authorities have put in
place, and the aeroplane would not achieve the climb requirements. The gradients for the climb
re uirements are air gradients and are therefore unaffected by wind. A combination of high
tem eratures and a high ressure altitude would also reduce the climb limited takeoff mass.

The gra h in figure . guarantees attainment of the most severe gradient re uirement of the
net ight ath. It does not guarantee obstacle clearance.

Example
The exam le demonstrates how to find out the climb limited T using the gra h. The following
information is given
ield length available (T A) 2,000 ft
OAT C
Flaps 15°

Procedure
a) Enter the gra h at aerodrome ambient tem erature.
b) ove vertically to the aerodrome ressure altitude.
c) Travel hori ontally left to the a reference line and a ly the a ro riate setting to
read climb limit mass.
d) A ly any corrections necessary.

Answer
Climb limited T kg

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Figure 5.2 Takeoff climb limit mass

Source: Figure 4.5, Takeoff Performance – Climb Limit, Section 4, CAP 698

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Calculation of Obstacle-Limited Mass

03 Determine from given graphs the obstacle-limited mass and describe situations in which
this limitation could be most restrictive for take off.

Manually working out the obstacle clearance capability of the aeroplane can be a laborious task.
Thankfully, most operators and manufactures have produced either rapid look-up tables or
gra hs to uickly enable the ilot to work out if an obstacle in the takeoff climb will be cleared
by the relevant vertical margins following engine failure. These tables or graphs will produce
a mass. This mass is called the obstacle limited mass and an exam le is shown in figure .
which can also be found in the Section of CAP . It is the maximum mass that will allow the
aeroplane, in the event of engine failure, to clear the obstacle by the relevant vertical margin.

Note that winds are included on the graph. This is important because obstacle clearance
calculations must use ground gradients and these are dependent on wind. In fact, remember
that EU-OPS had a rule about the wind. It states that, when using the winds to work out the
ground gradient only use 50% of headwinds and no less than 150% tailwinds. Notice the slope
of the headwind and tailwind lines. This shows that the graph applies the wind rule. Therefore,
if the pilots enter the graph with the actual reported wind, the graph corrects it automatically.

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Example
Flap setting 5°
Aerodrome pressure altitude 1,000 ft
Ambient temperature C
PMC ON
Wind component 20 kt head
Runway slope 2% down
Obstacle distance from BRP 18,000 ft
Obstacle elevation ft
Takeoff distance re uired 10,000 ft

Procedure
a) Select the gra h a ro riate to the a setting.
b) Adjust the obstacle elevation to account for runway slo e to determine obstacle
height as shown in figure . and figure . Section of CAP .
c) Enter the bottom left vertical axis at the adjusted obstacle height.
d) Travel hori ontally right to intersect the hori ontal distance of the obstacle measured
from the brake release point.
e) rom this intersection move vertically u to the ambient tem erature reference line
then parallel the gridlines to the appropriate temperature.
f) Continue vertically to the aerodrome ressure altitude reference line. Parallel the
gridlines to the appropriate pressure altitude before continuing vertically to the wind
component reference line.
g) Parallel the gridlines from this oint to the value of the wind com onent then
continue vertically to read the obstacle limited takeoff mass.

Answer
bstacle height ( x ) ft
bstacle limited T kg

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Figure 5.3 Obstacle-limited mass

Source: Figure 4.20, Obstacle Limits – Flaps 5°, Section 4, CAP 698

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Once the details of the obstacle have been entered, as shown in the example, the obstacle-
limited mass can be read off. In the exam le on the gra h itself the obstacle limited mass is
kg. As a result taking off with a higher mass than this would not ensure ade uate vertical
clearance. owever if this mass unduly restricts the takeoff mass then the aero lane may be
dispatched with a greater mass as long as the aeroplane turns around the obstacle, clearing it by
the relevant horizontal margins, and does not exceed the turn restrictions

actors which could restrict the obstacle limited takeoff mass are aero lane mass and obstacle
distance from the brakes release oint high AT and high ressure altitude (reduced density)
and tailwinds.

alculation o yre peed i ited a eo ass

04 etermine from given gra hs the tyre s eed limited take off mass.

