ELECTROSTATICS — Complete Study Guide | Based on Young & Freedman + Resnick Halliday Krane

ELECTROSTATICS
A Complete Study Guide
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Based on:
University Physics — Young & Freedman (13th Ed.)
Physics — Resnick, Halliday & Krane (5th Ed. Vol. 2)

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TOPICS COVERED
✦ Electric Force & Coulomb's Law
✦ Conservation & Quantization of Charge
✦ Electric Field — Point Charges, Ring, Disk
✦ Electric Dipoles in an Electric Field
✦ Electric Flux & Gauss's Law
✦ Applications of Gauss's Law
✦ Electric Potential Energy & Potential
✦ Potential due to Distributions & Dipoles
✦ Equipotential Surfaces
✦ Finding E from V (Potential Gradient)
✦ Worked Numerical Problems Throughout

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CHAPTER 1: ELECTRIC CHARGE

1.1 Introduction to Electric Force

Electromagnetism is one of the four fundamental forces of nature. It governs the structure of atoms, the bonding
of molecules, and the behaviour of materials. Every time you touch an object, feel friction, see light, or use any
electronic device, you are experiencing electromagnetic forces at work.
The story of electricity begins with a simple observation: certain materials, after being rubbed together, attract
or repel each other. The ancient Greeks noticed around 600 BC that amber (Greek: elektron) rubbed with wool
could attract light objects like straw and feathers. This property is what we now call electric charge.

Two Kinds of Electric Charge

Careful experiments — most famously by Charles Du Fay in 1733 and later systematised by Benjamin Franklin —
established that there are exactly two types of electric charge:
•​ Positive charge: The charge acquired by a glass rod rubbed with silk, or by fur after rubbing with plastic.
•​ Negative charge: The charge acquired by a plastic (or rubber) rod rubbed with fur, or by silk after rubbing
with glass.

THE FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF ELECTROSTATICS

Charges of the SAME sign REPEL each other.

Charges of OPPOSITE sign ATTRACT each other.

A net repulsion requires both objects to be charged; a net attraction can occur between a charged
object and a neutral object (via induction).

These two types of charge are not independent phenomena — they are two faces of the same coin. The total
amount of each in the universe is vast, but in normal matter they are nearly perfectly balanced, producing
neutral objects.

Atomic Basis of Charge

Modern physics explains charge in terms of atomic structure. Every atom consists of:
Particle Charge & Mass

Proton (in nucleus) Charge = +e = +1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C; Mass = 1.673 × 10⁻²⁷

kg

Neutron (in nucleus) Charge = 0; Mass = 1.675 × 10⁻²⁷ kg

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Electron (surrounds nucleus) Charge = −e = −1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C; Mass = 9.109 ×

10⁻³¹ kg

The nucleus is extremely small (~10⁻¹⁵ m), yet contains over 99.9% of the atom's mass. The electrons occupy a
diffuse cloud extending out to ~10⁻¹⁰ m. In a neutral atom, the number of protons equals the number of
electrons, so the total charge is exactly zero.
When two objects are rubbed together, electrons — being on the outside of atoms and much lighter — are
transferred from one object to the other. The object gaining electrons becomes negatively charged; the object
losing electrons becomes positively charged. Protons do not move in this process in ordinary matter.

Conductors and Insulators

Materials are classified by how freely electric charges move through them:
Type Description & Examples

Conductor Free electrons can move easily throughout the

material. Examples: copper, silver, gold, aluminium,
salt water.

Insulator (Dielectric) No free charges; electrons are tightly bound to

atoms. Examples: rubber, glass, plastic, wood, dry
air.

Semiconductor Intermediate behaviour; conductivity can be

controlled. Examples: silicon, germanium.

Superconductor Zero electrical resistance below a critical

temperature. Examples: lead, mercury below ~4 K.

In a metal conductor, each atom contributes one or more "free electrons" that wander throughout the lattice.
The number density of free electrons in copper is about 8.5 × 10²⁸ m⁻³. This sea of free electrons is what makes
metals such good conductors of electricity.

Charging by Contact and by Induction

Objects can be charged by two main methods:
1. Charging by Contact (Conduction):
A charged body is brought into direct contact with a neutral conductor. Electrons transfer until equilibrium is
reached, leaving both objects with the same sign of charge. The original charged body loses some of its charge to
the second object.

2. Charging by Induction:
A charged body is brought near (but not touching) a neutral conductor. The free electrons in the conductor
redistribute: those repelled by the approaching charge move to the far side, leaving the near side with an
induced positive charge. If the conductor is then momentarily grounded (connected to earth), electrons flow

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away, and when the ground connection is removed followed by the charged body, the conductor is left with a net
charge opposite to the inducing charge. Importantly, the inducing charge loses none of its charge.

EVERYDAY APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS

Lightning rods: A pointed conductor draws charge from thunderclouds, preventing a violent
discharge.

Laser printers & photocopiers: Use electrostatic attraction of toner particles to charged drum.

Electrostatic paint spraying: Charged paint droplets are attracted uniformly to a grounded object.

Air filters: Charged plates attract dust and smoke particles from the air.

Defibrillators: Use electrical discharge to restart a stopped heart.

1.2 Conservation of Charge

One of the most fundamental and universally verified laws of physics is the conservation of electric charge:

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF CHARGE

The total electric charge of any isolated system remains constant.

Charge cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be transferred from one body to another.

In any physical process — mechanical, chemical, nuclear, or particle — the algebraic sum of all
charges before the process equals the algebraic sum of all charges after.

This law has been tested to extraordinary precision. No violation has ever been observed. Some illustrative
examples:
•​ When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the positive charge gained by the rod is exactly equal in magnitude
to the negative charge gained by the silk. The total charge of the system (rod + silk) remains zero.
•​ In nuclear beta decay, a neutron transforms into a proton + electron + antineutrino: n → p + e⁻ + v̄. The
initial charge is 0; the final total is (+1) + (−1) + 0 = 0. ✓
•​ In pair production, a gamma ray (charge 0) creates an electron-positron pair (e⁻ + e⁺): γ → e⁻ + e⁺.
Charges: 0 → (−1 + 1) = 0. ✓
•​ In pair annihilation, e⁻ + e⁺ → 2γ. Charges: (−1 + 1) = 0 → 0 + 0 = 0. ✓

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Conservation of charge is closely related to a deep symmetry in nature — the gauge symmetry of
electromagnetism — and is just as fundamental as conservation of energy or momentum.

1.3 Quantization of Charge

Electric charge does not exist in a continuous spectrum of values. It comes in discrete packets — it is quantised:

CHARGE QUANTIZATION

General: q = n e where n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ...

