Chapter 4

Derivatives and Their

Applications

In this chapter, we will study one of two central concepts in Calculus- the
derivative of a function. We will also show some applications of the derivative.

4.1 Definition of the Derivative

Definition 4.1.1. (a) Let f be a function, and let x be in the domain of f .
Let ∆x be any change (increase or decrease) in the value of x, so that
x + ∆x is to the right of x on the real line if ∆x > 0, and x + ∆x is to
the left of x when ∆x < 0. The derivative of f with respect to x is
defined to be
f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
if this limit exists.

(b) If f 0 (x) exists, we say that f is differentiable at x. The process of

computing the derivative of f is called differentiation.

(c) If f is defined by an equation of the form y = f (x), then the derivative of

dy
f may also be denoted by any of the following notations: y 0 , , Dx y.
dx

Example 4.1.1.

91
92 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

(a) Let f be defined by f (x) = x2 . We have

f (x + ∆x) − f (x) (x + ∆x)2 − x2

f 0 (x) = lim = lim
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x
2 2 2
x + 2x∆x + (∆x) − x ∆x(2x + ∆x)
= lim = lim
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x
= lim 2x + ∆x = 2x
∆x→0

This shows that f 0 (x) = 2x for any√real number x, and f is differentiable

at every real number. Let f (x) = x. Using the definition, we have
√ √
0 x + ∆x − x
f (x) = lim
√ ∆x
∆x→0
√ √ √
( x + ∆x − x)( x + ∆x + x)
= lim √ √
∆x→0 ∆x( x + ∆x + x)
∆x 1
= lim √ √ = √
∆x→0 ∆x( x + ∆x + x) 2 x

1
Thus, f 0 (x) = √ and f is differentiable for all x > 0.
2 x

Theorem 4.1.1. If f is differentiable at x, then f is continuous at x.

4.2 Rules for Differentiation

Using the definition of the derivative, the following rules for finding the deriv-
ative of a function can be obtained. We will only show the proof for the
derivatives of the power function and the sum of two differentiable functions.
The proofs for the other functions are similar.

1. Derivative of a constant function

If f (x) = k, k a constant, then f 0 (x) = 0
Example:If f (x) = −3, then f 0 (x) = 0

2. Derivative of the power function

If f (x) = xn where n is an integer, then f 0 (x) = nxn−1 .
4.2. RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATION 93

Proof. By definition, we have

f (x + ∆x) − f (x) (x + ∆x)n − xn
f 0 (x) = lim = lim
∆x→0 ∆x  ∆x→0 ∆x
n
xn + nxn−1 ∆x + xn−2 (∆x)2 + · · · + (∆x)n − xn
2
= lim
∆x→0
  ∆x
n
nxn−1 ∆x + xn−2 (∆x)2 + · · · + (∆x)n
2
= lim∆x→0
  ∆x
n
= lim nxn−1 + xn−2 ∆x + · · · + (∆x)n−1
∆x→0 2
Each of the terms containing the factor ∆x will will have a limit of 0 as
∆x approaches 0, so only the first trm remains, and we get
d(xn )
f 0 (x) = = nxn−1
dx

Example: If f (x) = x3 , then n = 3 and f 0 (x) = 3(x2 ) = 3x2

3. Derivative of a constant multiple of a function
If f (x) = k g(x) where k is constant and g is a differentiable function,
then
d(k g(x)
f 0 (x) = = k · g 0 (x)
dx
5 20
Example: If f (x) = 4 = 5x−4 , then f 0 (x) = (5)(−4x−5 ) = − 5
x x
4. Derivative of a sum/difference of two or more functions
d(f (x) ± g(x)
= f 0 (x) ± g 0 (x)
dx
Proof. Let y = f (x) + g(x). Then we have
dy (f + g)(x + ∆x) − (f + g)(x)
= lim
dx ∆x→0 ∆x
f (x + ∆x) + g(x + ∆x) − (f (x) + g(x))
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
f (x + ∆x) − f (x) g(x + ∆x) − g(x)
= lim + lim
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x
= f 0 (x) + g 0 (x)
94 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

2 dy 2
Example: If y = x2 − 5x + , then = 2x − 5 − 2 .
x dx x
5. Derivative of the product of two or more functions
d(f (x)g(x)
= f (x)g 0 (x) + g(x)f 0 (x)
dx
Example: If y = (x2 + 3)(5 − x + x3 ), then
dy
= (x2 + 3)(−1 + 3x2 ) + (5 − x + x3 )(2x) = 5x4 + 6x2 + 10x − 3
dx
6. Derivative of the quotient of two functions
 
d f (x) g(x)f 0 (x) − f (x)g 0 (x)
=
dx g(x) (g(x))2
3x − 2
Example: If y = , then
4−x
dy (4 − x)(3) − (3x − 2)(−1) 10
= 2
=
dx (4 − x) (4 − x)2

7. Generalized Power Rule If a function is defined by an equation of

the form y = [f (x)]n , where n is an integer, then the derivative of the
generalized power function is given by
dy
= n [f (x)]n−1
dx
dy
Example: If y = (x2 −3x+2)5 , then = 5(x2 −3x+2)4 (2x−3). In this
dx
example, 5(x2 − 3x + 2)4 is the derivative of the outer power function,
while (2x − 3) is the derivative of the inner function (x2 − 3x + 2).

Remark 4.2.1.
(a) The rule for the derivative of a power function
√ may be extended to non-
1/2
integer exponents. For example, if f (x) = x = x so that n = 1/2,
then the power rule gives us the derivative
1 1
f 0 (x) = nxn−1 = (1/2)x1/2−1 = (1/2)x−1/2 = 1/2
= √
2x 2 x
which is the same result we got earlier.
4.3. TANGENT AND NORMAL LINES 95

(b) The quotient rule may be recalled more easily using the mnemonic device

dy lodehi - hidelo
=
dx (lo)2

where lodehi means the lower function (i.e. g(x)) multiplied by the deriv-
ative of the upper function (i.e. f 0 (x)) and hidelo means the upper
function (f (x)) multiplied by the derivative of the lower function (g 0 (x)).

Exercises. Find the derivative of each of the following functions:

1. f (x) = 5 − 3x2 + 4x3 3x − x3

8. f (x) = 2
x −4
1 2
2. f (x) = x4 − x3 − 8
2 3 9. f (x) = (x2 + 2x)(x3 − 1)
4 6
3. f (x) = 3
+ 4 10. f (x) = (3x − 2)4
x x
√ √ r
4. f (x) = 6x x − 3x2 x2
3
2 x2
11. f (x) = −
2 √ x 3
5. f (x) = √ − 4x x
x r
2x − 1
√ 12. f (x) = 3
6. f (x) = x(4x3 − 3x2 + 5) x+1
3x2 − 4x x+1
7. f (x) = 13. f (x) = · (5 − 4x)
2x + 5 2x − 3

4.3 Tangent and Normal Lines

In this section, we give a geometric interpretation for the derivative. Let f be
continuous on an interval containing x1 . Also let P = (x1 , f (x1 )) be a point
on the curve. If ∆x is an arbitrary small number, then Q(x1 + ∆x, f (x1 + ∆x)
is another point on the curve. The difference quotient

f (x1 + ∆x) − f (x1 )