The reason for a tyre-speed-limit is a resistance between the wheel and the runway. As the
wheel rotates, this resistance generates heat. The greater the wheel speed and/or the greater
the load on the wheel, the greater the heat generated. Too much heat will not only disintegrate
the tyre, but it may also expand the air within the tyre and may over pressurise it. This is
dangerous and may result in a tyre blow out, although there are fusible plugs in modern tyres
to help prevent this.

Note that, there is a maximum ground speed and maximum mass that the wheels can be
subject to. The maximum ground s eed that the tyre will ex erience will be at lift off s eed
( LOF) and as a result tyre s eed limits are designed to be greater than or e ual to the fastest
VLOF. For most medium range jets, the maximum tyre speed limit is set at 195 kt which is about
225 miles per hour.

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Figure 5.4 Takeoff tyre speed limit mass

Source: Figure 4.6,Takeoff Tyre Speed Limit, Section 4, CAP 698

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The gra h in figure . resents the limitation on takeoff weight for m h tyres and a .

Example
sing the gra h and with the following information calculate tyre s eed limited takeoff mass

OAT C
Airfield ressure altitude 2,000 ft
Flaps 15°
PMC ON
Tyres 210 mph

Procedure
a) Enter the gra h with aerodrome AT.
b) Proceed vertically to the aerodrome ressure altitude then hori ontally left to read
the tyre speed limit.

Solution
ncorrected tyre s eed limit mass from the gra h kg
Please note the additional corrections if required.
or m h tyres and or a a ly the correction below the gra h.
Correction kg kg
ew tyre limit mass kg

alculation o a i u ra e nergy i ited a eo ass

05 etermine from given gra hs the maximum brake energy limited take off mass.

For an aircraft of mass M, travelling at a true speed of V, the kinetic energy is ½ MV2. If the aircraft
is braked to a stop from this speed, a large proportion of this energy will go into the brakes
as heat. The energy capacity of the brakes is limited, and so, for a given mass there will be a
limiting speed from which a stop can be made. This will be a true ground speed, and so, the
corres onding IAS will vary with altitude tem erature and wind. unway slo e will also affect
the speed, as a change in height involves a change in potential energy.

The brake energy limit speed VMBE must not be less than the V1 speed. If it is, the mass must
be reduced until V1 and VMBE are the same. The ight manual will give the amount of weight
to be deducted for each kt that V1 exceeds VMBE. For most aircraft, VMBE will only be limiting
in extremely adverse conditions of altitude, temperature, wind and runway slope. In fact, in
figure . notice a grey area in the gra h on the to left hand side. If the mass and ressure
altitude fall within this grey area then VMBE will not be limiting, unless operating with a tailwind
or improved climb performance.

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Figure 5.5 Takeoff brake energy speed limit

Source: Figure 4.7, Takeoff Brake Energy Limit, Section 4, CAP 698

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Generally, VMBE will not be limiting except at hot, high altitude aerodromes or operating with
a tailwind.

Always check VMBE when outside the shaded area of the top left grid or when there is a tailwind or
when employing the improved climb technique. If V1 exceeds VMBE, apply the correction below the
graph. Make V1 equals to VMBE and recalculate the other V speeds for the reduced mass.

Example
sing the gra h in figure . and the following data calculate .
MBE

Takeoff mass kg
Airfield ressure altitude ft
Ambient temperature -10°C
Runway slope 1.5% uphill
Wind component 10 kt head
PMC ON

Procedure
a) Enter the gra h with aerodrome ressure altitude.
b) Travel hori ontally to AT.
c) ro vertically to takeoff mass then hori ontally right to MBE

Answer
E (Slo e) ( eadwind) kt

Calculation of V Speeds for Actual Mass

06 etermine the take off s eeds for the actual take off mass.

