X–RAYS

ROENTGEN EXPERIMENT
Roentgen discovered X–ray. While performing experiment on electric discharge tube Roentgen observed that
when pressure inside the tube is 10–3mm of Hg and applied potential is kept 25 kV then some unknown
radiation are emitted by anode. These are known as X–ray. X–rays are produced by bombarding high
speed electrons on a target of high atomic weight and high melting point.

evacuated tube

+ electron

target
cathode

X-rays
V

To Produce X–ray Three Things are Required

(
i
) Source of electron
(ii) Means of accelerating these electron to high speed
(iii) Target on which these high speed electron strike

C OOLIDGE METHOD
Coolidge developed thermoionic vacuum X–ray tube in which electron are produced by thermoionic emission
method. Due to high potential difference electrons (emitted due to thermoionic method) move towards the
target and strike from the atom of target due to which X–ray are produced. Experimentally it is observed that only
1% or 2% kinetic energy of electron beam is used to produce X–ray. Rest of energy is wasted in form of heat.

V(in kV)

anode

e water
F e T

C
W
filament target
window
X-ray

Characteristics of target
(a) Must have high atomic number to produce hard X–rays.
(b) High melting point to withstand high temperature produced.
(c) High thermal conductivity to remove the heat produced
(d) Tantalum, platinum, molybdenum and tungsten serve as target materials
• Control of intensity : The intensity of X–ray depends on number of electrons striking the target and number
of electron depend on temperature of filament which can be controlled by filament current.
Thus intensity of X–ray depends on current flowing through filament.
• Control of Penetrating Power: The Penetrating power of X–ray depends on the energy of incident electron.
The energy of electron can be controlled by applied potential difference. Thus penetrating power of X–ray
depend on applied potential difference. Thus the intensity of X–ray depends on current flowing through filament
while penetrating power depends on applied potential difference
Soft X–ray Hard X–ray
Wavelength 10 Å to 100 Å 0.1 Å – 10 Å

12400 12400
Energy eV–Å eV–Å
 
Penetrating power Less More
Use Radio photography Radio therapy

• Continuous spectrum of X–ray :

1 2
When high speed electron collides from the atom of target and passes 2
mv1
–
close to the nucleus. There is coulomb attractive force due to this electron e
v1 h
is deaccelerated i.e. energy is decreased. The loss of energy during y
X-ra n
deacceleration is emitted in the form of X–rays. X–ray produced in this o to
+ ph
way are called Braking or Bremstralung radiation and form continuous K
spectrum. In continuous spectrum of X–ray all the wavelength of X–ray L –
M
e
are present but below a minimum value of wavelength there is no X–ray. It v2 1 2

is called cut off or threshold or minimum wavelength of X–ray. The minimum 2 mv2

wavelength depends on applied potential.

• Loss in Kinetic Energy

1 2 1 2 I
mv – mv = h+ heat energy if v2 = 0 , v1 = v (In first collision, heat = 0)
2 1 2 2
V3
1 V2
mv2 = hmax ...(i) V1
2
V3 > V2 > V1
1
mv2 = eV ...(ii) [hereVisapplied potential] 
2

hc 12400 12400
from (i) and (ii) hmax = eV  = eV min = × volt = × 10–10 m × volt
 min V V

Continuous X–rays also known as white X–ray. Minimum wavelength of these spectrum only depends on applied
potential and doesn' t depend on atomic number.

• Characteristic Spectrum of X–ray –

e
– e y
When the target of X–ray tube is collide by energetic electron it emits two X-ra n
o to
type of X–ray radiation. One of them has a continuous spectrum whose ph
wavelength depend on applied potential while other consists of spectral lines h
whose wavelength depend on nature of target. The radiation forming the + e
–

K
line spectrum is called characteristic X–rays. When highly accelerated electron L
strikes with the atom of target then it knockout the electron of orbit, due to
M
this a vacancy is created. To fill this vacancy electron jumps from higher
energy level and electromagnetic radiation are emitted which form
characteristic spectrum of X–ray. Whose wavelength depends on nature of
target and not on applied potential.
 From Bohr Model
O
n1 = 1, n2 = 2, 3, 4.......K series N 4
N N N series

n1 = 2, n2 = 3, 4, 5.......L series M 3
M MM M series

n1 = 3, n2 = 4, 5, 6.......M series L 2
L L L L series

First line of series = 

K 1
Second line of series =  KK K K
K series

Third line of series = 

Transition Wave– Energy Energy Wavelength

length difference

hc K
LK K  hK –(EK–EL) K =
(E K  E L ) 3

Characteristic X-ray
12400
(2 1) = hK = eVÅ
Relative intensity

(E K  E L )
2
X-ray from a molybdenum
K target at 35 kV
hc
MK K  hK –(EK–EM) K =
(E K  E M ) L
L
1 Bremsstrahlung
12400 continuum
(3 1) = hK = eVÅ
(E K  E M )

hc 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12

ML L hL –(EL–EM) L =
(E L  E M ) wavelength (nm)

