Power Distribution Networks:

A brief overview

Dr. Sanjib Ganguly

Associate Professor, Department of EEE,
IIT Guwahati (Email: sganguly@[Link] )
2 Contents

 Substation design

 Feeder topologies and power loss and voltage

drop computations

 Substation and distribution transformers

3 Substation

 A primary distribution substation is the connection point of a

distribution system to a transmission or a sub-transmission network.
 Outgoing feeders from a primary distribution substation are
typically feeding distribution transformers and direct loads for the
industrial consumers.
 A typical substation may include the following equipment: (1)
power transformers, (2) circuit breakers, (3) isolators, (4) station
buses and insulators, (5) current transformers, (6) potential
transformers, (7) shunt capacitors, (10) grounding system, (11)
lightning arresters and/or gaps, (12) protective relays, (13) station
batteries, and (17) other apparatus.
4 Outdoor and Indoor Substations

 A typical primary distribution substation would include air-

insulated outdoor-type high-voltage (HV) switchgear and an
enclosed air-insulated indoor-type medium-voltage (MV)
switchgear.

 A substation can also be built using Gas Insulated Switchgear

(GIS) technology which requires lower space.

 In GIS substation, both the HV and MV switchgears are built as

metal-enclosed indoor-type switchgear. This type of substation
can be placed inside a building.
5 A typical outdoor rural primary distribution
substation 110/20kV
• Needs
comparatively
larger space
• Comparatively
cheap
• Most of the
substations
belong to this
type
• Needs
maintenance
6 A typical indoor Gas Insulated Substation

• Needs very less

space
• Can be
installed in cities
with higher
population
density
• Expensive
• Needs little
maintenance
• High reliability
7 Substation Location
 A substation is usually located close to the load center of
its service area.
 A substation’s location influences voltage regulation.
 A substation’s location should be such that it provides
proper access for incoming sub-transmission lines and
outgoing primary feeders.
 A substation’s location should provide enough space for
the future expansion.
 The choice of substation location depends on land-use
regulations, local ordinances, and neighbors.
8 Rating of a Primary Distribution
Substation
 Rating of the distribution substation depends on the
rating of the service transformer used.
 The additional capacity requirements of a system with
increasing load density can be met by either holding the
service area of a given substation constant and
increasing its capacity or developing new substations
and thereby holding the rating of the given substation
constant.
9 Different types of bus-bar
arrangements
 Single bus scheme,
 Single bus with a sectionalizer scheme,
 Single bus with a sectionalizer and two power
transformer scheme,
 Main-and-transfer bus scheme,
 Double busbar scheme,
 Ring bus scheme
 Breaker-and-a-half scheme.
10 Single-Busbar Arrangement with one
Main Power Transformer
Advantages:
• Simple and low investment cost
solution
• Control and protection functions
straight forward

Drawbacks:
• No redundancy
• Whole substation out of service
while power transformer or circuit
breaker out of service
• Fault in the MV busbar would take
the whole substation out of service
11 Single-Busbar Arrangement with Bus
Sectionalizer and Two Power Transformers
Advantages:
• Redundancy
• Increased operational flexibility
• Fault in the busbar would be
limited to one section only.

Drawbacks:
• Higher investment cost
• Higher no-load losses as compared
to solution with one power
transformer with equal capacity
• Paralleling of the power
transformers needs additional
control logic.
12 Single-Busbar Arrangement with
Transfer Bus
Advantages:
• Maintenance on one circuit breaker
does not cause any interruptions for
the load.

Drawbacks:
• Higher investment cost
• Whole substation out of service in a
busbar fault case
• Protection and auto-reclosing
circuits have to be switched over to
the bus coupler bay during a transfer
situation.
13 Double-Busbar Arrangement
Advantages:
• Operational flexibility i.e. possibility
to move loads between busses
• Effect of a busbar fault limited
• Substation extension possible under
service

Drawbacks:
• Complicated interlocking
• Whole bay out of service when
circuit breaker under maintenance
14 Double-Breaker Arrangement
Advantages:
• Busbar fault does not disturb service.
• Circuit breaker maintenance can be
carried out without load interruption
• Substation extension possible under
service

Drawbacks:
• High investment cost
• Complicated protection and auto-
reclosing circuits
15 Ring bus scheme
Advantages:
• Low initial and ultimate cost
• Flexible operation for breaker
maintenance
• Any breaker can be removed for
maintenance without interrupting load
• Requires only one breaker per circuit
• Each circuit can be fed by two breakers.