Assuming that the regulated takeoff mass e uals kg as an exam le we are now able
to select the takeoff s eeds of 1, VR and V2. The density band has to be selected before
calculating these s eeds. The gra h in figure . is the density correction gra h (re roduced
from a table in Section of CAP ) for the takeoff s eeds. As an exam le let us assume a
temperature of 25°C at an aerodrome pressure altitude of 2,000 ft. In our example, the speed
band to use is speed band B.

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Figure 5.6 Density sub graph

Source: Density Sub Graph, Section 4, CAP 698

In CAP section you can see the s eed tables. There are two sets of s eed tables ne for
degrees of a setting and one for degrees of a setting. or our exam le we will assume
of a with a regulated takeoff mass of kg. sing the s eed tables for of a (Section
CAP ) identify the column for s eed band (should be roughly in the middle of the table). The
table is re roduced in figure . . The areas to concentrate on are highlighted in red.

Figure 5.7 Takeoff speeds

Source: Figure 4.8, Takeoff Speeds, Section 4, CAP 698

The left hand scale of the s eed table is mass. otice that the regulated takeoff mass of
kg lies between the kg and kg marks. Therefore inter olation must be used
when working out the V speeds. V1 for kg is kt and for kg is kt. Correct
interpolation for 57,900 kg would make V1 e ual to . kt which should be rounded (this will
be examined further on).

Carrying out the same exercise for VR and V2 makes VR for 57,900 kg equal to 145 kt and V2 equal
to 152 kt. However, V1 must be corrected for slo e and wind as shown in figure . which is
re roduced from Section of CAP .

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Figure 5.8 Slope and wind adjustment

Source: Figure 4.8, Takeoff Speeds, Section 4, CAP 698

For a 2% upslope and a mass of 57,900 kg, interpolation shows that V1 must be increased by 1.79
kt. For a 20 kt headwind, V1 must be increased by 0.5 kt. Therefore, the total correction to V1 is to
increase it by 2.29 kt. Adding 2.29 kt to the original V1 of . that we calculated earlier makes
V1 to be . kt which is rounded to kt. aving finished with 1, VR and V2, there are two
other s eeds to check. The first is velocity of minimum control on the ground ( MCG).

Figure 5.9 presents the table for calculating VMCG (re roduced from Section of CAP ).

Figure 5.9 VMCG

Source: Figure 4.8, VMCG, Section 4, CAP 698

Using 25°C and 2,000 ft as our pressure altitude would make VMCG to be 112 kt. As stated before,
V1 must not be less than VMCG which is true for the example.

inally the maximum brake energy s eed ( MBE) is also re uired to calculate using figure . if
the exam le airfield conditions are ft ressure altitude AT C and regulated takeoff
mass is 57,900 kg, the graph would not be applicable, as it is in the shaded area. But, if VMBE was
calculated at175 kt and outside the shaded area, there are some corrections to make. We had a
2% upslope, which means we need to increase VMBE by 4 kt. There is also a wind correction to be
made. We assume a 20 kt headwind which means VMBE must increase by kt. The total correction
would increase VMBE to 185 kt.

All the relevant takeoff s eeds have now been calculated based u on our regulated takeoff
mass of 57,900 kg.

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Correction for Stopway and Clearway

The s eeds shown in the tables in figure . that we have used are based on a balanced field
length (T A T A AS A) and are not valid if the takeoff mass has been derived using a
stopway or clearway. This is the case in which, V1 may be adjusted for the effects of a sto way or
clearway from these tables.

Figure 5.10 V1 Adjustment

Source: V1 Adjustments, Section 4, CAP 698

Figure 5.11 Maximum allowable clearway

Source: Maximum Allowable Clearway, Section 4, CAP 698

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eter ine a i u a eo ass using a les

07 etermine the maximum take off mass using given T tables.

[Link].01
[Link].02 Consideration of the mass determined by the field length available the climb re uirement the
[Link].04
[Link].05 tyre speed limit, and the brake energy limit will determine the maximum performance mass for
takeoff. It will be the lowest of the masses given by the above limitations. This mass is called
the performance limited mass (PLM). The PLM must then be compared to maximum structural
mass and the lower of the two masses is then selected as the takeoff mass. This mass is known
as the regulated takeoff mass. If there are obstacles to be considered on the takeoff ight ath
this may determine a further limitation on takeoff mass.