12400
(3 2) = hL = eVÅ
(E L  E M )

MOSELEY'S LAW
Moseley studied the characteristic spectrum of number of many elements and observed that the square root of
the frequency of a K– line is closely proportional to atomic number of the element. This is called Moseley's law.

 (Z – b)   (Z – b) = a (Z – b) ...(i)

2 2

Z = atomic number of target

 = frequency of characteristic spectrum
b = screening constant (for K– series b=1, L series b=7.4)
K
a = proportionality constant K

1 1  
From Bohr Model = RcZ2  2  2  ...(ii)
 n1 n 2 

1 1 
Comparing (i) and (ii) a = Rc  2  2  Z
 n1 n 2 
• Thus proportionality constant 'a' does not depend on the nature of target but depend on transition.

Bohr model Moseley's correction

1. For single electron species 1. For many electron species

1 1  1 1 
2. E = 13.6Z2  2  2  eV 2. E = 13.6 (Z–1)2  2  2  eV
 n1 n 2   n1 n 2 

1 1  1 1 
3.  = RcZ2  2  2  3.  = Rc(Z–1)2  2  2 
 n1 n 2  n
 1 n 2 

1 1 1  1 1 1 
4. = RZ2  2  2  4. = R (Z – 1)2  2  2 
 n
 1 n 2    n1 n 2 

• For X–ray production, Moseley formulae are used because heavy metal are used.

1 1
When target is same   When transition is same  
1 1 (Z  b)2

n 12 n 22

ABSORPTION OF X–RAY

When X–ray passes through x thickness then its intensity I = I0e–x

I0 = Intensity of incident X–ray

I = Intensity of X–ray after passing through x distance

 = absorption coefficient of material I0

• Intensity of X–ray decrease exponentially. I

• Maximum absorption of X–ray  Lead

x
• Minimum absorption of X–ray  Air
Half thickness (x1/2)
n 2
The distance travelled by X–ray when intensity become half the original value x1/2 =


Example

When X–rays of wavelength 0.5Å pass through 10 mm thick Al sheet then their intensity is reduced to one
sixth. Find the absorption coefficient for Aluminium .

Solution

2 .3 03 I  2 .303 2.303  0.7781

 log  o   log10 6   0.1752 / mm
x  I 10 10
DIFFRACTION OF X–RAY
Diffraction of X–ray is possible by crystals because the interatomic spacing in a crystal lattice is order of wavelength
of X–rays it was first verified by Lauve.
Diffraction of X–ray take place according to Bragg's law 2d sin = n
d = spacing of crystal plane or lattice constant or distance
between adjacent atomic plane 
 
 = Bragg's angle or glancing angle
d
 = Diffracting angle n = 1, 2, 3 .......
For Maximum Wavelength
sin  = 1, n = 1  max = 2d
so if  > 2d diffraction is not possible i.e. solution of Bragg's equation is not possible.

PROPERTIES OF X–RAY
• X–ray always travel with the velocity of light in straight line because X–rays are em waves
• X–ray is electromagnetic radiation it show particle and wave both nature
• In reflection, diffraction, interference, refraction X–ray shows wave nature while in photoelectric effect it shows
particle nature.
• There is no charge on X–ray thus these are not deflected by electric field and magnetic field.
• X–ray are invisible.
• X–ray affects the photographic plate
• When X–ray incidents on the surface of substance it exerts force and pressure and transfer energy and momentum
• Characteristic X–ray can not obtained from hydrogen because the difference of energy level in hydrogen is very
small.

Example
Show that the frequency of K X–ray of a material is equal to the sum of frequencies of K and L X–rays of the
same material.
Solution
The energy level diagram of an atom with one electron knocked out is shown above.

M
L
L

K K

Energy of K X–ray is EK =EL – EK

and of K X–ray is EK = EM – EK
and of L X–rays is EL = EM – EL
thus EK = EK + EL or K = K + L