∆x
96 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

is the slope of the secant line that passes through the points P and Q.
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When ∆x gets smaller, the point Q slides along the curve towards P , so that
the position of the secant line through these points gets closer and closer to
the tangent line to the curve at P . Thus, the limiting value of the slope of the
secant line as ∆x gets smaller and smaller is the slope of the tangent line at
P . This slope is then equal to
f (x1 + ∆x) − f (x1 )
mtan = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
if this limit exists. Observe But this limit is just the same as f 0 (x1 ), which
means that the derivative may be interpreted geometrically as the slope of
the tangent line to the curve at a point on the curve, if this tangent
line is nonvertical.
Example 4.3.1.
(a) To find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = (x − 1)2 at the
point P (0, 1), we first compute the derivative and evaluate it at x = 0.
Thus:
dy
= 2(x − 1)
dx
is the slope of the tangent line to the curve at any point. When x = 0,
the slope is 2(0 − 1) = −2. Using the point-slope form of the equation of
a line, we get
y − 1 = −2(x − 0) or, equivalently, 2x + y − 1 = 0
4.3. TANGENT AND NORMAL LINES 97
√
(b) To find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x which is
parallel to the line x − 4y + 5 = 0, we use the fact that parallel lines have
the same slope. The given equation can be expressed in the slope- intercept
form as y = 1/4x + 5/4, so that the slope of the given line and the tangent
1 1
line is 1/4. From Example 4.1.1(2), we have mtan = f 0 (x) = √ = .
√ 2 x 4
This gives us x = 4, y = 4 = 2, so the point of tangency is at P (4, 2).
The equation of the tangent line is obtained by the point-slope form, thus:

y − 2 = 1/4(x − 4) or x − 4y + 4 = 0

Definition 4.3.1. Let P be a point on a curve y = f (x) where the tangent

line exists. The normal line at P is the line perpendicular to the the normal
1
line at the point of tangency. Its slope is given by mnorm = − .
mtan
Example 4.3.2. To find the equation of the normal line(s) to the curve y =
x3 − 3x2 + 1 which are vertical, we first determine the points on the curve
where the tangent line is horizontal, so that the slope is equal to zero. Since
the derivative represents the slope of the tangent line, we have

dy
= 3x2 − 6x = 3x(x − 2) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, x = 2
dx
This means that the tangent lines are horizontal when x is either 0 or 2, and
the equations of the vertical normal lines at these points have the equations
x = 0, which is the y-axis, and x = 2.

Exercises.

1. Find an equation of each of the following lines:

(a) the tangent line to the curve y = 3 − x3 at the point (-1,4).

(b) the tangent line to the curve y = ds 2x+1
3x−2
at the point (1,3).
(c) the tangent line to the curve y = 4x2 − 5x + 1 which is parallel to the
line y = 11x − 3.
(d) the normal line to the curve y = 12x − x4 which is parallel to the line
x + 2oy − 20 = 0.
1
(e) each of the lines tangent to the curve y = dx + and parallel to the
x
line 2x + 4y − 1 = 0.
98 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
√
(f) The line with slope -6 and normal to the curve y = x.

2. Answer the following:

(a) Determine the points on the graph of the function defined y = x2 +6x+2
where the tangent line is horizontal.
(b) Determine the points on the graph of the function defined by y =
x3 − 12x where the normal lines are vertical.
(c) For the function defined by y = 3x2 − 6x, determine the points where
(i) the tangent line has slope is -6
(ii) the tangent line is parallel to the line 12x + y − 3 = 0.
(iii) the tangent line is perpendicular line x + 6y − 2 = 0.

4.4 Implicit Differentiation

Definition 4.4.1. When a function is defined by an equation of the form
y = f (x), where f (x) is an expression entirely in terms of x, we say that f is
explicitly defined as a function of x. An equation of the form g(x, y) = 0
for which there exist at least one function y = f (x) satisfying the equation is
said to define y implicitly as a function of x.

Example 4.4.1. Consider the equation x2 +y 2 −1 = 0, which may be expressed

in the form x2 + y 2 = 1. This shows that the graph of the equation is a circle
and, clearly, the equation does not define a function. However, if we solve for
y in terms of x, we get
√
y = ± 1 − x2
which shows that there are two functions, namely:
√ √
y = f1 (x) = 1 − x2 and y = f2 (x) = − 1 − x2

that satisfy the given equation. Thus we say that the equation x2 + y 2 − 1 = 0
implicitly defines y as a function of x.

If we are given an equation of the form g(x, y) = 0, we assume that there

exists an unknown function defined by y = f (x) even if we can not actually
solve for f (x) like in the above example. To find f 0 (x), we use a process known
as implicit differentiation, which is described below:
4.4. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION 99

• Differentiate each term of the defining equation with respect to x,

treating y as a function of x, and any function of y as a composite
function.

• Solve for y 0 in the equation obtained in the preceding step.

Example 4.4.2.
dy
1. Find = y 0 if the function is defined by the equation x2 + y 2 = 4 using
dx
implicit differentiation.

We have
(Differentiate each term with respect to x)
2x + 2yy 0 = 0
dy
(Solve for y 0 = is the resulting equation)
dx
dy −2x x
2yy 0 = −2x, so that = y0 = =−
dx 2y y
dy
2. Use implicit differentiation to find if x2 y − xy 2 = y 3 .
dx
We have

2xy + x2 y 0 − (y 2 + x(2yy 0 )) = 3y 2 y 0
(Differentiate term by term)
y (x − 2xy − 3y ) = y 2 − 2xy
0 2 2

(Combine terms containing y 0 )

y 2 − 2xy
y0 = 2
x − 2xy − 3y 2
(Solve for y 0 )

Observe that the terms x2 y = (x2 )(y) and xy 2 = (x)(y 2 ) are treated as
products with y representing some unknown function.
Exercises.
dy
1. Use implicit differentiation to find for each of the functions defined
dx
below:
100 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
√ √
(a) (x + y)2 = y (c) x+ y=1
x
(b) xy + = y 2
y

2. Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the curve x2 +y 2 = 25
at the point (-4,3).

4.5 Higher Order Derivatives

dy
If f is a function defined by y = f (x), then f 0 (x) = y 0 = is again a function,
dx
d2 y
which may have its own derivative, denoted by f 00 (x) = y 00 = , which is
dx2
called the second derivative of f . The second derivative is again a function,
so if its derivative exists, then this derivative is called the third derivative
of f . This process may be repeated any number of times for as long as the
required derivative exists.

Definition 4.5.1.

(a) If n is a positive integer, then the n-th derivative of a function f

dn y
defined by y = f (x) is given by f (n) (x) = y (n) = . It is obtained
dxn
by differentiating the original function and successively differentiating the
derivatives until n differentiations have been performed.

(b) The order of a derivative is the number of times differentiation is per-

formed on the original function and its successive derivatives in order
to obtain this derivative. If k is a positive integer, then the order of
dk y
f (k) (x) = k is k.
dx
Example 4.5.1.

1. If f (x) = x4 , then the first derivative is f 0 (x) = 4x3 , the second derivative
is f 00 (x) = 4(3x2 ) = 12x2 , the third derivative is f (3) (x) = 12(2x) = 24x,
the fourth derivative is f (4) (x) = 24, and the kth-derivative is f (k) (x) = 0
when k > 4, since the fourth-derivative is already a constant function.