Figure 5.12 Regulated takeoff mass

In the exam le table as the obstacle can be own around the PL is kg which is less than
the maximum structural mass and therefore results in a regulated takeoff mass of kg.

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alculation o a eo peeds or ctual a eo eig t

08 sing T tables determine the take off s eeds for the actual take off weight using
appropriate corrections.
. . . .

The full procedure for calculating the V speeds and any associated corrections for the RTOM was
covered in this reference.

Calculation of Assumed/Flex Temperatures and Appropriate V Speeds

09 etermine the assumed ex tem erature and take off s eeds using the T tables.

Procedure

Essentially, this procedure assumes that the performance calculation temperature is a lot
hotter than the actual temperature. Imagine that the outside air temperature was continually
increasing, and as a result the thrust produced by the engines is continually decreasing. There
will eventually be a tem erature beyond which there will be insu cient thrust to com lete a
takeoff. This tem erature is then used as the assumed tem erature and the thrust e uating to
this tem erature is then set as the takeoff thrust.

The rocedure described here can also be found in CAP Section .

It is necessary to determine the most limiting performance condition. The only common
parameter to enable comparison is that of temperature. Thus, the maximum permissible
tem erature must be calculated for the actual takeoff mass from each of the following

• Field limit graph

• Climb limit graph
• Tyre speed limit graph
• Obstacle limit graph
This is achieved by using the reverse path method with a known weight and going to the pressure
altitude and obtaining a limiting tem erature. Effectively this new tem erature could be used to
go back through the gra h and roduce the original known takeoff mass.

Example
etermine the tem erature limit for a known mass. The following information are given

Mass 54,000 kg
Pressure altitude 1,000 ft
Temperature 20°C
Wind component 10 kt headwind
Field length available 8,000 ft
Level runway
Flaps 5°

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Figure 5.13 Takeoff performance –field length limit graph

Source: Figure 4.4, Takeoff Performance –Field Length Limit Graph Section 4, CAP 698

Note that

• igure . roduces a limiting tem erature of C

• igure . roduces a limiting tem erature of C
• igure . roduces a limiting tem erature in excess of C
• There is no obstacle limit

rom these tem eratures select the lowest C and ensure that it does not exceed the
environmental limit. If it does, then the environmental limit becomes the assumed temperature.

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Figure 5.14 Takeoff performance - climb limit

Source: Figure 4.5, Takeoff Performance – Climb Limit, Section 4, CAP 698

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Figure 5.15 Takeoff tyre speed limit

Source: Figure 4.6, Takeoff Tyre Speed Limit, Section 4, CAP 698

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Procedure
Calculate the maximum assumed tem erature from figure . as a ro riate. Enter the left
column with the actual ambient temperature and read the maximum temperature in the column
a ro riate to the aerodrome ressure altitude C.

Figure 5.16 Maximum assumed temperature °C

Source: Figure 4.17a, Maximum Assumed Temperature °C Reduced Thrust, Section 4, CAP 698

Figure 5.17 Maximum assumed temperature °F

Source: Figure 4.17b, Maximum Assumed Temperature °F Reduced Thrust, Section 4, CAP 698

rom figure . on the bottom line determine the minimum assumed tem erature for the
aerodrome ressure altitude C which is achieved.

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Figure 5.18 Assumed temperature reduced thrust

Source: Figure4.17 c, Assumed Temperature Reduced Thrust, Section 4, CAP 698

rom the same table for the assumed tem erature to be used ( C) determine the maximum
takeoff . . Add . if air conditioning acks are off. The assumed tem erature
used must neither exceed the maximum from figure . or . nor be below the minimum
from figure . .

Enter the left column of figure . with assumed tem erature ( ) minus ambient tem erature
( ) C. Travel right along the line to the column a ro riate to the ambient tem erature
inter olating if necessary. ead the adjustment .