Elementary charge: e = 1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C (measured to 9 significant figures)

Electron charge: qₑ = −e = −1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C

Proton charge: q = +e = +1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C

The elementary charge e is one of the fundamental constants of nature. Any observable electric charge is always
an integer multiple of e. This is what we mean by charge quantization.
The elementary charge was first measured precisely by Robert Millikan in his famous oil-drop experiment
(1909–1913). Millikan suspended tiny charged oil droplets between charged plates, balancing the electric force
against gravity, and by varying the field strength, measured the charges on individual droplets. He found they
were always multiples of a single basic unit — what we now call e.

MILLIKAN OIL-DROP EXPERIMENT

Setup: A fine mist of oil droplets is allowed to fall between two horizontal charged plates.

Droplets pick up charge from ionized air (or from X-ray irradiation).

The electric field between the plates is adjusted until a droplet is held stationary.

At equilibrium: Electric force upward = Weight downward → qE = mg

q = mg / E (m found from terminal velocity measurement)

Millikan found q was always a multiple of e = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C

Note on quarks: Protons and neutrons are composed of even more fundamental particles called quarks, which
carry fractional charges of +2e/3 and −e/3. However, free quarks have never been observed — they are
permanently confined inside hadrons. Therefore, in practice, the smallest observable free charge remains e.

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Practical note: Though charge is quantized, in everyday situations we deal with enormous numbers of charges. A
charge of 1 coulomb contains approximately 6.24 × 10¹⁸ elementary charges. For macroscopic calculations,
charge can be treated as a continuous quantity.

KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER

•​ There are two types of charge: positive and negative. Like charges repel; unlike charges
attract.

•​ Charge is conserved: the total charge of an isolated system never changes.

•​ Charge is quantized: q = ne, where e = 1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C is the smallest observable free charge.

•​ Conductors have free electrons; insulators do not. Charge transfer in normal matter involves
only electrons.

•​ Charging by induction requires no contact and leaves the inducing charge unchanged.

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CHAPTER 2: COULOMB'S LAW & ELECTRIC FORCE

2.1 Coulomb's Law

Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736–1806) used a torsion balance to measure the forces between charged
bodies. In 1785, he published his findings — a precise mathematical law describing the force between two point
charges:

COULOMB'S LAW

The magnitude of the electric force between two stationary point charges is:

(1) Directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges.

(2) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

(3) Directed along the line joining the two charges (repulsive if same sign, attractive if opposite sign).

COULOMB'S LAW — MATHEMATICAL FORM

Magnitude: F = k|q₁||q₂| / r²

In vector form: F₁₂ = k(q₁q₂/r²) r̂₁₂ r̂₁₂ points from q₁ to q₂

Using ε₀: F = (1/4πε₀) |q₁||q₂| / r²

Coulomb's constant: k = 8.9875 × 10⁹ N·m²/C² ≈ 9 × 10⁹ N·m²/C²

Permittivity of free space: ε₀ = 8.854 × 10⁻¹² C²/(N·m²) = 8.854 × 10⁻¹² F/m

Relation: k = 1/(4πε₀)

Key Features of Coulomb's Law

1. INVERSE SQUARE LAW: The force varies as 1/r². If the distance doubles, the force drops to 1/4 of its value. This
is the same dependence as gravitational force (Newton's Law of Gravitation). This has been verified to distances
as small as 10⁻¹⁵ m and as large as interplanetary distances.

2. SIGN CONVENTION & DIRECTION: In the vector form F₁₂ = k(q₁q₂/r²)r̂₁₂, the product q₁q₂ determines the
direction automatically:
•​ If q₁q₂ > 0 (same signs): F points along +r̂₁₂ = away from q₁, i.e., REPULSIVE.
•​ If q₁q₂ < 0 (opposite signs): F points along −r̂ ₁₂ = toward q₁, i.e., ATTRACTIVE.

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3. NEWTON'S THIRD LAW: The force that q₁ exerts on q₂ is equal and opposite to the force q₂ exerts on q₁: F₁₂ =
−F₂₁.

4. MEDIUM DEPENDENCE: Coulomb's law as stated applies to charges in vacuum. If a medium with dielectric
constant κ (or relative permittivity εᵣ) fills the space between charges, the force is reduced by κ: F = kq₁q₂ / (κr²).
For air, κ ≈ 1.0006 ≈ 1, so we use vacuum formula for air.

5. POINT CHARGES: The law applies exactly to point charges and to uniformly charged spheres (treated as if their
charge is concentrated at the centre). For extended charge distributions, we must integrate.

Comparing Coulomb Force with Gravity

The Coulomb force and the gravitational force share the same inverse-square dependence on distance, but they
differ enormously in strength and character:
Property Electric (Coulomb) vs Gravitational

Force law F_E = k|q₁q₂|/r² vs F_G = G m₁m₂/r²

Constant k = 8.99 × 10⁹ N·m²/C² vs G = 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹

N·m²/kg²

Type Attractive OR repulsive vs Always attractive

Carrier Photon (virtual) vs Graviton (theoretical)

Relative strength (proton-electron) F_E/F_G = kq²/(Gm_p m_e) ≈ 2.3 × 10³⁹

The electric force between a proton and an electron is about 2.3 × 10³⁹ times stronger than the gravitational
force between them! Gravity is utterly negligible at the atomic scale. Yet gravity dominates on cosmological
scales because matter is electrically neutral overall, while there is no negative mass to cancel gravity.

2.2 Superposition Principle

When more than two charges are present, the total electric force on any one charge is the vector sum of the
forces exerted on it by each of the other charges individually. This is the superposition principle:

SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

If charges q₁, q₂, q₃, ... are present, the total force on a test charge q₀ is:

F_total = F₁ + F₂ + F₃ + ... (vector sum)

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Each individual force F_i is calculated using Coulomb's law as if only q_i and q₀ were present.

This principle is not obvious — it is an experimental fact that the force between two charges is unaffected by the
presence of other charges nearby. The principle allows us to calculate the force due to any charge distribution by
integration.

SUPERPOSITION — GENERAL FORMULA

Discrete charges: F = Σᵢ (kq₀qᵢ / rᵢ²) r̂ᵢ vector sum over all charges

x-component: Fₓ = Σᵢ Fᵢ cos θᵢ θᵢ is angle with x-axis

y-component: F_y = Σᵢ Fᵢ sin θᵢ

Magnitude: F = √(Fₓ² + F_y²)

Direction: θ = tan⁻¹(F_y / Fₓ)

2.3 Worked Examples — Coulomb's Law

EXAMPLE 2.1: Force between Two Point Charges

Given: Two charges q₁ = +3.0 μC and q₂ = −5.0 μC are separated by r = 0.20 m.

Find: The magnitude and direction of the force on each charge.

SOLUTION:

Using Coulomb's law:

F = k|q₁||q₂| / r²

= (9 × 10⁹) × (3.0 × 10⁻⁶) × (5.0 × 10⁻⁶) / (0.20)²

= (9 × 10⁹) × (15 × 10⁻¹²) / (0.04)

= 135 × 10⁻³ / 0.04 = 3.375 N ≈ 3.4 N

Direction: Since q₁ is positive and q₂ is negative (opposite signs), the forces are ATTRACTIVE.