2. If x2 + y 2 = 4, then as shown in the example of the preceding section,

dy x −x
we have = y0 = − = . The second derivative can be obtained
dx y y
4.6. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 101

by the quotient rule and implicit differentiation as follows:

d2 y y(−1) − (−x)y 0
y 00 = =
dx2 y2
 
−y + x − xy −(x2 + y 2 ) 4
= 2
= 3
=− 3
y y y
since x2 + y 2 = 4.
Exercises.
d2 y
1. Find for each of the following functions:
dx2
(a) y = x3 − 3x2 + 6 (d) y = (2x − 3)4
√
(b) y = (x2 + 1)(3x3 − 2) (e) y = 3 4x − x3
2x − 1
(c) y =
5 − 3x
d4 y
2. If y = (2x − 10)6 , find .
dx4
d3 y 2
3. Find 3
when y = .
dx 3x − 5
d2 y 4
4. If x2 − y 2 = 4, show that 2
= − 3.
dx y
d2 y
5. If x2 − 3y 2 = 4, find .
dx2

4.6 Applications of the Derivative

In this section, we discuss some applications of the derivative. We have already
given a geometric interpretation of the derivative as the slope of the tangent
line to the graph of the function at any point on the graph. It is time to
investigate what information about the function can we get from the derivative.

4.6.1 The Derivative as Rate of Change

f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
(a) The quotient represents the average rate of change of
∆x
f (x) corresponding to changes in the values of the independent variable.
102 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

If x = x0 , the derivative
f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
represents the instantaneous rate of change of f (x) with respect to x. This
represents the amount by which f (x) will change if the value of x increases
from x0 to x0 + 1, assuming it maintains its rate of change at x0 .
dy
(b) If > 0, then y increases as x increases, and we say that f is an in-
dx
dy
creasing function. On the other hand , < 0 implies that the value of
dx
y decreases as x increases, and f is a decreasing function. The magni-
tude of the derivative, on the other hand, tells us how fast the derivative
is changing with respect to the independent variable.

Example 4.6.1.

(a) A stone is dropped onto a still pond, causing circular ripples to spread out.
The area of the disturbed region in the water is given by A = πr2 , where
r is the radius of the outermost circle. Here, our independent variable is r
representing the radius, and our dependent variable is A which represents
the area of the disturbed region. The rate at which the area is changing
dA
when the radius is 12 cm is computed as follows: We first compute =
dr
dA
2πr. When r = 12, we get = 2π(12) = 24πcm2 > 0, which means that
dr
the area increases by this amount if the radius were to increase by 1 cm.

(b) Sand is being dropped onto a conical pile such that the height of the pile
is always twice the radius of the base of the pile. The formula for the
1
volume of sand at any time is given by V = πr2 h, where r is the base
3
radius and h is the height of the pile. If we want to know how fast the
volume of sand is changing with respect to the height when the height of
the pile is h = 5 feet, we first rewrite the formula for the volume in terms
of h alone. Since h = 2r, we get
1 1 1
V = πr2 h = π(h/2)2 h = πh3
3 3 12
This gives us
dV 1
= πh2
dh 4
4.6. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 103

dV 1 25π 3
When h = 5 feet, we get = π(25) = f t when the height increase
dh 4 4
by one foot.

Exercises.

1. If y = x4 − 3x2 , find the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to

x when x = 2.

2. Find the rate of change of the area of a circle with respect to the diameter
when the radius is 6 inches.

3. Find the rate of change of the lateral surface area of a cylinder with respect
to its radius when the radius is 8 cm and the height is always twice the
radius.

4. Find rate of change of the volume of a sphere with respect to its radius at
the instant when the radius is 10 inches.

5. What is the length e of each edge of a cube when the volume of the cube
is increasing with respect to e at 27 in3 per inch of change in e?

6. The height of a right circular cone is three times its radius. Find the rate
at which the volume of the cone is changing with respect to the diameter
when the diameter is 10 cm.

4.6.2 Related Rates

In the preceding section, we showed that the derivative represents the instan-
taneous rate of change of a function with respect to the independent variable.
In some cases, the quantities represented by both the independent and depen-
dent variables are changing with time. We may then differentiate the given
equation implicitly with respect to time to obtain an equation that relates
the rates of change with respect to time of the dependent and independent
variables. When one of these rates is unknown, we can use the equation of
related rates to solve for this unknown value.

Example 4.6.2.

(a) A balloon is rising vertically above a straight horizontal road at a constant

rate of 1 ft/sec. When the balloon is 65 feet above the ground, a bicycle
104 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

moving at a constant rate of 17 ft/sec passes under it. How fast is distance
between the bicycle and the balloon increasing 4 seconds later?
y
..
.....
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.
.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................ x
.
...
...
.. x(t)

Let y(t) be the vertical distance of the balloon from the ground and let
x(t) represent the distance of the bicycle from the point on the ground
directly above the balloon. Also let s(t) represent the distance between
the balloon and the bicycle t seconds after the bicycle passes under the
balloon. Then we have the Pythagorean relation

x2 + y 2 = t2

Differentiating implicitly with respect to t gives us

dx dy ds dx dy ds
2x + 2y = 2s ⇒ x +y =s
dt dt dt dt dt dt
The last equation is called the equation of related rates. Note that we
have
dx dy
= 17 ft/sec, = 1 ft/sec
dt dt
When t = 3, we have
p
y = 65 + t = 68, x = 17t = 51, s = x2 + y 2 = 85

We get
 
ds 1 dx dy
= x +y
dt s dt dt
1 19
= [(15)(17) + (68)(1)] = = 3.8ft/sec
85 5
4.6. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 105

(b) A man 6 feet tall walks along a horizontal road at the rate of 5 ft/sec
toward a street light which is 16 feet above the [Link] what rate is
the length of his shadow changing when he is 10 feet from the base of the
light? .. .
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.......
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... .......
.......
.. .......
... .......
.......
16 ..
...
..
... ............
.. ...........
... .. .......
.. .......
.. .......
... .. .......
.......
... .. .......
.......
.. .. .......
... .. .......
.......
.. .. .......
... .. .......
.. .. .......
... .. .......
.......
.. .. .......
... . .......
...
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

x y

Let x be the distance of the man from the base of the light, and let y be
the length of his shadow. Since the man is walking towards the light, x is
dx
decreasing, so that = −5 ft/sec. We have the proportion
dt
x+y y
= ⇒ 6x = 10y
16 6
This gives us
   
dy 3 dx 3
= = (−5) = −3ft/sec
dt 5 dt 5

This shows that the length of the shadow decreases as the man gets closer
to the light.

(c) Sand is being poured onto a conical pile at the rate of 5 cubic meters per
minute. If the height of the pile is always twice the base radius, how fast
is the base radius increasing when the radius is 4 meters?

The formula for the volume is given by

1
V = πr2 h
3
where h is the height of the pile and r is the base radius. Since we are
dr
being asked for , we can rewrite the formula for the volume in terms of
dt
106 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

the base radius only, thus:

1 2πr3 dV dr
V = πr2 (2r) = ⇒ = (2πr2 )
3 3 dt dt
dr
Solving for , we get
dt
dr 1 dV 5 5 3
= 2
= = m /min
dt 2πr dt 2(16)π 32π

Exercises. Solve the following problems:

1. A woman on the ground is watching an airplane through a telescope as the
plane approaches at the rate of 15 km per minute while it maintains an
altitude of 10 kms. At what rate (in radians per minute) is the angle θ of
the telescope changing when the horizontal distance between the woman
and the plane is 30 kms?
.................................................................................................................................................................................... airplane
... ........
...........
..
... ...........
.. ...
...
...
............
.......
... ...........
.. ...........
... ...........
.. .
...
...
.............
.
... ...........
θ ............. ...........
...........
... ......................
............
telescope

2. A kite flying at a height of 300 feet is being blown by a horizontal wind. If

we assume that the string remains taut and is being paid out at the rate of
20 feet per minute, how fast is the kite moving horizontally when 500 feet
of string is out?