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Figure 5.19 Adjustment temperature difference

Source: Figure 4.17 d, Assumed Temperature Reduced Thrust, Section 4, CAP 698

Subtract the value determined in figure . from . and the to be set at takeoff
90.5%. Both Airbus and Boeing use derated thrust which will reduce engine thrust by a fixed
percentage, for example Derate 1 will reduce thrust by 4% and Derate 2 by 10%. When derated
thrust is used it rovides a fixed reduction of thrust and because it is fixed then C and
CA can also be reduced which can hel increase takeoff mass on a short runway. owever
once erate is selected thrust cannot be increased until the aero lane is accelerated during a
retraction. If there is a re uirement to change the erate before takeoff for o erational reasons
this can still be achieved on the ground prior to departure.
The s eeds can be calculated as er . . . . .

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alculate ra e ooling i e ter e ected a eo

10 Calculate the brake cooling time following a rejected take off given a ro riate data.

The value of VMBE obtained from the data assumes that the brakes are at ambient temperature
before the start of takeoff. If a takeoff is rejected following a recent landing or after rolonged
taxiing, the brakes will already be at a fairly high temperature, and their ability to absorb further
energy will be reduced. Data is given in the manual to show the time to be allowed for the brakes
to cool. An exam le of a brake cooling gra h is shown in figure . .

The gra h in figure . rovides advisory information to enable the o erator to avoid brake
overheat problems. The chart enables due allowance to be made for a single stop. Using the
graph as indicated, provides advice on the procedure to be adopted, and the minimum cooling
time. Separate sub-graphs are provided for determining the stop distance with manual braking.

andoned a eo

a) Enter the to left vertical axis at the regulated takeoff mass ( kg) and travel
horizontally right to V1 minus 50% of headwind or plus 150% of tailwind.
b) rom this intersection dro vertically to the first reference line then follow the
gridlines to correct for pressure altitude and OAT.
cl) rom this intersection continue vertically downward to read the brake energy er
brake in millions of foot pounds.
d) To this value add one million foot ounds for each taxi mile to obtain the total energy.
e) rom the value of the total energy continue vertically downward to determine the
advised cooling schedule and recommended cooling time. Area I use Plug elt
over 90 minutes brake cooling time. Follow the instructions from IV at the bottom of
figure . .

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Figure 5.20 Brake cooling schedule

Source: Figure 4.31, Brake Cooling Schedule , Section 4, CAP 698

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02.00 Drift-Down and Stabilising Altitude

02.01 Drift-Down and Stabilising Altitude (Performance Data)
Calculate One-Engine Net Stabilising Altitude
01 etermine the one engine out net stabilising altitude (level off altitude) from given
graphs/tables.
02 Determine the maximum mass at which the net stabilising altitude with one-engine-out
clears the highest relevant obstacle by the required clearance margin.

In order to find out if it is ossible for the aero lane to level off ft above an obstacle use
the gra h in Section of CAP . This has been re roduced in figure . .

Sim ly enter the gra h with the level off altitude that is re uired (obstacle height A SL ft)
and the gra h will show the mass that the aero lane will need to be at in order to level off at that
altitude. In the exam le in the gra h in order to level off at ft in an ISA atmos here
the aeroplane would need to have a mass of just less than 48,000 kg. If this is not possible, then
other gra hs shown in Section of CAP must be used.

The reverse procedure should be used to determine the one-engine-out net stabilising altitude
(level off altitude). sing the above conditions if the aero lane mass was kg the stabilising
altitude would be 20,150 ft.

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Figure 5.21 Net level-off altitude

Source: Figure 4.23, Net Level-Off Altitude, Section 4, CAP 698

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Figure 5.22 Drift-down profiles – net flight path

Source: Figure 4.24, Driftdown Profiles – Net Flight Path, Section 4, CAP 698

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Calculation of Fuel Used, Time and Distance Travelled in Drift-Down Descent

03 Determine, using drift-down graphs, fuel used, time and distance travelled in a descent
from a cruise ight level to a given altitude.

Example
sing the exam le in figure . calculate the fuel used time and distance travelled in a descent
from a cruise ight level of ight level to a ressure altitude of ft following an
engine failure. iven a mass of kg ISA conditions kt headwind and anti ice is off.