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→ q₁ is pulled TOWARD q₂; q₂ is pulled TOWARD q₁.

EVALUATE: By Newton's Third Law, both forces have the same magnitude (3.4 N) but opposite directions.

EXAMPLE 2.2: Three Charges — Superposition (Vector Sum)

Given: Three charges in a line: q₁ = +4.0 μC at x = 0, q₂ = −2.0 μC at x = 0.30 m,

q₃ = +1.0 μC at x = 0.60 m. Find the net force on q₂.

SOLUTION:

Force on q₂ due to q₁ (r₁₂ = 0.30 m):

F₁₂ = k|q₁||q₂|/r₁₂² = (9×10⁹)(4×10⁻⁶)(2×10⁻⁶)/(0.09) = 0.80 N

Direction: q₁(+) attracts q₂(−), so F₁₂ points in the −x direction (toward q₁).

F₁₂ = −0.80 N x̂

Force on q₂ due to q₃ (r₂₃ = 0.30 m):

F₃₂ = k|q₂||q₃|/r₂₃² = (9×10⁹)(2×10⁻⁶)(1×10⁻⁶)/(0.09) = 0.20 N

Direction: q₃(+) attracts q₂(−), so F₃₂ points in the +x direction (toward q₃).

F₃₂ = +0.20 N x̂

Net force on q₂: F_net = F₁₂ + F₃₂ = −0.80 + 0.20 = −0.60 N x̂

∴ F_net = 0.60 N in the −x direction (toward q₁).

EXAMPLE 2.3: Charge at Equilateral Triangle Corner

Given: Three equal charges q = +2.0 μC are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle

with side a = 0.50 m. Find the net force on one of the charges.

SOLUTION (by symmetry, consider charge q₃ at the top):

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Force from q₁ on q₃ (distance a = 0.50 m, angle 60° from horizontal):

F = k q²/a² = (9×10⁹)(2×10⁻⁶)²/(0.50)² = (9×10⁹)(4×10⁻¹²)/0.25 = 0.144 N

F₁ points along the line from q₁ to q₃: at 60° above horizontal.

F₁ₓ = 0.144 cos 60° = 0.072 N, F₁_y = 0.144 sin 60° = 0.125 N

Force from q₂ on q₃ (same magnitude, angle 120° from horizontal):

F₂ₓ = 0.144 cos 120° = −0.072 N, F₂_y = 0.144 sin 120° = 0.125 N

Net: Fₓ = 0.072 − 0.072 = 0 (x-components cancel by symmetry)

F_y = 0.125 + 0.125 = 0.250 N (upward)

RESULT: F_net = 0.250 N directed vertically away from the base of the triangle.

KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER

•​ Coulomb's Law: F = k|q₁||q₂|/r² where k = 9×10⁹ N·m²/C² and ε₀ = 8.85×10⁻¹² C²/(N·m²).

•​ The force is along the line connecting the charges: repulsive for like charges, attractive for
unlike charges.

•​ Superposition: Total force = vector sum of all individual Coulomb forces.

•​ Always convert charges to coulombs (C) and distances to metres (m) before substituting.

•​ Always draw a diagram, identify directions, set up a coordinate system, then resolve into
components.

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CHAPTER 3: THE ELECTRIC FIELD

3.1 The Concept of the Electric Field

Coulomb's law describes the force between two charges in direct contact with the scenario. But how does one
charge "know" the other is there across empty space? The concept of the electric field provides a profound
answer.
Rather than thinking of direct action-at-a-distance, we think of it as a two-stage process:
1.​ A charge q sets up an electric field E throughout the surrounding space — at every point, even where no
other charge exists.
2.​ When a second charge q₀ is placed at some point P, it experiences a force due to the electric field that
exists at P.

The electric field is a real physical entity — it carries energy and momentum, and can travel through empty space
as electromagnetic waves. It is not merely a mathematical convenience.

DEFINITION OF ELECTRIC FIELD

Definition: E = F₀ / q₀ E is force per unit positive charge

Force on charge: F₀ = q₀ E q₀ can be + or −

SI Unit: [E] = N/C = V/m (volts per metre)

Direction: E points in direction of force on POSITIVE test charge

Important notes on the definition:

•​ The test charge q₀ must be small enough that it does not disturb the charge distribution producing the
field E.
•​ E is a vector field — it has both magnitude and direction at each point in space.
•​ If q₀ is positive, F₀ and E are in the same direction. If q₀ is negative, F₀ and E are in opposite directions.
•​ The field E exists at a point regardless of whether any charge is placed there to detect it.

3.2 Electric Field of a Point Charge

Using Coulomb's law and the definition of E, we can find the field created by a single point charge q at a distance
r:

ELECTRIC FIELD OF A POINT CHARGE

Magnitude: E = k|q| / r² = |q| / (4πε₀ r²)

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Vector form: E = (kq/r²) r̂ r̂ points from source charge to field point

Direction: Away from q if q > 0; Toward q if q < 0

The field of a positive charge points outward (radially away) in all directions. The field of a negative charge points
inward (radially toward) from all directions. The magnitude decreases as 1/r² — an inverse-square law.

For a system of point charges, we apply superposition: the total field at any point is the vector sum of the fields
due to each individual charge:

SUPERPOSITION FOR ELECTRIC FIELD

Total field: E = E₁ + E₂ + E₃ + ... = Σᵢ Eᵢ vector sum

Field of charge qᵢ: Eᵢ = (kqᵢ/rᵢ²) r̂ᵢ rᵢ = distance from qᵢ to field point

3.3 Electric Field Lines

Michael Faraday introduced the concept of electric field lines as a visual representation of the electric field.
Though they have no physical reality, they are an extremely powerful tool for understanding field geometry.

Rules for Drawing Electric Field Lines

3.​ Field lines start on positive charges and end on negative charges (or go to infinity if no negative charge is
present).
4.​ The tangent to a field line at any point gives the direction of E at that point.
5.​ The density of field lines (number per unit area perpendicular to the lines) is proportional to the
magnitude of E. More lines = stronger field.
6.​ Field lines never cross each other (the field has a unique direction at each point).
7.​ Field lines are always perpendicular to the surface of a conductor in equilibrium.

FIELD LINE PATTERNS FOR COMMON CONFIGURATIONS

Single +q: Lines radiate outward symmetrically in all directions.

Single −q: Lines converge inward symmetrically from all directions.

+q and −q (dipole): Lines leave +q and terminate on −q, forming closed loops.

+q and +q: Lines curve away; midpoint between charges has zero field.

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Uniform field (parallel plates): Straight, equally-spaced, parallel lines.