3. A spherical snowball is melting at the rate of 15cm3 /min. Assuming that

it keeps its spherical shape as it melts, how fast is the diameter decreasing
when the diameter is 18 inches?

4. A water tank is in the form of an inverted cone which is 6 feet across the
top and 8 feet high. If water pours into the cone at the rate of 4 cubic
feet per minute, at what rate is the depth of the water increasing when the
water in the tank is 4 feet deep?

5. A man 6 feet tall is walking away from a lamp hung from a post 20 feet
high at the rate of 5 feet per minute.

(a) At what rate is the length of his shadow changing when he is 10 feet
from the base of the lamp?
4.6. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 107

(b) At what rate is the tip of his shadow moving when he is 15 feet away
from the base of the lamp?
6. Two cars start out simultaneously from the same point, one moving north at
80 kms per hours and the other moving east at 60 kms per hour. Assuming
that the cars maintain their speeds, at what rate are the cars separating
two hours after they started out?
7. Air from a spherical balloon is being let out at the rate of 1 cubic inch per
second. Assuming that it maintains its shape, at what rate is the radius
changing when the radius is 4 inches?
8. A ladder 17 feet long is leaning against a vertical wall, and its base rests
on horizontal ground. If the base of the ladder is being pulled horizontally
away from the wall at the rate of 1 foot per minute, how fast is the top of
the ladder sliding down the wall when the foot of the ladder is 8 feet away
from the wall?

4.6.3 Maximum and Minimum Values of a Function

Definition 4.6.1. Let f be a function defined on some open interval contain-
ing the number c. Then
(a) f has a relative maximum at x = c if there exists an open interval (a, b)
that contains c such that f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x ∈ (a, b). The number f (c)
is a relative maximum for f on the interval (a, b).
(b) f has a relative minimum at x = c if there exists an open interval (a, b)
that contains c such that f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ (a, b). The number f (c)
is a relative minimum value for f on the open interval (a, b).
In the figure below, we illustrate two functions which have relative maximum
values at a number c. We see that the graphs have peaks at the points where
x = c. For relative minimum values, the graphs will have ”valleys“ at the
numbers where the relative mimimum exist.
In the above figure, tangent line at x = c is horizontal for the graph on the
left, and vertical for the graph on the right. Thus, the slope of the tangent
line is 0 or is undefined. This illustrates the fact that at the points where a
function f attains a relative maximum or minimum value, then tangent line is
either horizontal or vertical, and hence the derivative, which gives the slope of
the tangent line, is either 0 or fails to exist. We give a name to the numbers
where these occur.
108 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

...
..
.. relative maximum
... .
...... ..........
.
...... .... ... ....
.. ... .. ...
.. .. .. .. . ..
... .. ... ... ... .....
........ .. .. ... .. ...
... . ... .... .. ...
.. ... .. .. .. ...
... .. ... .... .
. ...
.. . relative maximum .. .
. .
. ...
.. ......
... ...............................
.......... ... .... ..
.
...
...
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.
...
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.
..
.
....
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..
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.... .
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.
. .. .
.
.
.
.
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. ...
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. .
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.
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. .
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. ....
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... .. ... ... ..
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.
.
.
.
.. .. .. . .
... .. ... ... ..
.. .. ... ... ...
... .. ... .. c ..
.. .. .... .
. .
... .. ..........................................................................................................................................................................................
.. .. ... ... ..
...
.
.
c ..
. ..
... a ...
.. b ..
...
......................................................................................................................................................................................... .... ... ..
. ...
... .. .
. ..
a .... ...
..
...
..
..
..
..
b ... ...
..
..
..
...
... .. ... .
.. .. .. ..
.. . .. ..

Figure 4.1: Relative maximum at x = c

Definition 4.6.2. If f is defined at a number c and either

• f 0 (c) = 0 or
• f 0 (c) does not exist
then c is called a critical number of f .
Example 4.6.3. To find the critical numbers of the function defined by y =
x3 − 3x2 + 5, we first find the derivative, which is
dy
= 3x2 − 6x
dx
Since the derivative is defined by a quadratic polynomial, it exists everywhere,
so that the only critical numbers are those for which the derivative is 0. We
have
f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 6x = 3x(x − 2) = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or x = 2
This shows that the given function has two critical numbers, namely 0 and 2.
Remark 4.6.1.
• If we wish to determine where a given function f assumes relative max-
imum or minimum values, we only have to determine the elements in
the domain of f where either f 0 (x) = 0 or f 0 (x) fails to exist. These
are precisely the critical numbers of f . If f has relative maximum or
minimum values, they can only occur at the critical numbers.
4.6. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 109

• If c is a critical number of a function f , we use the following test to

determine if a relative maximum or minimum is attained at c.

First Derivative Test for Relative Extrema

• Let c be a critical number of f .

• If f 0 (x) < 0 when x < c and f 0 (x) > 0 when x > c, then f is
decreasing and the graph is falling as x approaches c from the
left. After passing through c, the function is increasing and the
graph is rising to the right of c. Thus, the function would have
attained a relative minimum value of f (c) at x = c.

• If f 0 (x) > 0 when x < c and f 0 (x) < 0 when x > c, then the graph
is rising as x approaches c then falls as x moves to the right of c.
This shows that f attains a relative maximum value f (c) at
c.

Example 4.6.4. To determine the relative maximum and minimum values of

the function defined by y = x3 − 3x2 + 5, we use the first derivative test on
the critical numbers 0 and 2 obtained in the preceding example. We need to
determine the signs of the derivative at points to the left and to the right of
each of these critical numbers. Hence, we subdivide the domain of f , which is
R, into three intervals, consisting of the following:

(∞, 0) = { x ∈ R : x < 0 } = the points to the left of 0

(0, 2) = { x ∈ R : 0 < x < 2 } = the points between 0 and 2
(2, +∞) = { x ∈ R : x > 2 } = the points to the right of 2

The following table summarizes our results:

x f (x) f 0 (x) Conclusion

x<0 + f is increasing
x=0 5 0 Relative maximum
0<x<2 - f is decreasing
x=2 1 0 Relative minimum
x>2 + f is increasing
110 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Figure 4.2: Graph of y = x3 − 3x2 + 5

The graph of f shown below confirms that a relative maximum of 5 occurs at

x = 0 and a relative minimum of 1 is attained at x = 2.

In Figure 4.6.4, the relative maximum value of 5 is not the maximum value
that the function can attain, since we see that the graph of the function rises
indefinitely as x increases. Similarly, the relative minimum value of 1 is not
the smallest value that f can attain, as the graph of f extends indefinitely
downward to the left of 0. These relative extrema (or extreme values) are only
the largest or smallest within a small interval (a, b) containing c, compared
with the values of f (x) near the number c. If we want the maximum or
minimum value that f (x) can have over a larger interval or over the entire
domain of f , then we get the absolute maximum/minimum values of f (x).

