SAANKHYA ACADEMY

Solutions

 Solutions are homogeneous mixtures composed of two or more substances which do

not react chemically.
 The component in the largest amount is the solvent, which determines the physical
state of the solution.
 One or more components present in the solution other than the solvent are known as
solutes.
 Binary solution- contains 2 components. Ex: Salt in water, benzene in toluene
 Tertiary solution- contains 3 components. Ex: Ethanol, ethanoic acid and water

Types of Solutions

Type of Solution Solute Solvent Examples

Gaseous solution Gas Gas Air (O₂ + N₂)

Gaseous solution Liquid Gas Chloroform in N₂, Moist in H2

Gaseous solution Solid Gas Camphor in air

Liquid solution Gas Liquid O₂ or CO2 in water

Liquid solution Liquid Liquid Ethanol in water

Liquid solution Solid Liquid Sugar or Salt in water

Solid solution Gas Solid H₂ in palladium

Solid solution Liquid Solid Gold Amalgam-Hg dissolved in gold

Solid solution Solid Solid Alloys, 22carat gold- CU dissolved in gold

Solid Solutions: Solutions in which solvent and the solute/solutes are solids are known as
solid solutions. Ex: Alloys (Brass is a solid solution of Zn in Cu)
Types of Solid Solutions
Substitutional Solid Solutions: Formed when atoms of the solute replace or substitute
atoms of the solvent in the crystal lattice. Example, Brass: Zinc (Zn) atoms substitute some
Copper (Cu) atoms, German silver: Cu + Zn + Ni
Interstitial Solid Solutions: Formed when small-sized atoms like H, B, C, N occupy the
interstitial voids (spaces) between the host atoms. Example, Carbon in iron (Fe) forms steel,
Hydrogen in palladium.

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Quantitative Methods
1. Mass Percentage(w/w): Defined as the mass of the solute in grams dissolved in 100g
of solution.
Mass of solute
Mass % = × 100
Total mass of solution

2. Volume Percentage (v/v): Defined as the volume in cm3 of the solute dissolved in
100cm3 of the solution. Most commonly used for expressing.
Volume of solute
Volume % = × 100
Total volume of solution

3. Mass by volume Percentage (w/v): Defined as the mass of the solute dissolved in
100cm3 of the solution.
Mass of solute
Mass by volume % (w/v) = × 100
Total volume of solution

4. Parts per million (ppm): When a solute is present in trace quantities, it is convenient
to express concentration in parts per million (ppm)
Number of parts of the component
Parts per million = × 10⁶
Total number of parts of all components of the solution

5. Mole fraction (x): Ratio of the number of moles of that component to the total
number of moles present in the solution.
Number of moles of the component
x=
Total number of moles of all thecomponents

6. Molarity (M): Defined as the number of moles of the solute dissolved in one L(1dm3)
of the solution.
Moles of solute
M=
Volume of solution∈litre

7. Molality (m): Defined as the number of moles of the solute dissolved in on kg of the
solvent.

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Moles of solute
8. m=
Mass of the solvent ∈kg
Solubility: Solubility of a substance is its maximum amount that can be dissolved in a
specified amount of solvent at a specified temperature. It depends upon the nature of solute
and solvent as well as temperature and pressure.

Solubility of Solids in Liquids

 Like dissolves like, because the inter particle attractions are similar (Polar solutes
dissolve in polar solvents and non-polar solutes dissolve in non-polar solvents).
 When a solid solute is added to the solvent, some solute dissolves and its
concentration increases in solution. This process is known as dissolution.
 Some solute particles in solution collide with the solid solute particles and get
separated out of solution. This process is known as crystallisation.
 A stage is reached when the two processes occur at the same rate. Under such
conditions, number of solute particles going into solution will be equal to the solute
particles separating out and a state of dynamic equilibrium is reached.
Solute + Solvent ⇌ Solution
 A solution in which no more solute can dissolve at a given temperature and pressure is
called a saturated solution. At this stage, the solute concentration remains constant.
 An unsaturated solution is one in which more solute can be dissolved at the same
temperature.
 Solubility of the solute is defined as the mass of the solute that dissolves 100g of a
given solvent to form a saturated solution at a given temperature and pressure.
Effect of Temperature:
 The solubility of a solid in a liquid is significantly affected by temperature changes
and must follow Le Chateliers Principle.
 If dissolution is endothermic, solubility ↑ with temperature.
 If exothermic, solubility ↓ with temperature.
Effect of Pressure: Doesn’t have any significant effect for solids. It is so because solids and
liquids are highly incompressible and practically remain unaffected by changes in pressure.

Solubility of Gases in Liquids

 Solubility increases with pressure and decreases with temperature.

