Bahir Dar University

Institute of Technology
Faculty Of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Chapter 1
Fundamentals of Power system

By
1 Tenaw Ayew
 Outline
 Introduction

 Power system Generation

 AC and DC transmission

 Single phase and three phase Transmission

 Complex Power

 Structure of a Power system

 Introduction to Power Transformers, CTs & PTs

2
 INTRODUCTION
 An electric power system is one of the tools of converting and transporting
energy.
 Electric energy is an essential ingredient for the industrial and all-round
development of any country.
 It is a converted form of energy, because
 it can be generated centrally in bulk and transmitted economically over long
distances.
 Further, it can be adapted easily and efficiently to domestic and industrial
applications, particularly for lighting purposes and mechanical work
 In early days, there was a little demand for electrical energy so that small
power stations were built to supply lighting and heating loads.
 However, the widespread use of electrical energy by modern civilization
has necessitated producing bulk electrical energy economically and
efficiently.

3
 The increased demand of electrical energy can be met by building big
power stations at favorable places where fuel (coal or gas) or water
energy is available in abundance. This has shifted the site of power
stations to places quite away from the consumers.
 The electrical energy produced at the power stations has to be supplied
to the consumers. There is a large network of conductors between the
power station and the consumers. This network can be broadly divided
into two parts viz., transmission and distribution
 The study of electric power systems is concerned with the generation,
transmission, distribution and utilization of electric power
 An electric power system consists of three principal components:
 The generation stations
 The transmission lines
 The distribution systems

4
 Transmission – the bulk transfer of power by high voltage links between
main load centers
 The transmission lines are the connecting links between all the
generating stations and the distribution systems
 Distribution system – the conveyance of power to the consumers by means
of low voltage networks
 A distribution system connects all the individual loads in a given area
to the transmission lines.

5
 Power system Generation
 The generation of electric power involves the conversion of energy from a nonelectrical
form (such as thermal, hydraulic, or solar energy) to electric energy.
 Electric power is generated in the range of 11 kV to 25 kV, which is increased by
stepped up transformer to the main transmission voltage (66 kV to 400 kV or
higher)
 Sources of Power System Generation are:
 Non conventional and
 Conventional Energy sources
 Conventional energy, a source of energy that has been widely used for many years.
 Thermal (coal, oil), nuclear and hydro generations are the main conventional
sources of electric energy.
 These methods of producing electricity are often referred to as conventional energy
sources. This means that they are the more traditional or more commonly used
sources of electrical energy.

6
 Thermal power station
 A generating station which converts heat energy of coal combustion
into electrical energy is known as a steam/thermal power station.
 In thermal-electric power plants, electrical energy is produced by
burning coal, oil, or natural gas (Coal, oil, and natural gas are
concentrated sources of chemical energy called fossil fuels)
 The heat released by the combustion of coal produces steam in a
boiler at high pressure and temperature, which when passed through a
steam turbine gives off some of its internal energy as mechanical
energy and is condensed in a condenser to be fed into the boiler again.
 The steam turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical
energy of the turbine into electrical energy.
 This type of power station is suitable where coal and water are
available in abundance and a large amount of electric power is to be
generated.
7
8
 Advantages
(i) The fuel (i.e., coal) used is quite cheap.
(ii) Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.
(iii) It can be installed at any place irrespective of the existence of coal. The coal
can be transported to the site of the plant by rail or road easily.
(iv) It requires less space as compared to the hydroelectric power station.
(v) The cost of generation is lesser than that of the diesel power station.
(vi) It can be constructed in minimum time compared to Hydro and Nuclear
power stations .

 Disadvantages
(i) It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke
and fumes.
(ii) High running cost as compared to hydroelectric plant.
(iii) The response is very low to supply the increasing in load
(iv) It has low efficiency ( 25 - 40 %)
9
 Hydro Electric power stations

 A hydro-electric power station utilises the potential energy of water at a high level
for the generation of electrical energy.
 In a hydro-electric power station, water head is created by constructing a dam
across a river or lake. From the dam, water is led to a water turbine through the
penstock.
 As the water falls through a certain height, its potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy and this kinetic energy is converted to the mechanical energy by
allowing the water to flow through the hydraulic turbine runner.
 The water turbine is the prime mover which captures the energy in the falling
water and changes the hydraulic energy (i.e., product of head and flow of
water) into mechanical energy at the turbine shaft.
 The turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
 Hydro-power now accounts for about 20% of world’s electric generation. Output
depends on rainfall and the landscape.
10
11
12
 Hydro-electric power stations are becoming very popular because the reserves of fuels
(i.e., coal and oil) are depleting day by day. They have the added importance for flood
control, storage of water for irrigation and water for drinking purposes.
 Advantages
a) It requires no fuel as water is used for the generation of electrical energy.
b) It is quite neat and clean as no smoke or ash is produced.
c) It requires very small running charges because water is the source of energy which
is available free of cost.
d) It is comparatively simple in construction and requires less maintenance.
e) It does not require a long starting time like a steam power station. In fact, such
plants can be put into service instantly.
f) It is robust and has a longer life.
g) Such plants serve many purposes. In addition to the generation of electrical energy,
they also help in irrigation and controlling floods.
h) Although such plants require the attention of highly skilled persons at the time of
construction, yet for operation, a few experienced persons may do the job well.