Answer
ori ontal distance travelled miles
Time mins and
uel burnt kg

If conditions are greater than ISA a correction to the e uivalent gross mass will need to be
calculated from the small u er gra h to allow for the reduced density effect. Also be aware of
any other correction factors.

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03.00 Landing
03.01 Landing (Performance Data)
Calculate Field Length for Landing for Given Mass
01 etermine the field length re uired for landing with a given landing mass from the
aeroplane performance data sheets.
[Link].02

The landing performance calculations are divided into two elements.

• Field-length-limited-landing mass
• Landing climb limit mass

The landing climb limit mass ensures the minimum permissible gradient is obtained and should
be corrected in accordance with the statements beneath the graph. The maximum landing
mass is the lower of the field length limited landing mass the landing climb limit mass and the
structural limit. The gra h in figure . is based on the following conditions

Example 1
Calculate field length limited landing mass using the information below.

Aerodrome pressure altitude 2,000 ft

Aerodrome OAT C
Wind component 20 kt head
Runway condition Wet
Flap setting 30°
Anti-skid system Inoperative
Spoilers Automatic
Air conditioning Auto
Icing None forecast

Answer
ield length limited landing mass kg

To determine the field length re uired use the o osite rocedure (orange line). Starting at the
mass and ressure altitude remember when moving down the gra h to locate the value first
and then proceed to the reference line.

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3 032.05 CS-25/Applicable Operational Requirements
Performance Class A - Use of Aeroplane
Performance Data

Figure 5.23 Landing performance – field length limit

Source: Figure 4.28, Landing Performance – Field Length Limit, Section 4, CAP 698

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Performance Class A - Use of Aeroplane
Performance Data

Example 2
Calculate the field length re uired using following information

Aeroplane mass 48,000 kg

Aerodrome pressure altitude 2,000 ft
Aerodrome OAT C
Wind component 10 kt head
Runway condition Dry
Flap setting 30°
Anti-skid system Inoperative
Spoilers Automatic
Air conditioning Auto
Icing None forecast

Answer
ield length re uired ft

Calculate the Landing and Approach Climb-Limited Landing Mass

02 Determine the landing and approach climb-limited landing mass from the aeroplane
performance data sheets.
[Link].01
03 Calculate the maximum allowable landing mass as the lowest of a roach climb and
landing climb limited landing mass landing field length limited landing mass structural
limited landing mass.

The maximum mass for landing is the lesser of

• The landing climb limited mass (maximum mass to achieve landing climb
re uirements)
• The field length limit mass
• The structural limit mass

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3 032.05 CS-25/Applicable Operational Requirements
Performance Class A - Use of Aeroplane
Performance Data

Example
sing the same given conditions at . . . . determine aero lane s maximum mass for
landing.

Aerodrome pressure altitude 2,000 ft

Aerodrome OAT C
Wind component 20 kt head
Runway condition Wet
Flap setting 30°
Anti-skid system Inoperative
Spoilers Automatic
Air conditioning Auto
Icing None forecast

Answer
Climb limited landing mass kg ( igure . )
ield length limit mass kg (from exam le of . . . . )
Structural limit mass kg
Maximum mass for landing = 46,800 kg

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Performance Class A - Use of Aeroplane
Performance Data

Figure 5.24 Landing performance – climb limit

Source: Figure 4.29, Landing Performance – Climb Limit, Section 4, CAP 698

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 3 032.05 CS-25/Applicable Operational Requirements
Performance Class A - Use of Aeroplane
Performance Data

alculate ra e ooling i e or i erent anding asses

04 etermine the brake cooling time for different landing masses using the aero lane
performance data sheets.
[Link].10

In figure . the brake cooling times for different masses can be obtained for the landing hase.