Definition 4.6.3.

• A function f is said to have an absolute maximum on an interval [a, b]

at the number c, where a ≤ c ≤ b , if f (c) is the largest value attained
by f (x) on this interval.

• A function f is said to have an absolute minimum on an interval [a, b]

at the number d, where a ≤ d ≤ b , if f (d) is the smallest value attained
by f (x) on this interval.

The following theorem guarantees the existence of both the absolute max-
imum and absolute minimum values of a continuous function on a closed in-
terval.
4.6. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 111

Theorem 4.6.1. (Extreme Value Theorem)

If a function f is continuous and differentiable on a closed interval [a, b], then
f will have both an absolute maximum value and an absolute minimum value
on the interval. To obtain these values, do the following:

(a) Find all the critical numbers of f inside the interval.

(b) Evaluate f (x) at each of the critical numbers obtained in (a) and at the
endpoints a and b.

(c) Compare the function values obtained in (b). The largest is the absolute
maximum value of f (x) on the interval, while the smallest is the absolute
minimum value of f (x) on the same interval.

Remark 4.6.2. Observe that a continuous function can have an absolute

maximum or minimum value over an interval either at an interior point or
at an endpoint of the given interval. This explains the above procedure for
determining the absolute maximum and minimum values of f in the interval.

Example 4.6.5. Let f be the function defined by 2y = 12 − x2 , and suppose

that we want to determine the absolute maximum/minimum values of f on
the interval I = [−3, 4]. We have

dy
= −x = 0 ⇒ x=0
dx

The critical number 0 lies inside the interval I. We compare the function
values at 0 and at the endpoints of the interval:

(−3)2 9 3
f (−3) = 6 − =6− =
2 2 2
2
0
f (0) = 6 − =6−0=6
2
32 16
f (4) = 6 − =6− = −2
2 2

This shows that f has an absolute maximum of f (0) = 6 at 0 and an absolute

112 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

minimum of -2 at 4. The graph is shown below:

..
...
.........
..
...
..
...
..
...
..
...
..
...
..
... absolute maximum
• ... .
......
...
.............................
.
.
...
......
....
....
. . ....
... ......... ....
.
.... .
. ....
...
.. .. ... ...
... .
. ...
.. ... ........ ... ..
.. .... ... ... ..
.. .. ... ... ..
.. ... ........ .
. .... ..
.. ... . ... ..
.. ... ... ... ..
.. ... .
. .... ..
.. ... ....... .
. ..
.... ... ..
. ...
• .....
... ..
... .. ........
.
...
..
...
...
..
..
..
. ...
.. .. . ... ..
.... .. ... ... ...
. . .
.
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
... ... ... ... ..
... ..
... .. ... ... ..
... .. ........ ... ..
..... .. ..
. ... ..
... . . .....
... ... ...
...
...
..
..
..
..
........
...
..
• ...
....... absolute minimum
.. ...
.... .. ... .. ...
... .. ....... .. ...
.. .. ... .. ...
.... .. ... .. ...
.. .. ........ . .. ..
.. ..
.. ... ..
.. ... ..
.. ....... . ..
.. .. ..
.. ... ..
. .. .
. . .

When solving word problems that involve absolute maximum or minimum

values of a function, we often have to set up the function that gives the values
of the quantity whose absolute maximum/minimum value is to be determined,
and the interval where the computation is to be carried out. We illustrate this
in the following examples:

Example 4.6.6.

(a) The distance d in feet travelled in t seconds by an object which is allowed

to fall freely is given by the equation d = 16t2 . The instantaneous speed
of the object at any time t is given by

d0 (t) = 32t

For example, at the instant three seconds after the object started to fall
(t = 3), the speed of the object is d0 (3) = 32(3) = 96 feet per second. On
the other hand, since the distance travelled by the object after 3 seconds
is d = 16t2 = 16(9) = 144 feet, the average speed of the object during the
first three seconds is
∆d 144
= = 48f t/sec
∆t 3
4.6. APPLICATIONS OF THE DERIVATIVE 113

(b) The volume of a balloon in the shape of a sphere is given by v = 4/3πr3 ,

where r is the radius. If, while being inflated, the balloon retains its
spherical shape, then the rate of change in the volume with respect to the
radius is given
dv
v 0 (r) = = 4/3π(3r2 ) = 4πr2
dr
When the radius is 6 inches, the volume is increasing at the rate of v 0 (r) =
4π(62 ) = 144πin2 /in.

(c) To find two nonnegative numbers whose sum is 12 and whose product
is a maximum, we note that the numbers can be represented by x and
12 − x, respectively. Since both numbers must be nonnegative, we can
only choose x in the interval [0, 12]. The product is given by f (x) =
x(12 − x) = 12x − x2 , and we wish to find its maximum. The critical
numbers are obtained from

f 0 (x) = 12 − 2x = 2(6 − x) = 0

which shows that 6 is the only critical number, and it is inside the interval.
We have
f (0) = f (12) = 0, f (6) = 12(6) − 62 = 36
so the maximum product of 36 is obtained when both numbers are equal
to 6.

Exercises.

1. Use the first derivative test to determine the relative maximum/minimum

values of each of the given functions:

(a) f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 3x (c) f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 − 6x

(b) f (x) = x4 − 4x + 3 (d) f (x) = x4 − 2x2 + 3

2. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of each of the given func-
tions in the indicated intervals:
√ 4
(a) f (x) = 25 − x2 , [0, 4] (c) f (x) = √ , [3, 6]
x−2
2x + 1 x
(b) f (x) = , [−3, 2] (d) f (x) = 2 , [2, 5]
x−3 x −1

3. Solve the following problems:

114 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

(a) A man has 100 feet of wire to build a fence about a rectangular garden.
If one side of the garden is along a vertical wall, find the dimensions of
the largest garden that can be enclosed by the fence.
(b) Find two nonnegative numbers whose sum is 12 such that the sum of
their squares is a maximum.
(c) Find a number in interval [0.5, 2.5] such that the sum of the number
and its reciprocal is a minimum.
(d) An open square box is to be formed by cutting off equally-sized squares
from the four corners and turning up the flaps. Find the volume of the
largest possible box.
(e) Find the dimensions of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in a
circle of radius 8 inches.
(f) Find the dimensions of a right circular cylindrical can with an open top
and a volume of 100 cubic cm. having the least surface area.

4.7 The Mean Value Theorem

One of the most important theorems in Calculus is the Mean Value Theo-
rem. Its proof uses a theorem which actually represents a special case of the
Mean Value Theorem. This is Rolle’s Theorem, which is stated and proven
below:

Theorem 4.7.1. (Rolle’s Theorem)

Let f be a function satisfying the following conditions:

• f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b];

• f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b); and

• f (a) = f (b) = 0

Then there exists a number c ∈ (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0

Proof. We consider two cases, namely:

Case 1: f (x) = 0 for all x ∈ [a, b]

In this case, f is a constant function, so that f 0 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ [a, b], and
we can choose c to be any element of [a, b].
 4.7. THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 115

Case 2: f is not identically zero in [a, b]

In this case, either f has a positive absolute maximum or a negative absolute
minimum at some number c inside the interval. This is guaranteed by the
Extreme Value Theorem. This absolute extremum must then be a relative
extremum as well. Since f 0 exists in (a, b), we must have f 0 (c) = 0.