13
  Disadvantages
i. It involves high capital cost due to construction of dam.
ii. There is uncertainty about the availability of huge amount
of water due to dependence on weather conditions.
iii. Skilled and experienced hands are required to build the
plant.
iv. It requires high cost of transmission lines as the plant is
located in hilly areas which are quite away from the
consumers.

14
 Nuclear Power Station

 A generating station in which nuclear energy is converted into electrical energy is

known as a nuclear power station.
 In nuclear power station, heavy elements such as Uranium (U-235) or Thorium
(Th-232) are subjected to nuclear fission (The breaking up of nuclei of heavy
atoms into two nearly equal parts with release of huge amount of energy is known
as nuclear fission) in a special apparatus known as a reactor.
 The heat energy thus released is utilised in raising steam at high temperature and
pressure. The steam runs the steam turbine which converts steam energy into
mechanical energy.
 The turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
 The most important feature of a nuclear power station is that huge amount of
electrical energy can be produced from a relatively small amount of nuclear fuel
as compared to other conventional types of power stations.
 It has been found that complete fission of 1 kg of Uranium (U235) can produce
as much energy as can be produced by the burning of 4,500 tons of high grade
coal..
15
Advantages
The amount of fuel required is quite small.
 A nuclear power plant requires less space as compared to any other
type of the same size.
It has low running charges as a small amount of fuel is used for
producing bulk electrical energy.
This type of plant is very economical for producing bulk electric power.
 It can be located near the load centers because it does not require large
quantities of water and need not be near coal mines. Therefore, the cost
of primary distribution is reduced.
There are large deposits of nuclear fuels available all over the world.
Therefore, such plants can ensure continued supply of electrical energy
for thousands of years.
 It ensures reliability of operation.

16
 Disadvantages
i. The fuel used is expensive and is difficult to recover.
ii. The capital cost on a nuclear plant is very high as compared to other types of
plants.
iii. The erection and commissioning of the plant requires greater technical
know-how.
iv. The fission by-products are generally radioactive and may cause a dangerous
amount of radioactive pollution.
v. Maintenance charges are high due to lack of standardisation.
vi. Nuclear power plants are not well suited for varying loads as the
reactor does not respond to the load fluctuations efficiently.
vii. The disposal of the by-products, which are radioactive, is a big
problem. They have either to be disposed off in a deep trench or in a
sea away from sea-shore

17
 Non conventional energy sources
Solar Energy
Wind Energy
Tidal & Wave Energy
Biogas Energy
Geothermal energy
1) Solar Energy
 Solar energy is the main constituent of all the available energy sources.
Wind and hydro are driven by solar heating
Coal, oil, natural gas are fossilized bio- fuels
 Solar energy refers the direct use of the energy contained in sunlight
(in the form heat and light)
 The heat energy is used in solar heating devices like solar
cooker, solar water heater, solar furnaces etc. The light energy
is used in solar cells.

18
 At present, two technologies are being developed for conversion of solar energy to
the electrical form.
i) Solar thermal power
 Collectors with concentrators are employed to achieve temperatures high enough (
700'C) to operate a heat engine at reasonable efficiency to generate electricity
 However, there are considerable engineering difficulties in building a single
tracking bowl with a diameter exceeding 30 m to generate perhaps 200 kw.
There are three types of solar thermal power systems
 Trough electric :- uses a long parabolic mirror to focus sunlight on a cylindrical
receiver

19
 Dish /Stirling :- systems use a parabolic dish to focus sunlight onto a
receiver.

Fig. Parabolic dish Fig. Power tower

 Power Tower :- use a field of mirror (heliostats) to focuses intense heat on

a large central receiver.

20
ii) Direct Conversion to Electricity (Photovoltaic Generation)
 Solar energy is converted to the electrical form by means of silicon wafer
photoelectric cells known as "Solar Cells".
 Their theoretical efficiency is about 25% but the practical value is only
about 15%.
 In all solar thermal schemes storage is necessary because of the fluctuating
nature of sun's energy. This is equally true with many other unconventional
sources as well as sources like wind.

21
 Advantages of solar energy
It is abundant (non –exhaustible)
It is environmentally friendly (pollution free)
It is convenient to install
 free of cost
 Dis-advantages
Energy density per unit area is very low
It is unpredictable (it is available for only a part of the day, and
cloudy and, hazy atmospheric conditions greatly reduce the
energy received)
High initial cost

22
ii) Wind energy
 All moving objects contain kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of the wind can be changed into
other forms of energy, either mechanical energy or electrical energy through wind turbine generators.
 How is electricity generated by wind turbine?
 Wind blows over the angled blades and results in a turning force.
 The force will turn the shaft gearbox and generator, which are all connected. The gearbox
increases the rotational speed, enabling the generator to produce electricity. A single wind
mill produces only a small amount of electricity. So a large number of wind mills in a large
area are coupled together to produce more electricity in wind energy farms.