Example
To determine the brake cooling the ste s are

a) Enter the left vertical axis at the estimated landing mass ( kg). Travel hori ontally
right to a speed of VREF , which is equals 123 kt, corrected for wind component minus
50% of a headwind or plus 150% for a tailwind.
b) rom this intersection dro vertically to the first reference line then follow the
gridlines to correct for pressure altitude and OAT.
c) rom this intersection continue vertically downward to the braking configuration
reference line.
d) ollow the gridlines to the a ro riate braking configuration.
e) rom the intersection continue vertically downward to read the brake energy er
brake in millions of foot pounds.
f) To this value add one million foot ounds for each taxi mile to obtain the total
energy.
g) rom the value of the total energy on continue vertically downward to determine the
advised cooling schedule and recommend cooling time.

Braking Distance

For a manual braked landing with no reverse thrust or for a manual braked landing with normal
thrust detent select the a ro riate sub gra h in figure . then enter the sub gra h at the
Brakes ON IRS Ground Speed KIAS and travel vertically up to intersect the equivalent autobrake
setting. From this intersection travel horizontally left to the vertical axis to read the stopping
distance in thousands of feet.

The landing mass brake cooling time is approximately 10 minutes using reverse thrust and
autobraking.

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Performance Class A - Use of Aeroplane
Performance Data

Figure 5.25 Brake cooling schedule

Source: Figure 4.31, Brake Cooling Schedule, Section 4, CAP 698

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Performance Class A - Use of Aeroplane
Performance Data

References
• CAP CAA A CL Examinations Aero lane Performance anual rd edition
uly

272
X Glossary Index

A D
,
Absolute ceiling.................................. 10 Damp runway ..................................167
Accelerate-stop distance.................135 Derated thrust ........................ 191 258
Accelerate-stop distance (ASD).......155 Descent angle ...................................... 9
accelerate-stop distance available Descent gradient ................................. 9
(ASDA) ................................................. 12 Displacement drag ..........................191
Aerodynamic ceiling ........................206 Drag (D) ............................................133
Aerodynamic drag ...........................133 Dry runway ......................................167
Aeroplane CG ..................................... 16 Dry snow ..........................................167
Aircraft classification number (ACN) 137 Dynamic hydroplaning ...................170
Air gradient ........................................ 90
Angle of attack (AoA) ........................... 9
Anti-skid braking .............................157 E
Anti-Skid Systems .............................. 15 EASA CS-23 ........................................... 3
Aquaplaning ....................................170 EASA CS-25 ........................................... 3
Electronic flight bag (EFB) ...............187
Endurance .......................................... 24
B
,
Estimated surface friction ..............169
Balanced V1 .....................................140 Excess thrust ............................. 40 133
Buffet limit altitude .........................206
Buffet margin...................................206
Buffet onset boundary (BOB) .........205 F
Field-length-limited takeoff mass

,
(FLLTOM)...........................................164
C Flat rated ................................... 18 175
Climb angle .......................................... 8 Flight-path angle (γ) ............................ 9
Climb gradient ..................................... 8 Flight-path gradient ............................ 9
Climb-limited takeoff mass Friction..............................................169
(CLTOM) ............................................193 Friction force (F)...............................169
Coefficient of friction ......................169 Frozen ruts .......................................167
Coffin corner ....................................206 Fuel mileage ....................................... 24
Compacted snow .............................167
Configuration..................................... 15
Continued safe flight and landing ..... 2 G
Continuous descent approach Gross performance ............................. 5
(CDA) .................................................221 gross takeoff distance ....................... 74
Cost index.........................................203 Ground climb gradient ..................... 90

,
Cost index (CI) ..................................209 Ground roll ........................................ 74
Critical engine ............................. 42 73
Cruise climb .....................................203

273
X Glossary Index

Maximum-range cruise (MRC)

H
,
speed .................................................. 24
Hydroplaning .......................... 170 232 Measured performance ...................... 5
Minimum control speed .................147
MMAX ................................................206
I MMIN ................................................206
Ice ......................................................167 MMO .................................................220

,
Idealised V1 ......................................140
Induced drag............................. 54 133
N
Net accelerate-stop distance..........149
J Net distances ....................................... 6
JAR-OPS 1.............................................. 2 Net performance ................................. 6
Net takeoff distance required ........148