Drawbacks:
• If a fault occurs during a breaker
maintenance period, the ring can be
separated into two sections
• Automatic reclosing and protective
relaying circuitry rather complex
16 A breaker-and-a-half scheme
Advantages:
• Flexible operation
• High reliability
• Breaker failure of bus side breakers removes
only one circuit from service.
• Bus failure does not remove any feeder
circuits from service

Drawbacks:
• 1½ breakers per circuit
• Relaying and automatic reclosing are
somewhat involved since the middle breaker
must be responsive to either of its associated
circuits
17 Primary distribution network topology

 The primary distribution networks are mostly of radial

topology, which results in unidirectional power flow.
 The radial topology is preferred for its simplicity in
construction, cost-effectiveness, and protection
arrangement.
 The reliability of the radial topology is poor as compared to
the loop topology, in which power flow is bi-directional.
 Loop topology is used in large cities and metros.
 In some cases, distribution networks operate as open-loop
(this will be explained in next slides).
18 Distribution network with radial
topology: Single feeder
19 Distribution network with radial topology: Multi-
feeder with sectionalizing switch and tie-lines
20 Distribution network with loop topology
21 Primary distribution systems: Voltage Rating

 The primary feeders located in low-load density areas are

restricted in length and loading by permissible voltage drop
rather than by thermal restrictions.
 The primary feeders located in high-load density areas, for
example, industrial and commercial areas, are restricted by
thermal limitations.
 Voltage-square rule: Usually, if the feeder voltage is doubled,
for the same percent voltage drop, it can supply the same
power four times the distance.
22 Primary distribution systems: Voltage Rating

 The advantage obtained by the new and higher-voltage

level through the voltage-square factor, that is,
𝟐
𝑽𝑳,𝒏𝒆𝒘
Distance ratio × Load ratio=Voltage-square factor=
𝑽𝑳,𝒐𝒍𝒅

where,
 Distance ratio is the ratio of new distance to old distance.
 Load ratio is the ratio of new feeder loading to the old
feeder loading.
23 Decision on primary feeder routing
Load Density

Physical barriers

Voltage drops

Future load growth

Number of Feeders

Total cost
24 Decision on number of feeders
 Load Density

 Feeder Length

 Feeder Limitations

 Primary Voltage Levels

 Substation Capacity

 Conductor Size

 Voltage Drops

 Future load growth

25 Decision on conductor sizes
Voltage drops

Load forecast

Load growth rate

Power losses

Total cost

Transformer rating

Conductor rating
26 Power loss and voltage drop computation of
radial feeder with uniformly distributed load
 Assume that there are many
closely spaced loads and/or
lateral lines connected to the
main feeder as shown in the
Figure.
 Since the load is uniformly
distributed along the main
feeder, the load current in the
main is a function of the
distance.
 The feeder length is assumed
to be l.
27 Power loss and voltage drop computation of
radial feeder with uniformly distributed load

 The radial network is

represented with a single
line diagram as shown in
the figure.
 Let consider a small
elementary segment dx at
a distance x from the
substation.
 Since the loads are
assumed to be equally
distributed/spaced, the
differential tapped-off
load current would be dI.
28 Power loss and voltage drop computation of
radial feeder with uniformly distributed load

• 𝐼𝑠 is the sending-end current at

the feeder breaker, and 𝐼𝑟 is
the receiving-end current.
• 𝐼𝑥1 and 𝐼𝑥2 are the currents in
points 1 and 2, respectively.
• Assume that all loads
connected to the feeder have
the same power factor.
• Since the total load is
uniformly distributed from x = 0
to x = l, we can write,
𝑑𝐼
= 𝑘 (some constant)
𝑑𝑥
29 Power loss and voltage drop computation of
radial feeder with uniformly distributed load