23
 Advantages of wind energy
(i) It is clean and does not pollute the air, Wind turbines do not emit greenhouse
gases or contribute to global warming
(ii) It is a renewable source of energy.
(iii) The recurring cost is less
Dis-advantages of wind energy
i) Wind is not available at all times, It is intermittent and unpredictable Wind
turbine generator outputs are not controllable or predictable.
ii) It requires a large area of land.
iii) A minimum wind speed of 15 km/h is required.

24
 Wind Energy Potential in Ethiopia

25
iii) Tidal energy
 The periodic rise and fall of sea level due to gravitational attraction of the moon
causes tides.
 A dam (barrage) is constructed at a narrow opening between the land and
sea. The movement of water during high tide and low tide can be used to
rotate the turbines of generators to produce electricity.

26
Advantages of tidal energy
 Renewable
 Abundant (estimated that it could produce 16% of worlds energy.)
 Pollution free (except during construction)
 Relatively consistent (unlike wind that is inconsistent and is highly
concentrated in certain areas depending on the topography.)
 Water is a free resource
Disadvantages of tidal energy
 Disturbance/Destruction to marine life (effect wave climate that effects
shallow/shore plant life)
 Expensive to construct
 Reliability ( have not been around long so we do not know long-term
reliability is.)
 Recreational costs (visual impact, sport fishing, swimming, etc.)
 Cost of Maintenance Higher
 Power transmission from offshore facilities harder
 Power quality (waves fluctuation)
27
iv) Biogas energy
 Biogas is the name applied to a gaseous product released from anaerobic
decomposition of different bio-wastes.
 In this process, organic wastes are anaerobically fermented by microorganisms.
 The gas thus produced contains about 60% methane and 40% CO2.
 Biogas can be produced from cow dung, leaf litter mixtures, animal excreta
particularly dairy cattle, pig and sheep etc.

28
v) Geothermal energy
 The deeper regions of the earth’s crust is very hot. This heat melts rocks and forms
[Link] magma moves up and collects below at some places called Hot spots.
 The underground water in contact with hot spot gets heated into steam at high
pressure.
 By drilling holes into hot spots the steam coming out can be used to rotate turbines
of generators to produce electricity.

29
 Geothermal Potentials in Ethiopia

Aluto Langano (Ziway) Tendaho (Afar)

30
 EEPCO Total Inter connected Generation power

Self contained Generation power

31
 AC and DC transmission
 A transmission system is used to deliver bulk power from power
station to load/substation and large industrial consumers.
 Where as distribution system is used to deliver power from power
stations or substation to various consumers
 The conveyance of electric power from a power station to consumers
premises is known as Electric supply system.
 An electric supply system consists of three principal components
 The power station
 The transmission lines and
 The distribution systems
 An electric supply systems can be broadly classified as:
i. d.c. or a.c. system
ii. Overhead or underground systems

32
 Now a days, 3-phase, 3- wire a.c. system is universally adopted for
generation and transmission of electric power as an economical
proposition.
 However, distribution of electric power is done by 3- phase, 4-wire a.c.
system
 The underground system is more expensive than the overhead systems.
Therefore, in our country, overhead system is mostly adopted for
transmission and distribution of electric power
 The electric supply system can be transmitted either by means of d.c. or
a.c. each system has its merits and demerits

33
Comparison b/n d.c. and a.c. system for transmission
 Transmission of electric power by high voltage d.c. system is superior to
that by high voltage a.c. system in many respects:
i. It requires only two conductors for transmission as compared to three
for a.c. transmission
ii. No inductance, capacitance and phase displacement problem in d.c.
transmission
iii. There is no skin effect in a d.c. system. Therefore, entire cross section of
the line conductor is utilized
iv. A d.c. line has less corona loss and reduced interference with
communication ckts
v. For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the insulation is less
in case of d.c. system than that in a.c. system. Therefore, a d.c. line
requires less insulation
vi. The high voltage d.c. transmission is free from the dielectric losses,
particularly in the case of cables
vii. In d.c. transmission, there are no stability problems and synchronizing
difficulties

34
 Disadvantages:
i. Electric power can not be generated at high d.c. voltage due to
commutation problems
ii. The d.c. voltage can not be stepped up for transmission of power at high
voltage
iii. The d.c. switches and ckt breakers have their own limitations
 A.C. Transmission: now a days, electrical energy is almost
exclusively, generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of a.c.
 Advantages:
i. The power can be generated at high voltages
ii. The maintenance of a.c. substations is easy and cheaper
iii. The a.c. voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by transformer with
ease and efficiency. This permits to transmit power at high voltages and
distribute it at safe potentials

35
 Dis - Advantages:
i. An a.c. line requires more copper than a d.c. line
ii. The construction of a.c. transmission line is more complicated than a d.c.
transmission line
iii. Due to skin effect in the a.c. system, the effective resistance of the line is
increased
iv. An a.c. line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a continuous loss of power
due to charging current even when the line is open
 Distribution by a.c. system is undoubtedly superior to that by d.c.
system as in a.c. system voltage control is easy by means of
transformers
 The best way is to employ a.c system for generation and distribution
and d.c. system for transmission

36
37
Why High Voltage Cables Don't Have an Insulation Layer?