3.4 Electric Field of Continuous Charge Distributions

For a continuous charge distribution — a charged rod, ring, disk, or sheet — we cannot sum over individual
charges directly. Instead, we divide the distribution into infinitesimal charge elements dq, find the field dE due to
each element, and integrate:

ELECTRIC FIELD FROM CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION

Fundamental: dE = k dq / r² (r̂ from dq to field point)

Total field: E = ∫ dE = ∫ k dq / r² (r̂) vector integral

Linear charge density: λ = dq/dl [C/m] for a line/rod

Surface charge density: σ = dq/dA [C/m²] for a surface

Volume charge density: ρ = dq/dV [C/m³] for a volume

Strategy for Integration

8.​ Choose a coordinate system exploiting the symmetry of the charge distribution.
9.​ Identify what dq equals in terms of the charge density and the geometric element (dl, dA, dV).
10.​Write the distance r from dq to the field point in terms of your coordinate.
11.​Resolve dE into components. Use symmetry to eliminate components that cancel.
12.​Integrate over the entire charge distribution.

3.5 Ring of Charge

Consider a thin ring of radius a carrying total charge Q uniformly distributed around it. We want the electric field
at a point P on the axis of the ring, a distance x from the centre.

Derivation
Take a small element dq at position on the ring. Its distance to point P is r = √(x² + a²). The field dE due to dq has
magnitude:
dE = k dq / (x² + a²)
By symmetry: Consider two diametrically opposite elements. Their components perpendicular to the axis cancel.
Only the x-component (along the axis) survives:
dEₓ = dE · cos θ = dE · x/r = k dq · x / (x² + a²)^(3/2)

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Integrating over the entire ring (∫dq = Q):

ELECTRIC FIELD — RING OF CHARGE (On Axis)

E at axial point P: E = kQx / (x² + a²)^(3/2) directed along axis

Direction: Away from ring if Q > 0; toward ring if Q < 0

At centre (x = 0): E = 0 all components cancel by symmetry

Far field (x >> a): E ≈ kQ/x² behaves like a point charge

Maximum E: at x = a/√2 found by dE/dx = 0

EXAMPLE 3.1: Field on Axis of a Charged Ring

Given: A ring of radius a = 5.0 cm carries charge Q = 10 μC. Find E at x = 12 cm from the centre.

SOLUTION:

x = 0.12 m, a = 0.05 m

x² + a² = (0.12)² + (0.05)² = 0.0144 + 0.0025 = 0.0169 m²

(x² + a²)^(3/2) = (0.0169)^(3/2) = (0.0169)^1 × (0.0169)^(1/2)

= 0.0169 × 0.130 = 2.197 × 10⁻³ m³

E = kQx / (x² + a²)^(3/2)

= (9×10⁹)(10×10⁻⁶)(0.12) / (2.197×10⁻³)

= (9×10⁹ × 1.2×10⁻⁶) / (2.197×10⁻³)

= 10800 / 2.197×10⁻³ ≈ 4.915 × 10⁶ ≈ 4.9 × 10⁶ N/C

Direction: Along the axis away from the ring (since Q > 0).

3.6 Disk of Charge

Consider a flat disk of radius R carrying surface charge density σ (C/m²). We want the electric field at point P on
the axis, distance x from the centre.

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Derivation
We build the disk from concentric rings. A ring of radius r and width dr has area dA = 2πr dr and charge dq = σ ·
2πr dr. Using our ring result:
dE = k(dq)x / (x² + r²)^(3/2) = kσ(2πr dr)x / (x² + r²)^(3/2)
Integrating from r = 0 to r = R:
E = kσ(2πx) ∫₀ᴿ r dr / (x² + r²)^(3/2)
Let u = x² + r², du = 2r dr:
∫ r dr / (x²+r²)^(3/2) = ½ ∫ u^(-3/2) du = −u^(-1/2) = −1/√(x²+r²)
Evaluating from 0 to R:

ELECTRIC FIELD — DISK OF CHARGE (On Axis)

General formula: E = (σ/2ε₀)[1 − x/√(x² + R²)] along axis

Infinite plane (R → ∞): E = σ/(2ε₀) uniform, independent of x

Near the disk (x << R): E ≈ σ/(2ε₀) approaches infinite plane result

Far from disk (x >> R): E ≈ kQ/x² Q = σπR², behaves like point charge

The formula E = σ/(2ε₀) for an infinite plane is one of the most important results in electrostatics. It shows that
the field of an infinite plane of charge is uniform — it does not depend on the distance from the plane. This is
widely used in capacitor theory.

EXAMPLE 3.2: Field on Axis of a Charged Disk

Given: A disk of radius R = 0.20 m has σ = 5.0 μC/m². Find E at x = 0.10 m from centre.

SOLUTION:

x = 0.10 m, R = 0.20 m

√(x² + R²) = √(0.01 + 0.04) = √0.05 = 0.2236 m

σ/(2ε₀) = (5.0×10⁻⁶) / (2 × 8.854×10⁻¹²) = 5.0×10⁻⁶ / 1.771×10⁻¹¹ = 2.824×10⁵ N/C

E = (σ/2ε₀)[1 − x/√(x²+R²)]

= 2.824×10⁵ × [1 − 0.10/0.2236]

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= 2.824×10⁵ × [1 − 0.4472]

= 2.824×10⁵ × 0.5528

= 1.56 × 10⁵ N/C ≈ 1.6 × 10⁵ N/C

3.7 A Point Charge in an Electric Field

When a point charge q₀ is placed in an electric field E (produced by some external source), the charge
experiences a force:

FORCE ON A CHARGE IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD

Force: F = q₀ E vector equation

Magnitude: F = |q₀| E

Direction: Along E if q₀ > 0; Opposite E if q₀ < 0

Acceleration: a = F/m = q₀E/m Newton's 2nd law

Applications — Motion of Charged Particles:

In a uniform electric field (like between parallel plates), a charged particle experiences a constant force and
undergoes uniformly accelerated motion (analogous to projectile motion in gravity):
•​ Component along E: uniform acceleration a = qE/m
•​ Component perpendicular to E: no force, constant velocity
•​ Trajectory: parabolic (if initial velocity is perpendicular to E)

EXAMPLE 3.3: Electron in a Uniform Electric Field

Given: An electron enters a uniform field E = 2000 N/C (downward) with horizontal velocity

v₀ = 3.0 × 10⁷ m/s. Find: (a) acceleration, (b) vertical displacement after L = 0.05 m.