• By applying KCL at node 1, we

can write,
𝐼𝑥1 = 𝐼𝑥2 + 𝑑 𝐼
Or,
𝐼𝑥2 = 𝐼𝑥1 − 𝑑 𝐼
Or,
𝐼𝑥2 = 𝐼𝑥1 − 𝑘𝑑𝑥

• If 𝑥 = 𝑙, the equation becomes

𝐼𝑟 = 𝐼𝑠 − 𝑘𝑙 = 0
𝐼
• This yields 𝑘 = 𝑠
𝑙
• The current at a distance x is
𝑥
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑠 (1 − )
𝑙
30 Power loss and voltage drop computation of
radial feeder with uniformly distributed load
• The differential series
voltage drop 𝑑𝑉 and the
differential power loss 𝑑𝑃𝐿
due to ohmic losses can
also be found as a
function of the sending-
end current Is and the
distance x in a similar
manner.
𝑥
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐼𝑥 ∗ 𝑧𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑠 1 − ∗ 𝑧𝑑𝑥
𝑙
𝑥 2
𝑑𝑃𝐿 = 𝐼𝑥2 ∗ 𝑟𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑠 1 − ∗ 𝑟𝑑𝑥
𝑙
31 Power loss and voltage drop computation of
radial feeder with uniformly distributed load
• The differential series
voltage drop 𝑑𝑉 and the
differential power loss 𝑑𝑃𝐿
due to ohmic losses can
also be found as a
function of the sending-
end current Is and the
distance x in a similar
manner.
𝑥
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐼𝑥 ∗ 𝑧𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑠 1 − ∗ 𝑧𝑑𝑥
𝑙
𝑥 2
𝑑𝑃𝐿 = 𝐼𝑥2 ∗ 𝑟𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑠 1 − ∗ 𝑟𝑑𝑥
𝑙
32 Power loss and voltage drop computation of
radial feeder with uniformly distributed load

• The series voltage drop VDx

due to Ix current at any point x
on the feeder is:
𝑥 𝑥
𝑉𝐷𝑥 = 0 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐼𝑠 1 − ∗ 𝑧𝑥
2𝑙

• Hence, the total series voltage

drop along the full length is:
𝑙 1
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 1 − ∗ 𝑧𝑙 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑧𝑙
2𝑙 2
• Similarly, the total power loss
would be:
𝑙 1
𝑇𝑃𝐿 = 0 𝑑𝑃𝐿 = 𝐼𝑠2 𝑟𝑙
3
33 Power loss and voltage drop computation of
radial feeder with uniformly distributed load
 Therefore, for a uniformly distributed feeder, the voltage
drop will be similar to a lump load connected at the mid-
point of the feeder.
𝑙
i. e. , 𝑥 =
2
 For a uniformly distributed feeder, the power loss will be
similar to a lump load connected at the one-third length of
the feeder.
𝑙
i. e. , 𝑥 =
3
34 Power loss and voltage drop computation of
radial feeder with non-uniformly distributed load
 Lets have a three-phase feeder
main, which has the tapped-off
load increasing linearly with the
distance x. Note that the load is
zero when x = 0.
 The plot of the current given
below.
𝑑𝐼𝑥
= −𝑘𝐼𝑠 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
35 Power loss and voltage drop computation of
radial feeder with non-uniformly distributed load
 The constant k can be obtained as:
𝑙 𝑙
𝑙2
𝐼𝑠 = 𝑑𝐼𝑥 = 𝑘 ∗ 𝐼𝑠 ∗ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∗ 𝐼𝑠 ∗
0 0 2
2
 Hence, 𝑘 =
𝑙2
 Substituting k, we get
𝑑𝐼𝑥 𝑥
= −2𝐼𝑠 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑙

 Integrating this, we get the current at x

𝐼𝑥 2𝐼𝑠 𝑥
𝑑𝐼𝑥 =− 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝐼𝑠 𝑙2 0
𝑥2
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑠 (1 − )
𝑙2
36 Power loss and voltage drop computation of
radial feeder with non-uniformly distributed load
 The expressions for the voltage drop and
power loss can be computed as:
𝑥2
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐼𝑥 ∗ 𝑧𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑠 1 − ∗ 𝑧𝑑𝑥
𝑙2
2
𝑥2
𝑑𝑃𝐿 = 𝐼𝑥2 ∗ 𝑟𝑑𝑥 = 𝐼𝑠 1 − ∗ 𝑟𝑑𝑥
𝑙2
 The series voltage drop at the point x
can be computed as:
𝑥 𝑥2
𝑉𝐷𝑥 = 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐼𝑠 1 − ∗ 𝑧𝑥
0 3𝑙 2
 Hence, the total series voltage drop
along the full length is:
𝑙2 2
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 1 − ∗ 𝑧𝑙 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑧𝑙
3𝑙 2 3
37 Power loss and voltage drop computation of
radial feeder with non-uniformly distributed load
 Similarly, the total power loss would
be:
𝑙 8 2
𝑇𝑃𝐿 = 𝑑𝑃𝐿 = 𝐼 𝑟𝑙
0 15 𝑠
 Therefore, to determine the voltage
drop, the total load current is
assumed to be concentrated at:
2𝑙
𝑥=
3
 To determine the power loss, the
total load current is assumed to be
concentrated at
8𝑙
𝑥=
15
38 Distribution Substation Service Area
 The distribution substation service area can be of different
shapes, for example, square, circular, hexagonal etc.
39 Substation Service area with n Primary
Feeders
• Suppose that the distribution
substation service area is served by
n primary feeders .
• Substation is at point a.
• Assume that the load in the service
area is uniformly distributed and
each feeder serves an area of
triangular shape.
• The differential load served by the
feeder in a differential area of dA is
𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷𝑑𝐴 kVA
• where, dS is the differential load
served by the feeder in the
differential area of dA in kVA
• D is the load density
40 Substation Service area with n Primary
Feeders
• From the figure, we get,
𝑦
tan 𝜃 = ,
𝑥+𝑑𝑥
i.e., 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 tan 𝜃 ≅ 𝑥 tan 𝜃

• Hence, we can write

𝑑𝐴 = 2𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 tan 𝜃

• The total service area of the

feeder can be calculated as,
𝑙
𝐴𝑛 = 0 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑙𝑛2 tan 𝜃

• The total kilovolt-ampere load

served by one of n feeders can
be calculated as
𝑆𝑛 = 𝐷𝑙𝑛2 tan 𝜃
41 Substation Service area with n Primary
Feeders
 This total load is located, as a lump-sum load, at a point
on the main feeder at a distance of (2/3) × l4 from the
feed point a. Hence, the summation of the percent
voltage drop of all such areas is
2 2
𝑉𝐷𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 𝐾𝑆𝑛 = 𝐾𝐷𝑙𝑛3 tan 𝜃
3 3

 where, K is a constant that can be defined as percent voltage drop

per kilovolt-ampere-km.
 Since from the figure it is found that 𝑛 2𝜃 = 360𝑜 , we can write
2 2 360𝑜
𝑉𝐷𝑛 = 𝑙 𝐾𝑆𝑛 = 𝐾𝐷𝑙𝑛3 tan
3 𝑛 3 2𝑛

Note that, this equation is applicable when 𝑛 ≥ 3 and primary feeders

are linear.
42 Substation Service area with single and
double Primary Feeders
 For n = 1, the percent voltage drop in the feeder main is:

1
𝑉𝐷1 = 𝐾𝐷𝑙13
2

 For n = 2, the percent voltage drop in the feeder main is:

1
𝑉𝐷2 = 𝐾𝐷𝑙23
2
43 Comparison of the Four- and six-Feeder
networks
 For a square-shaped distribution substation area served by four
primary feeders, that is, n = 4, the area served by one of the four
feeders is:
𝐴4 = 𝑙42
 The total area served by all four feeders is:
𝑇𝐴4 = 4𝐴4 = 4𝑙42
 The kilovolt-ampere load served by one of the feeders is: 𝑆4 = 𝐷𝑙42
 The total kilovolt-ampere load served by all four feeders is: 𝑇𝑆4 =
4𝐷𝑙42
44 Comparison of the Four- and six-Feeder
networks
 The percent voltage drop in the main feeder is
2
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐾𝐷𝑙43
3