38
Various systems of power transmission
 It has already been pointed out that for transmission of electric power, 3-
phase, 3- wire a.c. system is universally adopted.
 However, other systems can also be used for transmission under special
circumstances
 The different possible systems of transmission are:
1. D.c. system
i. D.c. two wire system
ii. D.c. two wire mid point earthed
iii. D.c. three wire
2. Single phase a.c. system
i. Single phase two wire
ii. Single phase two wire with mid point earthed
iii. Single phase three wire

39
3. Two phase a.c. system
i. Two phase three wire
ii. Two phase four wire
4. Three phase a.c system
i. Three phase three wire system
ii. Three phase four wire system
 The cost of conductor material is one of the most important charges in a
system
 Obviously, the best system for transmission of power is that for which the
volume of conductor material required is minimum.
 The volume of conductor material required forms the basis of
comparison b/n different systems

40
 In comparing the relative amount of conductor material necessary for
different systems of transmission, similar conditions will be assumed in
each case that is:
i. Same power (P watt) transmitted by each system
ii. The distance (l meters) over which power is transmitted remains the same
iii. The line losses (W watt) are the same in each case
iv. The maximum voltage b/n any conductor and earth (Vm) is the same
in each case
1. Two wire d.c. system with one conductor earthed
 In the 2-wire d.c. systems, one is the outgoing or positive wire and the
other is the return or negative wire.
 The load is connected b/n the two wires
 Maximum voltage b/n conductors = Vm
 Power to be transmitted = P

41
  Load current, I1  P
Vm

 If R1 is the resistance of each line conductor, then

l - the area of cross-section of the conductor
R1  where a1
a1
 Line losses,

2
 P  l
W  2 I12 R1  2  
 Vm  a1
2P2 l
 Area of X  sec tion, a1 
WVm 2

 Volume of conductor material required:

 2P2 l  4P 2 l 2
 2a1l  2  2 l  2
 WV m  WV m

42
  It is a usual practice to make this system as the basis for comparison with other
systems.
 Volume of material required in this system shall be taken as the basic quantity
 i.e.
4P2 l 2
2
k
WVm
2). Two- wire d.c. system with mid point earthed
 The maximum voltage b/n any conductor and earth is Vm so that the
maximum voltage b/n conductors is 2 Vm

Load current,

P
I2 
2Vm

43
 Let a2 be the area of x-section of the conductor then, R2 is
l
R2 
a2

 Line losses, 2
 P  l P 2 l
W  2 I 2 R2  2 
2
  2
 m 2
2V a 2 a V
2 m

P2 l
 Area of X  sec tion, a2 
2WVm 2

 Volume of conductor material required:

 P2 l  P 2 l 2 K
 2a2l  2  2 
l  2

 2WV m  WV m 4

 Hence, the volume of conductor material required in this system is one – fourth
of that required in a two –wire d.c. system with one conductor earthed

44
 3). Three wired d.c. system: in a 3-wire d.c. system, there are two outers and a middle or
neutral wire which is earthed at the generator end.
 Load current, P
I3 
2Vm
 Let a3 be the area of X – section of each outer wire
2
 P  l P 2
l
 Line losses, W  2 I R  2 
2
 
3 3 2
 m 3
2V a 2 a V
3 m

P2 l
 Area of X  sec tion, a3 
2WVm 2
 Assuming the area of X-section of neutral wire to be half that of the outer wire
 Volume of conductor material required:

 P2 l  2.5 P 2  l 2 5K
 2.5a3l  2.5  2 
l  2

 2WV m  2WV m 16

 Hence the volume of conductor material required in this system is 5 of what is

required for a 2-wire d.c. system with one conductor earthed 16th

45
4). Single phase 2- wire a.c. system with one conductor earthed
 The maximum voltage b/n conductors is Vm so that r.m.s. value of voltage b/n
them is Vm
2

 Assume the load power factor to be cos 

 Load current, P 2P
I4  
 Vm  Vm cos 
  cos 
 2
 Let a4 be the area of x-section of the conductor
 Line losses,  2P  l
2
4P 2 l
W  2 I 4 R4  2 
2
 