Remark 4.7.1. Rolle’s theorem has a geometric interpretation. If f is a

function satisfying the hypothesis of Rolle’s theorem, then there is at least one
point in the graph of the function over the interval [a, b] where the tangent
line is horizontal.

Example 4.7.1. Consider the function defined by y = 8 + 2x − x2 , and let

I = [a, b] = [−2, 4]. Clearly, f is continuous everywhere, and hence continuous
in the interval I. Moreover, f 0 (x) = 2−2x, so that f is differentiable in (-2, 4).
Also,
f (−2) = f (4) = 0
Setting the derivative to zero, we get

0 = f 0 (x) = 2 − 2c ⇒ c = 1 ∈ [−2, 4]

The graph of f and the horizontal tangent line at c = 1 are shown below:
.
..
......
.... .... .... .... .................................... .... .... .... .
... ..... ....
.. ...
.......... ...
.
..... ... ...
...
... ........ ...
... .. ...
.. ....... ...
.... .... ...
.. .. ...
... ....... ..
... ... ..
.. ........ . ..
... ..
..
... ... ..
..
... ....... .
...
.
.
.......
.
...
.......
...
........................................................................................................................................
...
...
..
...

We use Rolle’s Theorem to prove the Mean Value Theorem which is stated
below:

Theorem 4.7.2. (Mean Value Theorem)

Let f be a function satisfying the following conditions:

• f is continuous in the closed interval [a, b];

• f is differentiable in the open interval (a, b); and

116 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Then there exists a number c ∈ (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) =
b−a

Proof. Note that the secant line through the points (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)) has
the equation

f (b) − f (a) f (b) − f (a)

y − f (a) = (x − a) or y = (x − a) − f (a)
b−a b−a
Define the function
f (b) − f (a)
F (x) = f (x) − (x − a) − f (a)
b−a
Geometrically, this function represents the vertical distance between a point
(x, f (x)) on the graph of f and the corresponding point on the secant line.
Since f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), so is F . Moreover,
it can be verified that
F (a) = F (b) = 0
This shows that F satisfies the hypothesis of Rolle’s theorem. Thus, from this
theorem, we know that there exists a number c ∈ (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a) f (b) − f (a)

F 0 (c) = f 0 (c) − = 0 or f 0 (c) =
b−a b−a

Remark 4.7.2. Geometrically, the quantity f 0 (c) represents the slope of the
tangent line to the graph of f at the point (c, f (c)). Hence, the mean value the-
orem says that there is a point on the graph of f over the interval [a, b] where
the tangent line is parallel to the secant line joining (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)).

Example 4.7.2. Consider the function defined by y = x3 + x2 − x and the

interval [-2,1]. We have f 0 (x) = 3x2 + 2x − 1, so that f is differentiable over
(-2,1). Since f is a polynomial function, it is continuous everywhere and hence
continuous on the closed interval [-2,1]. Thus, the hypothesis of the mean value
theorem is satisfied, and there exists a number c ∈ (−2, 1) such that

f (1) − f (−2) 1 − (−2)

f 0 (c) = 3c2 + 2c − 1 = = =1
1 − (−2) 1 − (−2)
4.7. THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 117

By the quadratic formula, we have

p √ √
−2 ± 4 − 4(3)(−2) −2 ± 28 −1 ± 7
c= = =
6 6 3
Since both values are inside the interval [-2,1], we have two values for c satis-
fying the conclusion of the mean value theorem.

Exercises.

1. In each of the following, show that the hypothesis of Rolle’s theorem is

satisfied. Then find a number c inside the given interval satisfying the
conclusion of the theorem.

(a) f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3, [1, 3]

(b) f (x) = x4 − 4x2 , [−2, 2]
(c) f (x) = x3 − 2x2 − x + 2, [1, 2]
(d) f (x) = x3 − 5x2 − 6x, [0, 6]

2. In each of the following, verify the hypothesis of the mean value theorem
and find a number c in the indicated interval which satisfies the conclusion
of the theorem.

(a) f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 4, [−1, 4]

√
(b) f (x) = x2 − 4x − 5, [−3, − 2]
2x − 4
(c) f (x) = 2 , [−1, 1]
x − 5x + 6
(d) f (x) = x2/3 , [0, 1]

3. If f (x) = x4 − 2x3 + 2x2 − x, then f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 6x2 + 4x − 1. Use Rolle’s

theorem to show that the equation

4x3 − 6x2 + 4x − 1 = 0

has at least one real root inside the interval (0, 1).

4. Use the mean value theorem to show that if a < b, then the arithmetic mean
a+b
of a and b lies in the open interval (a, b). (Hint: Use f (x) = x2 )
2
118 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

4.8 Curve Sketching

As a final application of derivatives to be discussed in this chapter, we turn
to sketching the graph of a continuous function. We already learned that the
first derivative tells us if a function is increasing or decreasing, and hence if its
graph is rising or falling. In order to sketch the graph, we also need to know
if a portion of the graph opens upward or downward.

Definition 4.8.1. Let f be a function with a continuous derivative on an

interval I. We say that the graph of f is

(a) concave downward on I if the tangent line to the curve lies above the
curve on the interval.

(b) concave upward on I if the tangent line to the curve lies below the
curve on the interval.

.. .... .
..... .... ....
....... .... ....
.
. .... ......
.. ... ....
... ... ........ ...... ......
.... ...
.. .. .... ....... ...
.. .... .......... .... .... ..................................................................... .... .... .... .... ....
.. ... .................... .............
........... ...
.. .. .......... ............. ..
.. . .. ...........
... .
. ............. .... ....... ...
.. .... .........
.. ............. .... .... .
...... ..
.. ....... .. ....... ..
........... .. ........
............ ... ........
.. . ...... .....
..... .... ... ..
. .. .... ....
. ... .... . .
. .. ... ...
.. .... .. . .
.... ..
.
.
. .. ....
..
...... .
.
. .. ...
..
.....
.
.
. .
.. ... ...
... . . . ..
. .
. .
. .
. .
.
.
..... ... ... ...
..
. .. .
. .
... .. ... ...
... ... .. ..
.. ... ...
.. ... ..
.. .. ..
...
a ..
..
.
..
.
b ..
..
................................................................................................................................................................................................................
. .
.. ..
. ..
... ... ...
. ... .
... .. ...
.. ... ..
.. ... ..
. . .

Figure 4.3: Graph is concave downward on the interval [a, b]

Note that when the graph is concave downward on an interval, the slopes
of the tangent lines changes from positive to zero to negative. This means that
the the function f 0 is decreasing on this interval, and hence the derivative of f 0 ,
which is f 00 , must be negative. Similarly, if the graph of a twice-differentiable
function f is concave upward on an interval I, then the slopes of the tangent
lines to the curve on this interval change from negative to zero to positive,
so that f 0 is an increasing function on the interval. The second derivative f 00
must then be positive on the interval I. We have
4.8. CURVE SKETCHING 119

Second Derivative Test for Concavity

Let f be a function whose second derivative exists on an interval I.

• If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ I, then the graph of f is concave upward

on I,

• If f 00 (x) < 0 for every x ∈ I, then the graph of f is concave

downward on the interval I.

Example 4.8.1. Let f be the function defined by y = −x3 + 9x2 − 15x + 5.