SOLUTION:

(a) Acceleration:

F = qE = (1.6×10⁻¹⁹)(2000) = 3.2×10⁻¹⁶ N (upward, since electron is negative)

a = F/m = 3.2×10⁻¹⁶ / 9.11×10⁻³¹ = 3.51×10¹⁴ m/s² (upward)

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(b) Time to traverse field: t = L/v₀ = 0.05/(3×10⁷) = 1.67×10⁻⁹ s

Vertical displacement: y = ½at² = ½(3.51×10¹⁴)(1.67×10⁻⁹)²

= ½(3.51×10¹⁴)(2.79×10⁻¹⁸)

= 4.89×10⁻⁴ m ≈ 0.49 mm

KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER

•​ E = F₀/q₀: Electric field is force per unit positive charge. Units: N/C or V/m.

•​ Point charge field: E = k|q|/r², directed away from (+) charge, toward (−) charge.

•​ Ring of charge (axis): E = kQx/(x²+a²)^(3/2) — zero at centre, maximum at x = a/√2.

•​ Disk of charge (axis): E = (σ/2ε₀)[1 − x/√(x²+R²)] — reduces to σ/2ε₀ for infinite plane.

•​ A charge in a field: F = qE; if q > 0, force is along E; if q < 0, force is opposite to E.

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CHAPTER 4: ELECTRIC DIPOLE

4.1 What is an Electric Dipole?

An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite point charges +q and −q separated by a small distance d.
Despite being electrically neutral overall, a dipole produces a distinctive electric field and experiences forces and
torques in external fields.
Dipoles are everywhere in nature:
•​ Water molecule (H₂O): The oxygen end is partially negative, the hydrogen end partially positive — a
permanent electric dipole with dipole moment p ≈ 6.17 × 10⁻³⁰ C·m.
•​ CO₂ molecule: Linear and symmetric — zero dipole moment.
•​ HCl molecule: Asymmetric — significant dipole moment.
•​ Antenna: Oscillating charge separation creates radiating dipole.

ELECTRIC DIPOLE MOMENT

Magnitude: p = qd q = charge magnitude, d = separation

Vector: p = qd (vector from −q to +q) SI unit: C·m

Direction: Points from negative to positive charge

4.2 Electric Field of a Dipole

Field on the Axis (End-on position)

At a point P on the dipole axis, at distance r from the centre (r >> d):
E_axis = (1/4πε₀) · 2p/r³ (directed along p)

Field on the Perpendicular Bisector (Broadside-on position)

At a point P on the perpendicular bisector, at distance r from the centre (r >> d):
E_perp = (1/4πε₀) · p/r³ (directed antiparallel to p)

DIPOLE FIELD (Far-field approximation, r >> d)

On axis: E = 2kp / r³ parallel to p (along axis)

On bisector: E = kp / r³ antiparallel to p (opposing direction)

General angle θ: E = (kp/r³)√(1 + 3cos²θ) θ from dipole axis

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Note: E ∝ 1/r³ for dipole (vs 1/r² for point charge)

The key insight: Dipole fields fall off faster (as 1/r³) than point charge fields (1/r²). At large distances, the + and −
charges partially cancel, reducing the net field. This is why molecular dipole interactions are shorter-ranged than
monopole interactions.

4.3 Dipole in an External Electric Field

Torque on a Dipole
When an electric dipole with moment p is placed in a uniform external electric field E, the +q and −q charges
experience equal and opposite forces F = qE. These forces form a couple (torque) that tends to rotate the dipole.

Let θ be the angle between p and E. The torques from both forces have the same sense (both tend to rotate p
toward E), so:

TORQUE ON A DIPOLE

Magnitude: τ = pE sin θ θ = angle between p and E

Vector form: τ = p × E cross product

Maximum torque: τ_max = pE when θ = 90° (p ⊥ E)

Zero torque: τ = 0 when θ = 0° (p ∥ E, stable) or θ = 180° (unstable)

Physical interpretation: The torque tends to align the dipole with the field, rotating p toward the direction of E.
This is why polar molecules in a liquid or gas tend to align with an applied electric field — the basis of dielectric
behaviour.

Potential Energy of a Dipole in a Field

As the dipole rotates from angle θ₀ to θ in the field, the field does work on it. This can be described by a
potential energy U:

POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A DIPOLE

General: U = −pE cos θ = −p · E

Minimum U (stable): U = −pE when θ = 0° (p aligned with E)

Maximum U (unstable): U = +pE when θ = 180° (p antiparallel to E)

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Work by field: W = Uᵢ − U_f = pE(cos θ_f − cos θᵢ)

The equilibrium position θ = 0 (dipole aligned with field) is stable: if displaced slightly, the torque tends to restore
it. The position θ = 180° is unstable: a tiny displacement causes the dipole to flip all the way to θ = 0.

Force on a Dipole in a Non-uniform Field

In a uniform field, the +q and −q forces cancel — no net force, only torque. However, in a non-uniform field, the
forces are slightly different in magnitude, producing a net force:
F_net = p · (∂E/∂x) in one dimension, or more generally F = ∇(p · E)
This is why a neutral but polarisable molecule (induced dipole) is always attracted toward a region of stronger
field. This is the mechanism behind dielectrophoresis — used in lab-on-chip devices to manipulate cells and
molecules.

EXAMPLE 4.1: Dipole in Uniform Electric Field — Torque and Energy

Given: A water molecule has p = 6.17×10⁻³⁰ C·m. It is placed in E = 1.5×10⁵ N/C at θ = 30°.

Find: (a) Torque on the molecule, (b) energy to rotate it to θ = 90°.

SOLUTION:

(a) τ = pE sin θ = (6.17×10⁻³⁰)(1.5×10⁵)(sin 30°)

= (6.17×10⁻³⁰)(1.5×10⁵)(0.5)

= 4.63×10⁻²⁵ N·m

(b) U(θ) = −pE cos θ

U(30°) = −(6.17×10⁻³⁰)(1.5×10⁵)(cos 30°) = −8.02×10⁻²⁵ J

U(90°) = −(6.17×10⁻³⁰)(1.5×10⁵)(cos 90°) = 0 J

ΔU = U(90°) − U(30°) = 0 − (−8.02×10⁻²⁵) = +8.02×10⁻²⁵ J

(Positive: we must do work on the dipole to rotate it to θ = 90°.)

KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER

•​ Dipole moment: p = qd, pointing from −q to +q. Units: C·m.

•​ Dipole field falls as 1/r³ — faster than a point charge (1/r²).

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•​ Torque: τ = p × E (or τ = pE sin θ). Tends to align p with E.

•​ Potential energy: U = −p·E = −pE cos θ. Minimum (stable) when p is parallel to E.

•​ In a non-uniform field, a dipole experiences a net translational force ∝ ∇E.