V
 m cos  a
 4 cos 2
 a V
4 m
2

4P2 l
 Area of X  sec tion, a4 
cos 2 WVm 2

46
  Volume of conductor material required:
 4P2 l 
 2 a4 l  2  l
 WVm cos  
2 2

2 4P2 l 2 2K
 x 
cos 2  WVm 2 cos 2 

 Hence, the volume of conductor material required in this system is 2

times that of 2-wire d.c. system with one conductor earthed. cos 2 

5). Single phase 2 –wire system with mid point earthed

 The two wires posses equal and opposite voltages to earth (i.e. Vm)
 The maximum voltage b/n the two wires is 2 Vm
 The r.m.s. value of voltage b/n conductors is
2Vm
  2Vm
2
 Assuming the power factor of the load to be cos 
47
 P
 Load current, I 5 
2Vm cos 

 Let a5 be the area of X-section of the conductor

 Line losses,  
2
P  l P 2
l
W  2 I 5 2 R5  2   
 2Vm cos   a5 cos 2
 a5Vm
2

P2 l
 Area of X  sec tion, a5 
WVm 2 cos 2 

 Volume of conductor material required:

 P2 l 
 2a5l  2  l
 WVm cos  
2 2

2 P2 l 2 K
 x 
cos 2  WVm 2 2 cos 2 
1
 Hence, the volume of conductor material required in this system is times
2 cos 2 
that of 2-wire d.c. system with one conductor earthed
48
6). Single phase, 3- wire system
 The single phase 3- wire system is identical in principles with 3 wire d.c.
system
 The system consists of two outers and neutral wire taken from the mid point of
the phase winding

 If the load is balanced, the current pass through the neutral wire is zero
 Assuming balanced load, maximum voltage b/n conductors = 2Vm
2Vm
 R.m.s. value of voltage b/n conductors   2Vm
2
 If the power factor is cos  , then
P
 Load current, I 6 
2Vm cos 

49
 Let a6 be the area of X-section of each outer conductors
 The line losses,  
2
P  l P 2
l
W  2 I 6 2 R6  2   
 2Vm cos   a6 a6V m
2
cos 2

P2 l
 Area of X  sec tion, a6 
WVm 2 cos 2 
 Assuming the area of X- section of neutral wire to be half of the outer wires
 Volume of conductor material required

 P2 l 
 2.5a6l  2.5  l
 WVm cos 
2 2

2.5 P2 l 2 5K
 x 
cos 2  WVm 2 8 cos 2 
5
 Hence, the volume of conductor material required in this system is 8 cos 2 
times that required in a 2- wire d.c. system with one conductor earthed

50
7). Two –phase, 3- wire system
 The third or neutral wire is taken from the junction of two –phase windings
whose voltages are in quadrature with each other
 Obviously, each phase transmits one half of the total power
V
 The r.m.s voltage b/n outgoing conductor and neutral  m
2
 Current in each outer conductor,
P
2 P
I7  
Vm
cos  2Vm cos 
2
 Current in neutral conductor
 I12  I 2 2  2I7
 Assuming the current density to be constant, the area of X- section of the
neutral wire will be  2 times that of either of the outers
 Resistance of neutral wire  7   l
R
2 2a7

51
   R7
2
 Line losses, W  2 I 7 R7 
2
2I7
2

 I 7 2 R7 2  2 
2
  l
 
P
 x 2 2  
 2Vm cos   a7
P2 l
W 
2a7Vm cos 
2 2
2 2  
P2 l
 Area of X  sec tion, a7 
2WVm cos 
2 2
2 2  
 Volume of conductor material required
 2a7 l  2a7 l  a7l 2   2 
P2 l 2
 
2
 2 2
2WVm 2 cos 2 
1.457 K

52
cos 2 
 Hence, the volume of conductor material required for this system is 1.457
cos 2 
times that of 2-wire d.c. system with one conductor earthed
8). 3- phase, 3- wire system
 This system is almost universally adopted for transmission of electric power
 The 3- phase, 3- wire system may be star (Y) connected or delta (∆) connected
 Figure below shows 3- phase, 3- wire star connected systems, the neutral point
(N) is earthed

Vm
 R.m.s. voltage per phase 
2
 Power transmitted per phase
P
53 
3
 P
 Load current per phase, I8  3 
2P
Vm
cos  3Vm cos 
2
 Let a8 be the area of X- section of each conductor
 Line losses, 2
 2P  l 2P2 l
W  3I 8 R8  3 
2
 
3
 mV cos   8a 3 a V
8 m
2
cos 2

2P2 l
 Area of X  sec tion, a8 
3WVm 2 cos 2 
 Volume of conductor material required,

 2P2 l  2P2 l 2
 3a8l  3  l 
 3WVm
2
cos 2
  WVm
2
cos 2

0.5 K

cos 2 
0.5
 Hence, the volume of conductor material required for this system is times
cos 2 
that required for 2- wire d.c. system with one conductor earthed
54
9). 3- phase, 4- wire system

 The area of X-section of neutral wire is generally one half that of the line
conductor
 If the loads re balanced, the current through the neutral wire is zero
 Assuming balanced loads and power factor of load is cos 
 Line losses, 2
 2 P   l 2 P 2
l
W  3I 9 2 R9  3   
 3Vm cos   a9 3a 9V m
2
cos 2