We have

0 2 00 > 0 if x < 3
f (x) = −3x + 18x − 15, f (x) = −6x + 18 = −6(x − 3) =
< 0 if x > 3

This shows that the graph of f is concave upward on the interval (−∞, 3) and
concave downward on the interval (3, +∞). The graph of f is shown below:

Figure 4.4: Graph of y = −x3 + 9x2 − 15x + 5

Definition 4.8.2. The concavity of a graph may be upward on some interval

and downward on another interval. A point (c, f (c)) on the graph of a function
f is called a point of inflection of the graph if the concavity changes at this
point.
Example 4.8.2. In the following figure, we see that the graph is concave
downward when x < 0 and concave upward when x > 0. This shows that the
origin (0,0) is a point of inflection.
120 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Remark 4.8.1. If (c, f (c)) is a point of inflection of the graph of a function

f , then either of the following is true:
• The graph is concave upward when x < c and concave downward when
x > c; or
• The graph is concave downward when x < c and concave upward when
x > c.
In terms of f 0 , this translates to
• f 0 > 0 when x < c and f 0 < 0 when x > c; or
• f 0 < 0 when x < c and f 0 > 0 when x > c.
This shows that f 0 must have either a relative minimum or a relative maximum
at x = c, i.e. c is a critical number of f 0 . Thus, either f 00 (c) = 0 or f 00 (c) fails
to exist. This shows that the only possible points where f can have a point of
inflection are those points for which either f 00 (c) = 0 or f 00 (c) fails to exist.
Example 4.8.3. Consider the function defined by y = x3 . We have f 0 (x) =
3x2 and f 00 (x) = 6x. Since the second derivative exists everywhere, the only
possible point of inflection occurs where f 00 (x) = 6x = 0. This happens at
x = 0. Note that f 00 (x) > 0 when x > 0, and f 00 (x) < 0 when x < 0. This
shows that the graph is concave upward when x > 0 and concave downward
when x < 0, and hence a point of inflection exists at (0,0). This can be verified
from the graph of y = x3 which is shown in Example 4.8.2
4.8. CURVE SKETCHING 121

Aside from helping us determine the concavity of the graph of a function on

a given interval, the second derivative also gives us another method to test if
the function has a relative maximum or minimum value at a critical number.
This is given in the following:

Second Derivative Test or Relative Extrema

Let f be twice differentiable on an interval I, and let c ∈ I be a critical

number of f for which f 0 (c) = 0. Then

• If f 00 (c) > 0, then f has a relative minimum at c.

• If f 00 (c) < 0, then f has a relative maximum at c.

• If f 00 (c) = 0, the test fails. In this case, apply the first derivative
test.

Example 4.8.4. Consider the function defined by y = x3 − 3x2 + 5, which

was discussed in Example 4.6.4. We have
dy
= 3x2 − 6x = 3x(x − 2) = 0 if either x = 0 or x = 2
dx
Thus, 0 and 2 are critical numbers of this function. To apply the second
derivative test, we get f 00 (x) = 6x − 6. Then

(a) f 00 (0) = 6(0) − 6 = −6 < 0, which shows that f has a relative maximum
when x = 0.

(b) f 00 (2) = 6(2) − 6 = 6 > 0, and so f has a relative minimum when x = 2

These results agree with our findings in Example 4.6.4.

Exercises.

1. For each of the following functions, determine all the critical numbers and
apply the second derivative test for relative extrema:

(a) f (x) = x4 + 2x3 x2 + 3

(c) f (x) =
(b) f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 4 x2 − 4
122 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

2. For the functions in the preceding number, use the first derivative test to
determine the relative maximum and minimum values of f .
3. Use the second derivative to identify possible points of inflection of the
graph of the given function.
(a) f (x) = 3x4 + x3 (c) f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2
(b) f (x) = x4 − 4x + 3

Curve Sketching
We now use the first and second derivatives of a function to help us sketch the
graph of the function. Recall that
(a) f 0 (x) tells us whether the function is increasing or decreasing, and hence
whether the graph is rising or falling, on an interval I.
(b) f 00 (x) tells us if the graph of f is concave upward or downward on an
interval I.
Using these facts, we now have the following procedure for sketching the graph
of a continuous function f .

Steps for Sketching the Graph of a Continuous Function

• Find f 0 (x) and use this to determine the critical numbers of f .

• Find f 00 (x) and use it to determine the possible points of inflection of

the graph of f .

• Using the numbers obtained from the first two steps as endpoints, par-
tition the domain of f into intervals.

• In each interval, determine if f is increasing/decreasing and if the graph

of f is concave upward/downward.

• Evaluate f at the numbers obtained in the first two steps, and locate
these points in the coordinate plane.

• Using the information obtained from the fourth step, join the points
plotted in step five to obtain a sketch of the graph of f .
4.8. CURVE SKETCHING 123

Example 4.8.5. We use the above procedure to sketch the graph of the func-
tion defined by y = x4 − 4x2 . We have
√
f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 8x = 4x(x2 − 2) = 0 if either x = 0 or x = ± 2

This shows that f has three critical numbers. Next

p
f 00 (x) = 12x2 − 8 = 4(3x2 − 2) = 0 if x = ± 2/3

Next we partition the the domain, which is R, into the following subintervals:
√ √ p p p p √ √
(−∞, − 2), (− 2, − 2/3), (− 2/3, 0), (0, 2/3), ( 2/3, 2), ( 2, +∞)

In each of these intervals, we use the first and the second derivatives to deter-
mine if the function is increasing/decreasing and the concavity of the graph.
Our results are summarized in the following table:
x √ f (x) f 0 (x) f 00 (x) Conclusion
(−∞, −√ 2) - + dec., con. upward
x = −p 2 -4 0 + relative min.
√
(− 2, −p 2/3) + + inc., con. upward
x= p− 2/3 -20/9 + 0 point of inf.
− 2/3, 0) + - inc., con. downward
xp=0 0 0 - relative max.
(0, p2/3) - - dec., con. downward
x
p= 2/3 -20/9 - 0 point of inf.
√
( 2/3,√ 2) - + dec., con. upward
√x= 2 -4 0 + relative min.
( 2, +∞) + + inc., con. upward

Exercises. For each of the following functions, do the following:

• Determine all the critical numbers.

• Determine the intervals where f is increasing/decreasing.

• Determine the intervals where the graph is concave upward/downward.

• Determine the relative maximum/minimum values of f .

• Determine the points of inflection of the graph of f .

124 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Figure 4.5: Graph of y = x4 − 4x2

• Sketch the graph of the function.

(a) f (x) = x4 − 4x3 + 6x2

(b) f (x) = 2x3 + 9x2 − 3

(c) f (x) = x3 + 3x2 − 4

(d) f (x) = x4 + 4x3 + 6x2 + 1

4.8. CURVE SKETCHING 125

REVIEW EXERCISES

Directions: Choose the letter corresponding to the correct answer.

4.2 Tangent and Normal Lines

1. The slope of the tangent line to the curve y = 3x2 + 4 at the point
(1, 7) is equal to

A. 3 B. 6 C. 1 D. 7

8
2. The equation of the tangent line to the curve y = √ at the point
x
(4, −4) is

A. x + 2y + 4 = 0 C. x − 2y − 12 = 0
B. x + 2y + 12 = 0 D. x − 2y + 4 = 0

3. The slope of the normal line to the curve y = x3/2 at the point
(1, 1) is

A. 1 B. -1 C. 3/2 D. -2/3

x2
4. The slope function for the curve y = is
4
x2 x x x2
A. y 0 = B. y 0 = C. y 0 = D. y 0 =
2 4 2 4

5. The tangent line to the graph of a function f at a point P is 4x +

y − 5 = 0. What is the slope of the normal line to the graph of f
at the same point P ?