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CHAPTER 5: ELECTRIC FLUX & GAUSS'S LAW

5.1 The Flux of a Vector Field

Before stating Gauss's Law, we need to understand the concept of flux — a measure of how much of a vector
field passes through a surface.
Think of water flowing through a pipe. The volume flow rate (m³/s) through a cross-section depends on:
•​ The speed of the water (the field strength)
•​ The area of the cross-section
•​ The angle between the flow velocity and the surface normal

FLUX OF A VECTOR FIELD

Flat surface, uniform field: Φ = E · A = EA cos θ θ = angle between E and surface normal n̂

Vector form: Φ = E · A (where A = An̂)

General (curved surface): Φ = ∫∫ E · dA surface integral

Closed surface: Φ = ∮ E · dA dot product with outward normal

SI unit: [Φ] = N·m²/C = V·m

Key insights about flux:

•​ θ = 0°: Field is perpendicular to surface → Φ = EA (maximum flux for given E and A).
•​ θ = 90°: Field is parallel to surface → Φ = 0 (field "flows along" the surface, not through it).
•​ θ > 90°: Field enters through the surface → Φ is negative.
•​ For a closed surface: outward flux is positive, inward flux is negative.

5.2 Gauss's Law

Gauss's Law — formulated by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1835 — is one of the four fundamental equations of
electromagnetism (Maxwell's equations). It relates the total electric flux through any closed surface to the
charge enclosed within that surface:

GAUSS'S LAW

The total electric flux through any closed surface equals the net charge enclosed

divided by the permittivity of free space ε₀.

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Mathematical form:

∮ E · dA = Q_enc / ε₀

where Q_enc is the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface,

and ε₀ = 8.854 × 10⁻¹² C²/(N·m²).

GAUSS'S LAW

Gauss's Law: ∮ E · dA = Q_enc / ε₀

Equivalent: ∮ E · dA = Q_enc / ε₀ = 4πk Q_enc

If E ∥ to dA on whole surface: E · A_total = Q_enc / ε₀ (special symmetric cases)

Units check: (N/C)(m²) = N·m²/C = C/C²/(N·m²) · N·m² = 1 ✓

What Does Gauss's Law Tell Us?

13.​A positive enclosed charge → net outward flux (field lines exit the surface).
14.​A negative enclosed charge → net inward flux (field lines enter the surface).
15.​Zero enclosed charge → zero net flux (field lines that enter also exit).
16.​Charges outside the surface do not contribute to the net flux.
17.​The result is independent of the shape or size of the Gaussian surface.

Gauss's Law vs Coulomb's Law

Gauss's Law and Coulomb's Law are not two separate laws — they are equivalent (for static charges in free
space). Coulomb's law can be derived from Gauss's Law and vice versa. However, Gauss's Law is more general:
•​ Gauss's Law applies even to moving charges (in the full electrodynamic context).
•​ Gauss's Law is one of Maxwell's four equations — a cornerstone of all of electromagnetism.
•​ Gauss's Law is much easier to use for calculating fields when high symmetry exists.

5.3 Choosing a Gaussian Surface

The power of Gauss's Law is in choosing the right Gaussian surface — an imaginary closed surface designed so
that the calculation of ∮ E · dA is easy. The key strategy:

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GAUSSIAN SURFACE STRATEGY

1. Identify the SYMMETRY of the charge distribution (spherical, cylindrical, planar).

2. Choose a Gaussian surface that matches the symmetry, so that E is either:

(a) Constant in magnitude AND perpendicular to the surface (∮ E·dA = E × A_total), OR

(b) Parallel to the surface (∮ E·dA = 0 on that portion).

3. Apply Gauss's Law: E × A_surface = Q_enc / ε₀ → solve for E.

4. The Gaussian surface is purely imaginary — it has no physical effect on the field.

5.4 Applications of Gauss's Law

Application 1: Spherically Symmetric Charge Distribution

This covers: a point charge, a uniformly charged solid sphere, a uniformly charged spherical shell.

Case (a): Field outside any spherically symmetric charge distribution (r > R):
Gaussian surface: sphere of radius r centred on the charge. By symmetry, E is radial and constant on this sphere:
∮ E · dA = E(4πr²) = Q_enc / ε₀ = Q/ε₀
⟹ E = Q/(4πε₀r²) = kQ/r²
This is exactly Coulomb's law — the sphere behaves as if all its charge were at the centre.

Case (b): Field inside a solid uniformly charged sphere (r < R):
The enclosed charge Q_enc = Q(r³/R³) = ρ(4πr³/3) (volume fraction):
E(4πr²) = (ρ × 4πr³/3) / ε₀
⟹ E = ρr/(3ε₀) = Qr/(4πε₀R³) ∝ r
The field inside a uniformly charged solid sphere increases linearly with r.

Case (c): Field inside a spherical shell:

For r < R: The enclosed charge = 0, so ∮ E·dA = 0. By symmetry, E = 0 everywhere inside.
A spherical shell of charge produces ZERO field inside it — a remarkable result!

SPHERICALLY SYMMETRIC DISTRIBUTION

Outside (r > R): E = kQ/r² same as point charge

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Inside solid sphere (r < R): E = kQr/R³ = ρr/(3ε₀) proportional to r

Inside spherical shell: E = 0 zero field inside shell

Application 2: Long Straight Line Charge (Cylindrical Symmetry)

A long straight wire (or cylinder) carries uniform linear charge density λ (C/m). By cylindrical symmetry, E points
radially outward and depends only on the perpendicular distance r from the axis.
Gaussian surface: coaxial cylinder of radius r and length L:
∮ E·dA = E(2πrL) = Q_enc/ε₀ = λL/ε₀
⟹ E = λ/(2πε₀r) = 2kλ/r

LONG LINE CHARGE (Cylindrical Symmetry)

Electric field: E = λ/(2πε₀r) = 2kλ/r perpendicular to wire

Direction: Radially outward if λ > 0; inward if λ < 0

Dependence: E ∝ 1/r (not 1/r²) falls off slower than point charge

Application 3: Infinite Plane Sheet of Charge (Planar Symmetry)

An infinite flat sheet carries surface charge density σ (C/m²). By symmetry, E points perpendicular to the sheet
and has the same magnitude on both sides.
Gaussian surface: a "pillbox" cylinder straddling the sheet, with faces of area A parallel to the sheet:
∮ E·dA = E·A + E·A = 2EA = σA/ε₀
⟹ E = σ/(2ε₀)

INFINITE PLANE SHEET

Electric field: E = σ/(2ε₀) on each side, perpendicular to sheet

Direction: Away from sheet if σ > 0; toward sheet if σ < 0

Between parallel plates: E = σ/ε₀ fields from each plate add up

Outside parallel plates: E = 0 fields cancel (ideal plates)

Application 4: Charged Isolated Conductor

For a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium, a crucial result follows directly from Gauss's Law:

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PROPERTIES OF A CHARGED CONDUCTOR IN ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM

(1) E = 0 everywhere INSIDE the conducting material.

Proof: If E ≠ 0 inside, free electrons would move — contradicting equilibrium.

(2) Any net charge resides ENTIRELY ON THE SURFACE of the conductor.