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 Henry’s Law: States that at a given temperature, the solubility of a gas in liquid
is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the solution.
 The solubility of a gas in a liquid solution is a function of partial pressure of the gas
 The most commonly used form of Henry’s law states that “the partial pressure of
the gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (x) in
the solution”

Solubility of gas ∝ Partial pressure

p=KH⋅x


Where p: partial pressure of gas, x: mole fraction of gas, KH: Henry's law constant
 It is obvious from equation above that higher the value of KH at a given pressure, the
lower is the solubility of the gas in the liquid.
Applications:
 To increase CO₂ solubility in soft drinks, the bottle is sealed under high pressure.
 Scuba divers breathe air under high pressure, which increases the solubility of gases
like nitrogen in the blood. As they surface and pressure drops, nitrogen forms bubbles,
causing a painful and dangerous condition called bends. To prevent this, their tanks
are filled with a mix of helium(11.7%), nitrogen(56.2%), and oxygen(32.1%).
 At high altitudes, lower oxygen pressure reduces its concentration in the blood,
leading to weakness and confusion—a condition called anoxia.
Effect of Temperature
 The solubility of gases in liquids decreases with an increase in temperature
because gas dissolution is an exothermic process. According to Le Chatelier’s
Principle, heating shifts the equilibrium to oppose the added heat, thereby reducing
the solubility of the gas.

Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions: The pressure exerted by the vapours above the liquid
surface in equilibrium with the liquid at a given temperature is called the vapour pressure of
the liquid. This depends on:
I. Nature of the liquid: Liquid molecules with weaker intermolecular forces escape more
easily into the vapour phase, resulting in higher vapour pressure
II. Temperature: Vapour pressure of a liquid increases with temperature because higher
temperature raises the kinetic energy of molecules, allowing more of them to escape
into the vapour phase.

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Raoult’s Law: Roult’s law states that for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour
pressure of each component of the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction present
in solution.

p1 ∝ x1
 For component 1,

and p1 = p01x1
For component 2,

p2 ∝ x2
and p2 = p02 x2
Total pressure: ptotal = p1+p2
= ( p01 x1) + ( p02 x2)
=(1-x2) p01 + p02 x2
= p01 + ( p02 - p01) x2
From equation above, we can conclude:
(i) Total vapour pressure depends on the mole fraction of either component.
(ii) It varies linearly with the mole fraction of component 2.
(iii) Depending on the pure components' vapour pressures, the total vapour pressure increases
or decreases with the mole fraction of component 1.
A plot of p1 or p2 versus mole fractions x1

and x2 gives straight lines, indicating a linear

relationship. Similarly, total vapour pressure
ptotal versus x2 also shows a linear plot.
According to Dalton’s Law:
p1=[Link], p2=[Link], or in general,
pi=[Link]
Here, y1 and y2 are the mole fractions of

components in the vapour phase. If

component 1 is less volatile ( p01 < p02), the
ptotal ranges between p01 and p02, depending
on the mole fractions in the solution.

7. Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions

Ideal Solutions:

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 The solutions which obey Raoult’s law over the entire range of concentration are
known as ideal solutions.
 ΔHmix=0, ΔVmix=0
 In an ideal solution, no heat is absorbed or released during mixing, and the total
volume is simply the sum of the individual components. At the molecular level, ideal
behaviour occurs when the A-A, B-B, and A-B intermolecular forces are nearly equal.
Perfectly ideal solutions are rare, but some come close to this behaviour.
 Examples: n-hexane + n-heptane, bromoethane + chloroethane, benzene + toluene
Non-Ideal Solutions:
 When a solution does not obey Raoult’s law over the entire range of concentration,
then it is called non-ideal solution
 The vapour pressure of such a solution is either higher or lower than that predicted by
Raoult’s law
o Positive deviation: In a positive deviation from Raoult’s law, A-B interactions
are weaker than A-A or B-B interactions. This makes it easier for molecules to
escape into the vapour phase, increasing the vapour pressure above the
expected value.
Example 1: Ethanol + acetone: In pure ethanol, molecules are hydrogen
bonded. When acetone is added, it disrupts these bonds by inserting itself
between ethanol molecules, weakening the interactions. As a result, the
solution shows a positive deviation from Raoult’s law.
Example 2: Carbon disulphide + Acetone
o Negative deviation: Negative deviation from Raoult’s law occurs when A-B
interactions are stronger than A-A and B-B, leading to lower vapour pressure.
Example 1: Chloroform + acetone: Chloroform forms hydrogen bonds with
acetone, reducing the escaping tendency of both molecules. This lowers
vapour pressure, causing a negative deviation from Raoult’s law.
Example 2: phenol + aniline
Azeotropes: Azeotropes are binary mixtures having the same composition in liquid and
vapour phase and boil at a constant temperature.
 Minimum boiling azeotrope: The solutions which show a large positive deviation
from Raoult’s law form minimum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
Example: Ethanol–water
 Maximum boiling azeotrope: The solutions that show large negative deviation from
Raoult’s law form maximum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
Example: HNO₃–water

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Solutions

Colligative Properties: Adding a non-volatile solute to a volatile solvent lowers the

solution’s vapour pressure. This leads to four related effects:
I. Relative lowering of vapour pressure
II. Depression of freezing point
III. Elevation of boiling point
IV. Osmotic pressure
These depend only on the number of solute particles, not their nature, and are called
colligative properties.

1. Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure: The vapour pressure of a solvent decreases when
a solute is added. Raoult showed that this lowering depends only on the concentration of
solute particles, not their identity.

2. Elevation in Boiling Point: The vapour pressure of a liquid rises with temperature, and it
boils when this pressure equals atmospheric pressure. Adding a non-volatile solute lowers the
solvent’s vapour pressure, so the solution must be heated to a higher temperature to boil.
Thus, the boiling point of a solution is always higher than that of the pure solvent, and this
elevation depends only on the number of solute particles, not their type.

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3. Depression in Freezing Point: Adding a non-volatile solute lowers the solvent’s vapour
pressure, so it reaches equilibrium with the solid phase at a lower temperature. As a result, the
freezing point of the solution is lower than that of the pure solvent.

4. Osmotic Pressure: Many everyday phenomena—like shriveling mangoes in brine or

wilting flowers reviving in water—are explained by osmosis, which involves solvent flow
through a semipermeable membrane (SPM). These membranes allow only solvent molecules
to pass, not solute particles.
When an SPM separates a pure solvent and a solution, the solvent flows into the solution
until equilibrium is reached. Applying pressure to stop this flow gives the osmotic pressure, a
colligative property depending only on the number of solute particles, not their nature. For
dilute solutions, osmotic pressure is directly proportional to molarity and temperature.

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Osmotic pressure is a powerful method for determining the molar masses of proteins,
polymers, and macromolecules. It's especially useful because:
 It works at room temperature.
 It uses molarity (not molality).
 It gives large values even for dilute solutions.
 It's ideal for heat-sensitive biomolecules and poorly soluble polymers.
Isotonic solutions have the same osmotic pressure; no osmosis occurs between them.
 Normal saline (0.9% NaCl) is isotonic to blood cells.
 Hypertonic solutions (more than 0.9%) cause cells to shrink as water leaves.
 Hypotonic solutions (less than 0.9%) cause cells to swell as water enters.

The everyday phenomena like mangoes shriveling in salt, flowers reviving in water, or limp
carrots firming up can all be explained by osmosis—the movement of water through a
semipermeable membrane.
 Raw mangoes in brine lose water and shrink due to osmosis.
 Wilted flowers or limp carrots absorb water and regain firmness.
 Blood cells swell in solutions with salt concentration less than 0.9% due to water
intake.
 Eating salty food can lead to edema—water retention in tissues due to osmotic
imbalance.
 Plants absorb water from soil via osmosis.
 Preserving meat with salt or fruits with sugar works because bacteria lose water by
osmosis and die.

Reverse Osmosis and Water Purification: Reverse osmosis occurs when pressure greater
than the osmotic pressure is applied on the solution side, causing the solvent to move out
through a semipermeable membrane.
 This process is widely used in desalination of sea water, where pure water is separated
from salts and impurities.
 A cellulose acetate membrane is commonly used—it allows water to pass but blocks
salts and other contaminants.
 High pressure is required for this process.
 Many countries now rely on reverse osmosis plants for clean drinking water.

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Abnormal Molar Masses & van’t Hoff Factor: When ionic compounds like KCl dissolve in
water, they dissociate into ions (e.g., K⁺ and Cl⁻), increasing the number of particles in
solution. This increases colligative properties more than expected.

To account for this, van’t Hoff introduced a factor i:

𝑖=
Normal Molar mass
Abnorml Molar mass

Observed colligative property

=
Calculated ( ideal ) colligative property

Total particles after dissociation /association

=
Initial number of particle s

If dissociation occurs (e.g., KCl → K⁺ + Cl⁻), then i > 1

If association occurs (e.g., ethanoic acid dimerising in benzene), then i < 1
This also affects molar mass determination:
 Dissociation gives a lower (abnormal) molar mass.
 Association gives a higher (abnormal) molar mass.

Example:
 For KCl, i ≈ 2 (dissociates into two ions)
 For ethanoic acid in benzene, i ≈ 0.5 (dimerises, forming half the number of particles)

These lead to abnormal molar masses, which differ from the calculated values based on
undissociated or unassociated molecules.

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