L
Net takeoff run ................................148
Non-flat-rated part .........................175
Landing distance ............................... 74 Normal force (N) .............................169
Landing distance available
(LDA)..................................................229
landing distance required ................ 85
landing flare ...................................... 84
O
Optimised profile descent (OPD) ...221
landing screen height ....................... 84 Optimum altitude............................203
Load classification number Optimum cruise altitude ................203
(LCN) .................................................137
Long-range cruise (LRC) ..................202
P
M Parasite drag ............................ 54 133 ,
Pavement classification number
Manoeuvre ceiling ...........................206 (PCN) .................................................137
Marked increase ..............................152 Performance Class A ........................... 4
Maximum allowed landing mass .... 74 Performance Class B ........................... 4
Maximum allowed takeoff mass ..... 74 Performance Class C ........................... 4
Maximum altitude...........................203 Performance limited mass (PLM) ..251
Maximum brake energy speed Performance limited takeoff mass
(VMBE) ..............................................196 (PLTOM) ............................................186
Maximum endurance ....................... 24 Power available ................................. 13
Maximum Mach operating Power required .................................. 13
(MMO) number .................................. 30
Pressure altitude ............................... 14
Maximum mach operating number220
Maximum operating speed ............220
Maximum range cruise (MRC) .......202

274
X Glossary Index

R U
Range .................................................. 24 Unclassified .......................................... 4
Reduced (Flex) ..................................191 utside air temperature ..................... 14
Reference zero .................................175
Regulated takeoff mass (RTOM) ....186
Remote probability ............................. 6 V
,
Reverted rubber hydroplaning ......171 V1 ......................................................139
Ridge .................................................167 V2 ............................................... 67 147
Rime/frost ice ...................................167 VEF ....................................................139
rolling takeoff .................................... 76 VGO ...................................................139
round out ........................................... 84 Viscous hydroplaning .....................171
Runway limit takeoff mass VLOF ..................................................146
(RLTOM) ............................................193 VMBE .................................................142
Runway Slope .................................... 16 VMC ...................................................144
Runway Surface ................................. 16 VMCA.................................................144
Rut .....................................................167 VMCG ................................................138
VMO ..................................................220
VMU ..................................................144
S VR ........................................................ 67
Safety margin ...................................... 6 VREF .................................................... 67
Slush .................................................167 VS ........................................................ 67
Specific fuel consumption (SFC) ....... 25 VS0 ...................................................... 67

,
Specific range (SR) ............................. 13 VS1 ...................................................... 67
Spray impingement drag................191 VS1g ........................................... 67 148
stall speed ........................................147 VSR ....................................................148
Step climbs .......................................204 VSR1 ..................................................148
Stopways ............................................ 10 VSTOP ...............................................139

T W
Takeoff distance ..............................135 Weight ................................................. 15
Takeoff distance available (TODA) .. 11 Weight apparent drag ....................151
Takeoff path.....................................135 Weight apparent thrust ..................151

,
Takeoff run.......................................135 weight apparent thrust or weight
Takeoff run available (TORA) .. 11 150 apparent drag ................................... 75
Takeoff surface ................................135 Weight apparent thrust or weight
Thrust available ................................. 44 apparent drag ................................... 16
Wet runway ......................................167
Thrust required.................................. 44
Wheel drag .......................................133
Top of descent .................................219
Winds .................................................. 14

275
X Glossary Index

Z
Zero wind or still air.......................... 90

276
032 Performance
CAE ATPL Ground Training Series

Performance book in the series of com rehensively covers the EASA

ATPL syllabus and learning objectives for this subject.
This book will cover all as ects of erformance at takeoff climb cruise descent
and landing. Beginning with single and multi engine class B performance, the
book easily expands this to class A performance aircraft.
The text is easy to read, and the numerous illustrations help cadets better
understand the more di cult as ects of the subject.

CAE Oxford Aviation Academy

Oxford Airport, Kidlington
xford England
Tel ( )
Email [Link] [Link]
Complies with
EASA ATPL [Link]