 The load current in the main feeder at the feed point a is

𝑆4 𝐷𝑙42
𝐼4 = =
3𝑉𝐿−𝐿 3𝑉𝐿−𝐿

 Note that, The ampacity, that is, the current-carrying

capacity, of a conductor selected for the main feeder
should be larger than this value.
45 Comparison of the Four- and six-Feeder
networks
 For a hexagonally shaped distribution substation area
served by six primary feeders, i.e., n = 6, the area served by
1 2
one of the six feeders is: 𝐴6 = 𝑙6
3
6 2
 The total area served by all six feeders is: 𝑇𝐴6 = 𝑙
3 6

 The kilovolt-ampere load served by one of the feeders is:

1
𝑆6 = 𝐷𝑙62
3

 The total kilovolt-ampere load served by all six feeders is:

6
𝑇𝑆6 = 𝐷𝑙62
3
46 Comparison of the Four- and six-Feeder
networks
 The percent voltage drop in the main feeder is:
2
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐾𝐷𝑙63
3 3

 The load current in the main feeder at the feed point a is

𝑆6 𝐷𝑙62
𝐼6 = =
3𝑉𝐿−𝐿 3𝑉𝐿−𝐿
47 Thermally limited (TL) feeder

 For TL feeder, the thermal loading in each feeder remains

𝐷𝑙42 𝐷𝑙62
same, i.e., 𝐼4 = 𝐼6 , i.e., =
3𝑉𝐿−𝐿 3𝑉𝐿−𝐿

𝑙6 2
i.e., = 3
𝑙4
6 2
𝑇𝐴6 𝑙 3
3 6
 Hence, = =
𝑇𝐴4 4𝑙42 2

 Therefore, the six feeders can carry 1.50 times as much load
as the four feeders, if each feeder thermal loading is equal.
48 Voltage drop limited (VDL) feeder

 For VDL-feeder, the voltage drop remains equal for both

four and six feeder networks, i.e.,
𝑉𝐷4 = 𝑉𝐷6
 This results in: 𝑙4 = 0.833𝑙6 and hence,𝑇𝐴6 = 1.25𝑇𝐴4

 Therefore, the six feeders can carry only 1.25 times as

much load as the four feeders if they are VDL.
49 Derivation of the K constant

 Consider the primary-feeder main shown in

Figure, Here, the effective impedance Z of
the three-phase main depends upon the
nature of the load.
 when a lumped-sum load is connected:
𝑍 = 𝑧𝑙
 When the load is uniformly distributed:
1
𝑍 = 𝑧𝑙
2
 When the load has an increasing load
2
density: 𝑍 = 𝑧𝑙
3
50 Derivation of the K constant

 Taking receiving end phasor

as the reference,
𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉𝑟 ∠0

 The sending end voltage

and the current can be
written as,
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 ∠𝛿
𝐼 = 𝐼∠ − 𝜃
51 Derivation of the K constant
 The percentage voltage regulation for this line is:
𝑉𝑠 −𝑉𝑟
= 100
𝑉𝑟

 Applying KVL, the sending end voltage and the current

can be written as,
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑟 + 𝐼𝑧

𝑉𝑠 cos 𝛿 + 𝑗𝑉𝑠 sin 𝛿 = 𝑉𝑟 + 𝐼(cos 𝜃 − 𝑗 sin 𝜃)(𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋)

For lagging load.
52 Derivation of the K constant

 In typical distribution systems, 𝑅 ≅ 𝑋, i.e., and the

voltage angle δ is closer to zero or typically closed to
zero. Hence,
𝑉𝑠 ≅ 𝑉𝑠 cos 𝛿 and 𝑉𝑠 ≅ 𝑉𝑟 + 𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜃 + 𝐼𝑋 sin 𝜃