Proof: Draw a Gaussian surface just inside the conductor. E = 0 there → Q_enc = 0 → no interior
charge.

(3) The electric field just OUTSIDE the surface is: E = σ/ε₀ (perpendicular to surface).

Proof: Pillbox Gaussian surface at the surface; only one face is outside (E = 0 inside).

(4) Charge accumulates preferentially on sharp points/edges (high curvature regions).

Sharp points have high σ → high E → corona discharge (basis of lightning rods).

The result E = 0 inside a conductor has remarkable consequences — it is the basis of electrostatic shielding
(Faraday cage). A hollow conductor completely shields its interior from external electric fields.

EXAMPLE 5.1: Field of a Uniformly Charged Sphere

Given: A solid sphere of radius R = 0.10 m carries total charge Q = 8.0 μC uniformly distributed.

Find: E at (a) r = 0.15 m (outside), (b) r = 0.05 m (inside).

SOLUTION:

(a) r = 0.15 m > R (outside):

E = kQ/r² = (9×10⁹)(8×10⁻⁶)/(0.15)²

= 72000/0.0225 = 3.2 × 10⁶ N/C

(b) r = 0.05 m < R (inside solid sphere):

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E = kQr/R³ = (9×10⁹)(8×10⁻⁶)(0.05)/(0.10)³

= (9×10⁹)(8×10⁻⁶)(0.05)/0.001

= 3600/0.001 = 3.6 × 10⁶ × ... let me recompute:

E = kQr/R³ = (8.99×10⁹)(8×10⁻⁶)(0.05)/(0.001) = 3596 N/C ...

Numerator: 8.99×10⁹ × 8×10⁻⁶ × 0.05 = 8.99×10⁹ × 4×10⁻⁷ = 3596

Denominator: R³ = (0.1)³ = 0.001

E = 3596/0.001 = 3.596 × 10⁶ N/C ≈ 3.6 × 10⁶ N/C

(Note: E is larger inside, since r = R/2 → E_inside = (r/R) × E_surface)

EXAMPLE 5.2: Long Charged Wire

Given: A long straight wire has linear charge density λ = 2.5 μC/m.

Find: E at perpendicular distance r = 0.04 m from the wire.

SOLUTION:

E = λ/(2πε₀r) = (2.5×10⁻⁶) / (2π × 8.854×10⁻¹² × 0.04)

= 2.5×10⁻⁶ / (2.227×10⁻¹²)

= 1.122 × 10⁶ N/C ≈ 1.1 × 10⁶ N/C

Alternatively: E = 2kλ/r = 2(9×10⁹)(2.5×10⁻⁶)/0.04

= 45000/0.04 = 1.125 × 10⁶ N/C ✓

Direction: Radially outward (away from wire), perpendicular to it.

KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER

•​ Electric flux: Φ = ∮ E · dA — measures how much E "passes through" a surface.

•​ Gauss's Law: ∮ E · dA = Q_enc / ε₀ — one of Maxwell's four equations.

•​ Symmetric distributions: Choose a Gaussian surface where E is uniform and perpendicular to

each part.

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•​ Key results: (a) Sphere: E = kQ/r² outside; E = kQr/R³ inside. (b) Wire: E = 2kλ/r. (c) Plane: E =
σ/2ε₀.

•​ Inside a conductor: E = 0. All charge is on the surface. E just outside = σ/ε₀ (perpendicular).

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CHAPTER 6: ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

6.1 Work Done by Electric Force

The electric force is a conservative force — like gravity, it can be described by a potential energy function. When
the electric force does work on a charge, the potential energy of the system changes:

WORK AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

Work by electric force: W_a→b = Uₐ − U_b = −ΔU

Conservation of energy: K_a + Uₐ = K_b + U_b (if only electric force acts)

Change in KE: ΔK = W = −ΔU KE increases as PE decreases

6.2 Electric Potential Energy of Two Point Charges

The work done by the electric force in moving test charge q₀ from point a to point b in the field of charge q:
W = kqq₀/rₐ − kqq₀/r_b
This is path-independent (the electric force is conservative). The potential energy is:

POTENTIAL ENERGY — TWO POINT CHARGES

Potential energy: U = kqq₀/r = qq₀/(4πε₀r) (taking U → 0 as r → ∞)

If qq₀ > 0 (like charges): U > 0 repulsion, positive PE

If qq₀ < 0 (unlike charges): U < 0 attraction, negative PE

Multiple charges: U_total = Σ kqᵢqⱼ/rᵢ (all pairs)

The negative potential energy for opposite charges means the system is bound — you must do positive work to
separate them. The positive potential energy for like charges means they repel — they will fly apart if released,
converting PE to KE.

EXAMPLE 6.1: Potential Energy of Three Charges

Given: q₁ = +2.0 μC at origin, q₂ = −3.0 μC at (0.10, 0) m, q₃ = +1.0 μC at (0, 0.10) m.

Find the total electric potential energy of the system.

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SOLUTION: Sum over all pairs (i,j):

r₁₂ = 0.10 m; U₁₂ = k(q₁q₂)/r₁₂ = (9×10⁹)(2×10⁻⁶)(−3×10⁻⁶)/(0.10)

= (9×10⁹)(−6×10⁻¹²)/0.10 = −0.54 J

r₁₃ = 0.10 m; U₁₃ = k(q₁q₃)/r₁₃ = (9×10⁹)(2×10⁻⁶)(1×10⁻⁶)/(0.10)

= (9×10⁹)(2×10⁻¹²)/0.10 = +0.18 J

r₂₃ = √(0.01+0.01) = 0.1414 m

U₂₃ = k(q₂q₃)/r₂₃ = (9×10⁹)(−3×10⁻⁶)(1×10⁻⁶)/(0.1414)

= (9×10⁹)(−3×10⁻¹²)/0.1414 = −0.191 J

U_total = −0.54 + 0.18 − 0.191 = −0.551 J ≈ −0.55 J

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CHAPTER 7: ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

7.1 Definition of Electric Potential

Just as we defined electric field E as force per unit charge, we define electric potential V as potential energy per
unit charge:

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

Definition: V = U/q₀ potential energy per unit charge

Potential difference: Vₐ − V_b = W_a→b / q₀ = −ΔU/q₀

Line integral: Vₐ − V_b = ∫_b^a E · dl path integral from b to a

SI Unit: [V] = J/C = Volt (V) 1 V = 1 J/C

Electron-volt: 1 eV = 1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ J energy gained by e⁻ through 1 V

KEY INSIGHT: Potential V is a scalar — much easier to work with than the vector field E. We can add potentials
from multiple charges algebraically, then find E by differentiation.
The potential at a point is the work per unit positive charge needed to bring a test charge from infinity (reference
point) to that point. It represents the "electrical pressure" or "electrical altitude" at a point.