A. 4 B. -4 C. 1/4 D. -1/4

6. The equation of the normal line to the curve y = 4x − x2 at the

point (0, 0) is

A. y = 4x B. 4x + y = 0 C. x = 4y D. 4y + x = 0
126 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

7. Which of the following is the equation of the tangent line to the

3
curve y = at the point (−1, − 3)?
x
A. 3x + y + 6 = 0 C. 3x + y = 0
B. 3x − y − 6 = 0 D. 3x − y = 0

8. If the slope of a line tangent to the curve y = 3x2 − 6x + 1 is 6,

then the equation of this tangent line is

A. x − 6y + 4 = 0 C. 6x + y − 13 = 0
B. x + 6y − 8 = 0 D. 6x − y − 11 = 0

9. Which
√ of the following represents a line normal to the curve y =
− x at the point (4, − 2)?

A. 4x + y + 14 = 0 C. x + 4y + 4 = 0
B. x − 4y − 12 = 0 D. 4x − y − 18 = 0

10. Which of the following is an equation of a line parallel to the line

x + 4y − 2 = 0 and normal to the curve y = x3 − 2x2 + 3?

A. 4x − y − 5 = 0 C. x − 4y + 10 = 0
B. 4x + y − 11 = 0 D. x + 4y − 14 = 0

4.3 Rules for Differentiation

√
11. If f (x) = x, then f 0 (x) equals

1 1
A. √ C. √
2 x x
√
B. 2 x D. does not exist

√
12. Given that f (x) = 2x + 3, the value of f 0 (1/2) is

A. ±2 B. 2 1 1
C. D.
2 4
4.8. CURVE SKETCHING 127
r
4x − 5
13. If f (x) = , then f 0 (x) is equal to
7 − 2x
18(4x − 5)1/2 9
A. C.
(7 − 2x)5/2 (4x − 5) (7 − 2x)5/2
1/2

9 18(4x − 5)1/2
B. D.
(4x − 5)1/2 (7 − 2x)3/2 (7 − 2x)3/2
√ 3
14. If f (x) = 3x x and g(x) = 4 , then (f + g)0 (x) is equal to
x
√
√ 12 9 x 12
A. 9 x + 5 C. − 5
x 2 x
√
√ 12 9 x 12
B. 9 x − 5 D. + 5
x 2 x
15. If f (x) = (x2 − 9)2/3 , then f 0 (x) fails to exist at the number

A. 9 B. 3 C. 1 D. 0

4.4/4.5 Implicit Differentiation and Higher Order Derivatives

16. If f (x) = 3x4 − 5x3 + 4x − 3, then f (3) (0) is equal to

A. -3 B. 4 C. 0 D. -30

d2 y
17. If x2 + y 2 = 1, then is equal to
dx2
y 2 − x2 x2 − y 2 1 1
A. B. C. 3 D. −
y3 y 3 y y3

18. If y = 3x2 , which of the following is true about y 00 ?

A. The graph of y 00 intersects the x-axis.
B. The graph of y 00 is a vertical line.
C. The graph of y 00 is a horizontal line.
D. The graph of y 00 is a diagonal line.
19. If the equation xy − 3y 2 = 2x + y defines a function of x, then the
dy
value of at the point (-4, 1) is
dx
128 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

7 1 1 7
A. − B. − C. D.
4 11 11 4
20. An equation of the tangent line to the curve x2 +4y 2 −4x−8y+3 = 0
at the point (0, 1/2) is
A. 2x − 2y − 1 = 0 C. 2x − 2y + 1 = 0
B. 2x + 2y − 1 = 0 D. 2x + 2y + 1 = 0
d2 y
21. If x3 + y 3 = 1, then is equal to
dx2
2x 2x 2x 2x
A. − B. 3 C. 5 D. −
y3 y y y5
4.6 Applications of the Derivative
16
22. Which of the following is a critical number of f (x) = x +
x
A. 0 B. 1 C. 16 D. -4

23. A stone thrown into a still pond creates circular ripples that grow
outward. Assuming that the ripples retain their circular shape, at
what rate is the area A of the disturbed region of the pond changing
with respect to the radius r of this region at the instant when the
radius is r = 4 feet?
A. 4π[Link] per foot C. 2π[Link] per foot
B. 8π[Link] per foot D. 16π[Link] per foot

24. Given that the equation of motion of a body along a horizontal line
is s = f (t) where s is the distance and t is time. The expression
f (t1 + ∆t) − f (t1 )
∆t
represents
A. the average velocity of the body during the time interval [t1 , t1 +
∆t]
B. the instantaneous velocity of the body at time t = t1
C. the average distance travelled by the body during the time
interval [t1 , t1 + ∆t]
D. the acceleration of the body
25. The function f (x) = 1 + 6x − x2 has a maximum value at x equal
to
4.8. CURVE SKETCHING 129

A. -2 B. 0 C. -3 D. 3

26. The area of the largest rectangle having a perimeter of 40 cm. is

A. 100cm2 B. 400cm2 C. 200cm2 D. 80cm2

27. If V (x) cubic centimeters is the volume of a cube having edges of x

centimeters, what is the instantaneous rate of change of V (x) with
respect to x when x = 2?

A. 8 B. 4 C. 12 D. 6

28. The minimum value of the function f (x) = |x| on the interval
[−π/4, π/3] occurs at

A. x = −π/4 B. x = π/3 C. x = 0 D. x = 1

29. For the function described in the preceding item, the absolute max-
imum value of f on the given interval is

A. 0 B. π/3 C. π/4 D. 1

30. Which of the following is true about the function defined by f (x) =
x−3
?
x+7
A. f is defined at all real numbers
B. f has no critical number
C. -7 is a critical number of f
D. f is continuous at all real numbers
31. A ladder 13 feet long is leaning against a vertical wall. If the base
of the ladder is being pulled horizontally away from the wall at
2ft/sec, then when the top of the ladder is 5 feet from the ground,
the top of the ladder is sliding down the wall at the rate of

A. 5/6ft/sec C. 13/6 ft/sec

B. -5/6ft/sec D. -13/6ft/sec

32. If the edge of a cube is increasing at the rate of 3 cm/sec, how fast
is the volume increasing when the edge is 5 cm?
130 CHAPTER 4. DERIVATIVES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

A. 125 cm3 /sec C. 225 cm3 /sec

B. 375 cm3 /sec D. 75 cm3 /sec

33. For the function defined by y = x3 − 3x2 + 1, which of the following

is true?
A. The function is concave upward at x = 1.
B. The function has a relative maximum at x = 2.
C. The function is increasing when x is negative.
D. The function is decreasing when x is positive.
34. For the function defined in No. 33, in which interval is the function
increasing and the graph is concave upward?

A. (−∞, 0) C. (1, 2)
B. (2, +∞) D. (0, 1)

35. Which of the following functions has a local minimum?

A. y = 4 − x2 C. y = 3x − 2
B. y = 2 − |x + 1| D. y = x2 − 2x