 Therefore, the per unit voltage drop, for a lagging

power factor, is
𝐼𝑅 cos 𝜃+𝐼𝑋 sin 𝜃
𝑉𝐷𝑝.𝑢. =
𝑉𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒
53 Derivation of the K constant

 The complex power at the receiving end is

𝑃𝑟 + 𝑗𝑄𝑟 = 𝑉𝑟 𝐼 ∗

𝑃𝑟 −𝑗𝑄𝑟
 Hence, 𝐼 =
𝑉𝑟

 The sending-end voltage can be written as:

𝑅𝑃𝑟 + 𝑋𝑄𝑟 𝑅𝑄𝑟 − 𝑋𝑃𝑟
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑟 + −𝑗
𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝑟
54 Derivation of the K constant

 Since the angle 𝛿 ≃ 0, the sending end voltage can be

approximated as:
𝑅𝑃𝑟 +𝑋𝑄𝑟
𝑉𝑠 ≅ 𝑉𝑟 +
𝑉𝑟

 Hence, the voltage drop expression can be re-written as,

𝑅𝑃𝑟 +𝑋𝑄𝑟
𝑉𝐷𝑝.𝑢. ≅
𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒

 Since 𝑃𝑟 = 𝑆𝑟 cos 𝜃 and 𝑄𝑟 = 𝑆𝑟 sin 𝜃, we can write

𝑅𝑆𝑟 cos 𝜃+𝑋𝑆𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑉𝐷𝑝.𝑢. =
𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒
55 Derivation of the K constant

 The voltage drop can also be written as:

1
(𝑟 cos 𝜃+𝑥 sin 𝜃)𝑙𝑒 ( 𝑆3𝜙 ∗1000)
3
𝑉𝐷𝑝.𝑢. =
𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒

 where, r and x are resistance and reactance per length

 𝑙𝑒 is the effective length of the feeder main that
depends upon the nature of the load
56 Derivation of the K constant

 Since we know that,

𝑉𝐷𝑝.𝑢. = 𝐾𝑙𝑒 𝑆3𝜙 ,

 We get the expression for K as:

1
(𝑟 cos 𝜃+𝑥 sin 𝜃) 3∗1000
𝐾=
𝑉𝑟 𝑉𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒

Basically,
𝐾 = 𝑓(conductor size, spacing, power factor)
57 Interpretation of Percent Voltage drop Formula

 The percentage voltage drop can be computed as:

2
𝐾( 𝑙𝑛 )(𝑛𝐷𝐴𝑛 )
3
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐾𝑙𝑒 𝑆3𝜙 =
𝑛

2 𝑇𝑆𝑛
= 𝐾 𝑙𝑛
3 𝑛

2
= 𝐾( 𝑙𝑛 )𝑆𝑛
3
58 Use and Interpretation of Voltage drop formula
length Area %
of Base, No. of Load served by Total voltage
Case feeder K kV feeders Density one feeder kVA drop
Geographic
Extensions x2↑ - - - - x4↑ x4↑ x8↑
Load Growth - - - - x2↑ - x2↑ x2↑
Add new
feeders - - - x2↑ - x1/2↓ - x1/2↓
Feeder re-
conductoring - x1/2↓ - - - - - x1/2↓
59 Interpretation of Percent Voltage drop
Formula
 Case #1: If the length of the primary feeder is doubled, with other
parameters constant, the service area of the feeder would
increase four times, which results in an increase of voltage drop
eight times. Therefore, the increase of the feeder length should be
avoided.

 Case #2: If the load density is doubled, the feeder load would be
doubled, which would result in the voltage drop of the feeder to
be doubled. Therefore, increasing load density negatively effects
on the voltage drop.
60 Interpretation of Percent Voltage drop
Formula
 Case # 3: If the number of the feeders is doubled, it creates
load under a feeder to be reduced by half, which results in
voltage drop to become half. Therefore, new feeder addition
is helpful.

 Case # 4: If the conductor size is doubled, it reduces the K

constant by half, which makes the voltage drop by half.
61 Example…
 The Figure shows a primary distribution
feeder, consisting of the 3300 ft main and the
most remote laterals a and a′. There are three
phase and one neutral conductors in that
portion of the single-line diagram.
 Determine the following:
The percent voltage drops at the ends of the
laterals and the main feeder.