2P2 l
 Area of X  sec tion, a9 
3WVm 2 cos 2 
55
 As the area of X-section of neutral wire is one half that of any line conductor
 Volume of conductor material required
 2P2 l  7 P2 l 2
 3.5a9l  3.5  l 
 3WVm cos  3WVm 2 cos 2 
2 2

7 P2 l
 x
3 cos  WVm 2
2

7K

12 cos 2 
7
 Hence, the volume of conductor material required for this system is 12 cos 2 
times that required for 2- wire d.c. system with one conductor earthed

56
 Below is given the table which shows the ratio of conductor material in any
system compared with that in the corresponding 2- wire d.c. system. cos  Is
the power factor in a.c. system
System Same Max. voltage to System Same Max.
earth voltage to
1 D.C. system earth

i Two wire 1 3 Two phase system

system
ii Two wire mid 0.25 i Two phase, 3 wire 1.457
point earthed system cos 2 
iii 3 -wire 0.3125 ii Two phase, 4- 0.5
wire system cos 2 
2 Single phase system
i 2- wire
2 4 Three phase system
cos 2 
ii 2- wire with 0.5
mid point cos 2  i 3- phase, 3- wire 0.5
earthed cos 2 

iii 3 -wire 0.625

ii 3-phase, 4 -wire 0.583
cos 2 
cos 2 
57
 Examples
1. What is the percentage saving in feeder copper if the line voltage in a 2-wire
DC. system is raised from 200 volts to 400 volts for the same power transmitted
over the same distance and having the same power loss ?
2. A DC. 2-wire system is to be converted into AC. 3-phase, 3-wire system by the
addition of a third conductor of the same cross-section as the two existing
conductors. Calculate the percentage additional load which can now be supplied
if the voltage between wires and the percent age loss in the line remain
unchanged. Assume a balanced load of unity power factor.
3. A 50 km long transmission line supplies a load of 5 MVA at 0·8 p.f. lagging at
33 kV. The efficiency of transmission line is 90%. Calculate the volume of
aluminium conductor required for the line when (i) single phase, 2-wire system
is used (ii) 3-phase, 3-wire system is used. The specific resistance of aluminium
is 2·85 × 10−8 Ω m.
58
 Single phase and three phase transmission
 The major portion of all the electric power presently used in generated,
transmitted and distributed using balanced 3- phase voltage systems
 Three phase operation is preferable to single phase b/c
 Three phase power transmission has become the standard power distribution
 Three phase winding makes more efficient use of generator copper & iron
(three phase generators are smaller than single phase as windings are efficiently
used)
 Power flow in single phase ckts are pulsating but not in three phase
 Three phase power transmission/distribution requires less amount of copper
or aluminum for transferring the same amount of power as compared to single
phase
 Three phase motors start more conveniently (self starting) and, having
constant torque, run more satisfactorily than single phase motors
 The size of a three phase motor is smaller than that of a singe phase motor of
the same rating
59
 Power in single phase a.c. system
 The instantaneous power in watts absorbed by an electrical load is the
product of the instantaneous voltage across the load in volts and the
instantaneous current into the load in amperes
 Assuming the load voltage is
v(t )  Vmax cos t   
Purely resistive load
 For a purely resistive load, the current into the load is in phase with the load
voltage, I  VR , and the current into the resistive load is
iR (t )  I R max cos t    A
Vmax
where I R max 
R
 The instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor is
pR (t )  v(t )iR (t )  Vmax I R max cos 2 t   
Its average value becomes:

1
2

Vmax I R max 1  cos  2 t      PR  VI R 
V2
 IR2 R W
R
60 
 VI R 1  cos  2 t     W  Plus a double frequency term VI R cos  2 t    
 Purely inductive loads
 For a purely inductive load, the current lags the voltage by 90 degree,
IL 
V
, and iL (t )  I L max cos t    90o  A
jX L Vmax
where I L max  , and X L   L
XL

 The instantaneous power absorbed by the inductor is

pL (t )  v(t )iL (t )  Vmax I L max cos t    cos t    900 
1
 Vmax I L max cos  2 t     900 
2
 VI L sin  2 t     W

 The instantaneous power absorbed by the inductor is a double-frequency

sinusoid with zero average value 1
Note : cos x cos y  cos  x  y   cos  x  y  
2
cos  x  900   sin x
61
 Purely capacitive load
 For a purely capacitive load, the current leads the voltage by 90 degree,
V
IC  , and
  jX C 
iC (t )  I C max cos t    90o  A
Vmax 1
where I C max  , and X C  is the capacitive reactance
XC C
 The instantaneous power absorbed by the capacitor is
pC (t )  v(t )iC (t )  Vmax I C max cos t    cos t    900 
1
 Vmax I C max cos  2 t     900 
2
 VI C sin  2 t     W