The K constants for the laterals and the main feeder can be found as 0.025 and 0.01 %VD/kVA-
mile, respectively. For lateral feeder, the load is uniformly distributed. For main, it is lumped at the
end.
62 Solution…

 Since the load is assumed to be uniformly distributed along the

lateral,
𝑙 1 5760
𝑉𝐷𝑙𝑎𝑡 = 𝐾𝑆 = × × 0.025 × 518 = 7.06%
2 2 5280
1 mile=5280 ft

 Since the main is considered to have a lumped-sum load of 1036

3300
kVA at the end of its length, 𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 = × 0.01 × 1036 = 6.475%
5280
63 Solution…

 Therefore, the total percent primary voltage

drop is
𝑉𝐷 = 𝑉𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 + 𝑉𝐷𝑙𝑎𝑡 = 6.475 + 7.06 = 13.535%
64 Example…
A square-shaped distribution substation service area is shown. Assume that
the substation is served by four three-phase four-wire 4.16 kV grounded-
wye primary feeders. Assume a lagging load power factor of 0.8 and a
1000 kVA/km2 uniformly distributed load density. Calculate the following:
a. Consider thermally loaded feeder mains and find the following:
 i. Maximum load per feeder
 ii. Substation size
 iii. Total percent voltage drop from the feed point to the end of the
main
b. Consider VDL feeders that have 3% voltage drop and find the following:
 i. Maximum load per feeder
 ii. Substation size
 iii. Ampere loading of the main
The conductor ampacity can be taken as 230 A and K is 0.005 %VD/kVA-
km.
65 Solution…

 Maximum load per feeder is 𝑆𝑛 = 3 × 4.16 × 230 = 1657.2 kVA

Since there are 4 feeders, the substation size is, 𝑇𝑆𝑛 = 4 ×

1657.2 = 6628.8 kVA

𝑆𝑛 1657.2
 The length of the feeder is 𝑙4 = = = 1.287 kM
𝐷 1000

 Total voltage drop of the main feeder will be,

2 2 2
= 𝑙4 𝐾𝐷𝑙4 = × 1.287 × 0.005 × 1000 × 1.2872 = 7.1%
3 3
66 Solution…

2
 For VDL feeder, 𝑉𝐷 = 𝑙4 𝐾𝐷𝑙42 = 3, this gives the length of the
3

3×3 9
feeder, 𝑙43 = = , 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑙4 = 0.965 kM
2𝐾𝐷 2×0.005×1000

 Maximum load per feeder is 𝑆𝑛 = 𝐷𝑙42 = 1000 × 0.9652 = 931.2 kVA

 Substation size 𝑇𝑆𝑛 = 4𝑆𝑛 = 4 × 931.2 = 3724.9 kVA

𝑆𝑛 931.2
 Ampere loading in the main feeder = = = 129.24 A
3𝑉 3×4.16
67 Distribution Transformer
 Distribution transformers are used to reduce primary system voltages (2.4–
34.5 kV) to utilization voltages (120–600 V).
 They act as liaison between the primary distribution networks and the
secondary distribution networks.
 Small distribution transformers are usually of pole mounting in overhead
distribution.
 Transformers 100 kVA and below are attached directly to the pole, and
transformers larger than 100 up to 500 kVA are hung on crossbeams or
support lugs.
 If three or more transformers larger than 100 kVA are used, they are
installed on a platform supported by two poles.
 In underground distribution, transformers are installed in street vaults, in
manholes direct buried, on pads at ground level, or within buildings.
68 Types of Distribution transformers

 Heat is a limiting factor in transformer capacity.

 The distribution transformers can be classified as (1) dry
type and (2) liquid-filled type.
 The dry-type distribution transformers are air-cooled and
air-insulated.
 The liquid-filled-type distribution transformers are usually
oil filled.
69
70 Reference

 T. Gonen. Electric Power Distribution

System Engineering; CRC Press, 3rd Edition,
2014.
71

Thank You…