 The instantaneous power absorbed by a capacitor is also a double frequency

sinusoid with zero average value

62
 General RLC Load
 For a general load composed of RLC elements under sinusoidal-steady-state
excitation, the load current is of the form
i(t )  imax cos t    A
 The instantaneous power absorbed by the load is then
p(t )  v(t )i (t )  Vmax I max cos t    cos t   
1

 Vmax I max cos      cos  2 t         
2

 VI cos      VI cos     cos  2 t      VI sin     sin  2 t     W

 
p(t )  VI cos     1  cos  2 t      VI sin     sin  2 t    
Letting I cos      I R and I sin      I X gives

 
p(t )  VI R 1  cos  2 t      VI X sin  2 t    
pR ( t ) pX (t )

63
Note : cos( x  /  y)  cos x cos y  /  sin x sin y
 the instantaneous power absorbed by the load has two components:
 One can be associated with the power PR(t) absorbed by the resistive
component of the load (Real power), and
 the other can be associated with the power PX(t) absorbed by the reactive
(inductive or capacitive) component of the load (Reactive Power).
Complex Power
 For circuits operating in sinusoidal-steady-state, real and reactive power are
conveniently calculated from complex power, defined below.
 Let the voltage across a circuit element be V  , and the current into the
element be I  . Then the complex power S is the product of the voltage
and the conjugate of the current: S  VI *  V   I  *  VI     
So S is recognized as VI cos      jVI sin    
S  P  jQ P Q

where     is the angle b/n the voltage and

current
 P = real power
 Q= reactive power and cos     Power factor
64
  The magnitude S  VI of the complex power S is called the apparent power, it
signifies the rating of equipments (generators,Transformers, etc)

 From these complex power expressions, the following

2
can be stated:
V
 A resistor absorbs (positive) real power, PR  W, and zero reactive power, QR  0
var. R
V2
 An inductor absorbs zero real power, PL  0 W, and positive reactive power, QL 
XL
var.
V2
 A capacitor absorbs zero real power, PL  0 W, and negative reactive power, QC  
XC
.
2
var. Alternatively, a capacitor delivers positive reactive power,  V
XC

65
 Structures of power system
 Generation, transmission and distribution are the main components of an
electric power system
 The large network of conductors between the power station and the
consumers can be broadly divided into two parts viz.,
 Transmission system and
 Primary transmission
 Secondary transmission
 Distribution system.
 Primary distribution system
 Secondary distribution system
 Transmission lines implies the bulk transfer of power by high voltage links
b/n main load centers
 Distribution system is mainly responsible for the conveyance of this power
to the consumers by means of lower voltage networks

66
  Power Generation system:
 electric power (11 kV- 25 kV) is
produced by 3-phase alternators
 operating in parallel
 Conventional energy conversions and
Renewable resources
 The generation voltage is stepped up to
the main transmission voltage
 Power transmission system
 Primary and secondary transmission
 AC/DC and HV/EHV
 Long, medium, short lines (sub
transmission systems )
 Double/single circuits
 On grid and off grid system
 In the range of 66kV to 400 kV (higher)
67
68
 In USA transmission is at 345kV, 500kV and 765kV and Britain, it is at
275kV and 400kV
 The network formed by these very high voltage lines is sometimes called
as the super grid. This grid, in turn, feeds a sub transmission network
operating at 132 kV or less
 In our country, networks operate at 400kV, 230kV, 132kV, 66kV, 45kV,
33kV or15kV and supply the final consumer feeders at 380 volt three
phase, giving 220 volt per phase
 The general structure or topology of the distribution system is different
and the number of branches and sources is much higher
 Most of the distribution networks operate radially for less short ckt
current and better protective coordination
 A typical distribution system consists of a step down transformer ( e.g.
132/15kV or 66/15kV or 33/15kV) at a bulk supply point feeding a
number of lines with varying length from a few hundred meters to several
kilometers

69
 Several three phase step down transformers, e.g. 15kV/380V are spaced
along the feeders and from these, three phase- four wire networks of
consumers are supplied which gives 220 V single phase supply to houses
and similar loads
 Figure below shows a typical distribution system

70
 Reason for interconnection
 Generating stations and distribution systems are connected through
transmission lines
 The transmission system of a particular area (e.g. state) is known as a grid
 Different grids are interconnected through tie-lines to form a regional grid
(also called power pools)
 Different regional grids are further connected to form a national grid
 Interconnected operation is always economical and reliable
 Economic advantage of interconnection is to reduce the reserve generation capacity in each
area
 If there is a sudden increase of load or loss of generation in one area, it is possible to borrow
power from adjoining interconnected area
 To meet sudden increases in load, a certain amount of generating capacity ( in each area)
known as the “spinning reserve” is required. This consists of generators running at normal
speed and ready to supply power instantaneously
 Cooperative assistance is one of the planned benefits of interconnected operation.
 Gives the flexibility to meet unexpected emergency loads

71
 Introduction to Power Transformers, CTs & PTs
Power transformers
 A transformer is a static electrical device, involving no continuously moving
parts, used in electric power systems to transfer power between circuits
through the use of electromagnetic induction.
 The term power transformer is used to refer to those transformers used between the
generator and the distribution circuits, and these are usually rated at 500 kVA
and above.
 Power systems typically consist of a large number of generation locations,
distribution points, and interconnections within the system or with nearby
systems, such as a neighboring utility.
 The complexity of the system leads to a variety of transmission and
distribution voltages. Power transformers must be used at each of these
points where there is a transition between voltage levels.

72
 Power transformers are available for step-up operation, primarily used at
the generator and referred to as generator step-up (GSU) transformers,
and for step-down operation, mainly used to feed distribution circuits.
 Power transformers are available as single-phase or three-phase apparatus.
 Transformers intended for indoor use are primarily of the dry type but
can also be liquid immersed.
 For outdoor use, transformers are usually liquid immersed.
 Power transformers are very
efficient, typically 99.5% or
greater, i.e., real power
losses are usually less
than 0.5% of the kVA rating
at full load

73
 Instrument transformers
 Instrument Transformer (IT) - A high precision transformer designed to provide
input into measurement and/or control equipment
 In dc circuits for current and voltage measurement we use ammeters and
voltmeters.
 For measurement of high current ,it is usual to use low range ammeter with
suitable shunt.
 For measurement of high voltage, low range voltmeter are used with high
resistance connected in series.
 But for measurement of high A.C. current and voltage we cannot use these
methods.
 We use specially constructed instrument transformers.
 Instrument transformers are primarily used
 to provide isolation between the main primary circuit and the secondary control and
measuring [Link] isolation is achieved by magnetically coupling the two circuits.
 besides to isolation, levels in magnitude are reduced to safer levels
 Instrument transformers are divided into two categories:
 current transformers (CT) and
 voltage transformers ( VT)

74
 Current Transformers (CTs)
 These are used with low range ammeter to measure current in high voltage
alternating circuits where it is not practical to connect instrument and
meters directly to lines.
 An instrument transformer used to reflect a primary current into a
secondary current through a magnetic medium.
 The primary winding of the CT is connected in series with the ckt to be
monitored and the secondary windings proportionally transform the
primary levels to typical values.
 Current transformer is a step up transformer ( as the voltage increases the
current decreases).
 The current is step down in a known ratio called current ratio
 Monitoring devices such as wattmeters, power-factor meters, voltmeters,
ammeters, and relays are often connected to the secondary circuits.

75
 C.T. has a primary coil of one or more turns of thick wire connected in
series with the line whose current is to be measured
 The secondary consist of large number of turns of fine wire, is connected
across the ammeter terminals

 If a current transformer has primary to secondary current ratio of 100:5

then it step up the voltage 20 times and step down the current 1/20 times
of its actual value.

76
 If we know the current ratio I1/I2 and the reading of a.c. ammeter, the current
can be calculated.
Current = ratio × ammeter reading
 Ammeter resistance is very low ,the current transformer normally works short
circuited.
 If for any reason the ammeter is taken out of secondary winding then the
secondary winding must be short ckted with the help of short ckt switch s.
 If this is not done, then due to high m.m.f. will set up high flux in the core and it
will produces excessive core loss which produce heat and high voltage across the
secondary terminals
Hence the secondary of current transformer is never left open.

77
 One of the most commonly used current transformer is the one known as clamp-
on or clip-on type.
 it has a laminated core which is so arranged that it can be opened out at hinged
section by merely pressing a trigger-like projection
 When the core is thus opened, it permits the admission of very heavy current-
carrying bus bars or feeders whereupon the trigger is released and the core is
tightly closed by a spring.
 The current carrying conductor or feeder acts as a single-turn primary whereas the
secondary is connected across the standard ammeter conveniently mounted in the
handle.

78
 Potential transformer
 A PT is a step down transformer having many primary turns but few secondary
turns.
 In step down the voltage decreases and current increases, thus voltage can be easily
measured by using low range voltmeter.
 The voltage is stepped down in known ratio called voltage ratio.
Construction
 A potential transformer has many primary windings but few number of secondary
windings that makes it step down transformer.
 Voltmeter is connected to secondary winding usually voltmeter of 150 V is suitable.
Working
 Primary terminals are connected across the line to which the voltage is to be
measured.
 The voltmeter gives the transformed value of voltage at secondary.
 The deflection of voltmeter when divided by transformed ratio gives the actual
voltage at primary.
79
 Line voltage = deflection / transf. Ratio Where transformation ratio =V2/V1

Precaution for P.T.

 Since the secondary of P.T. is connected to relays, their ratings are usually 40 to
100 Watts.
 For safety purpose the secondary should be completely insulated from the high
voltage primary and should be in addition grounded.

80
Types of P.T. Rating Type
Some types of P.T. are Below 5000V Shell type
1. Shell type 5000-13800V Dry type and oil type
2. Dry type Above 13800V Only oil type
3. Oil type

Any Q?

81