7.2 Calculating Potential from the Field

The potential difference between two points a and b is found by integrating E along any path from b to a:

POTENTIAL FROM ELECTRIC FIELD

General: Vₐ − V_b = ∫_b^a E · dl independent of path chosen

Uniform E field: Vₐ − V_b = E · d d = displacement from b to a

Radial (point charge): V(r) = kq/r taking V = 0 at r = ∞

7.3 Potential Due to a Point Charge

For a single point charge q, the potential at distance r from the charge is:

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POTENTIAL — POINT CHARGE

Potential: V = kq/r = q/(4πε₀r) reference V = 0 at r = ∞

Positive charge: V > 0, decreasing with r

Negative charge: V < 0, increasing (less negative) with r

Multiple charges: V_total = Σᵢ kqᵢ/rᵢ scalar sum — easy!

Note the power of scalars: To find the total potential from N charges at a point, we just add N numbers (with
signs). To find the total electric field from N charges at a point, we would need to add N vectors with
components. Potential is far easier to calculate.

7.4 Potential Due to Continuous Charge Distributions

POTENTIAL FROM DISTRIBUTED CHARGE

General formula: V = ∫ k dq/r r = distance from dq to field point

Line charge: V = ∫ kλ dl / r

Surface charge: V = ∫ kσ dA / r

Volume charge: V = ∫ kρ dV / r

Potential on Axis of a Ring of Charge

For a ring of total charge Q, radius a, at axial distance x:
All charge elements are at the same distance r = √(x² + a²) from point P.
V = k∫dq/r = kQ/√(x² + a²) (since r is constant for all dq)

POTENTIAL — RING OF CHARGE (On Axis)

On axis: V = kQ / √(x² + a²) x = distance from centre

At centre (x=0): V = kQ/a not zero (unlike E at centre)

Far field (x >> a): V ≈ kQ/x like a point charge

Potential on Axis of a Disk of Charge

For a disk of radius R, surface charge density σ, at axial distance x:

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V = (σ/2ε₀)[√(x² + R²) − |x|]

POTENTIAL — DISK OF CHARGE (On Axis)

On axis: V = (σ/2ε₀)[√(x² + R²) − x] (x > 0)

At centre (x=0): V = σR/(2ε₀)

7.5 Potential Due to a Dipole

A dipole (+q and −q separated by distance d) produces a potential at field point P (distance r from centre, angle θ
from dipole axis):

POTENTIAL — ELECTRIC DIPOLE

Exact (near-field): V = k[q/r₊ − q/r₋] r₊, r₋ = distances from +q, −q

Far-field (r >> d): V = kp cos θ / r² p = dipole moment = qd

On axis (θ = 0°): V = kp/r² positive if θ = 0°

On bisector (θ = 90°): V = 0 equal distances from +q and −q

Note: V ∝ 1/r² for a dipole (vs 1/r for a point charge). And E ∝ 1/r³ for a dipole (vs 1/r² for a point charge).
Everything falls off one power faster for a dipole due to the partial cancellation of the + and − charges.

7.6 Equipotential Surfaces

An equipotential surface is a surface on which the electric potential V has the same value at every point. Moving
a charge along an equipotential requires no work (ΔU = qΔV = 0).

PROPERTIES OF EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES

(1) Equipotentials are always perpendicular to electric field lines at every intersection.

Proof: If E had a component along the surface, moving along the surface would do work → ΔV ≠ 0.
Contradiction.

(2) No work is done moving a charge along an equipotential:

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W = qΔV = q × 0 = 0.

(3) Equipotentials are closer together where E is stronger (steep potential "hill").

(4) The surface of a conductor in equilibrium is an equipotential surface.

(Inside the conductor is also at the same potential.)

(5) For a point charge: Equipotentials are concentric spheres (V = kq/r = const → r = const).

(6) For a uniform field: Equipotentials are parallel planes perpendicular to E.

Configuration Shape of Equipotentials

Point charge Concentric spheres (radii ∝ 1/V)

Uniform field (parallel plates) Parallel planes, equally spaced

Electric dipole Distorted spheres — oval near each charge

Two equal positive charges Spheres near each charge; plane at midpoint is V =
0

Conductor surface The conductor surface itself is an equipotential

7.7 Finding the Electric Field from the Potential

If we know the potential V as a function of position, we can recover the electric field E by differentiation. The
electric field is the negative gradient of the potential:

ELECTRIC FIELD FROM POTENTIAL (Potential Gradient)

General (3D): E = −∇V = −(∂V/∂x x̂ + ∂V/∂y ŷ + ∂V/∂z ẑ)

x-component: Eₓ = −∂V/∂x

y-component: E_y = −∂V/∂y

z-component: E_z = −∂V/∂z

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Radial (spherical symmetry): E_r = −dV/dr

Magnitude (1D): E = −dV/dx E points from high V to low V

The negative sign is crucial: the electric field points in the direction of DECREASING potential. Think of it like a
ball rolling downhill — it rolls toward lower gravitational PE, just as a positive charge "rolls" toward lower electric
potential.
The unit V/m for electric field now makes sense: V/m = (J/C)/m = (N·m/C)/m = N/C ✓

EXAMPLE 7.1: Finding E from V for a Point Charge

Given: V = kq/r. Find the electric field using E = −dV/dr.

SOLUTION:

V = kq/r = kqr⁻¹

dV/dr = kq × (−1)r⁻² = −kq/r²

E_r = −dV/dr = −(−kq/r²) = kq/r²

E = kq/r² ✓ (agrees with Coulomb's Law)

EXAMPLE 7.2: Finding E from V in a Non-symmetric Case

Given: V = 3x²y − 2yz² (in SI units, with V in volts, x,y,z in metres).

Find E at point (1, 2, 3) m.

SOLUTION:

Eₓ = −∂V/∂x = −∂(3x²y)/∂x = −6xy

E_y = −∂V/∂y = −∂(3x²y − 2yz²)/∂y = −(3x² − 2z²)

E_z = −∂V/∂z = −∂(−2yz²)/∂z = −(−4yz) = 4yz

At point (1, 2, 3):

Eₓ = −6(1)(2) = −12 N/C

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E_y = −(3(1)² − 2(3)²) = −(3 − 18) = +15 N/C

E_z = 4(2)(3) = 24 N/C

E = (−12 x̂ + 15 ŷ + 24 ẑ) N/C

|E| = √(144 + 225 + 576) = √945 = 30.7 N/C

EXAMPLE 7.3: Potential Difference Between Two Points in a Uniform Field

Given: A uniform electric field E = 500 N/C points in the +x direction.

Find the potential difference V(A) − V(B) between A=(0,0) and B=(0.30 m, 0.40 m).

SOLUTION:

For a uniform field, Vₐ − V_b = E · d where d is displacement from B to A.

d = r_A − r_B = (0 − 0.30) x̂ + (0 − 0.40) ŷ = −0.30 x̂ − 0.40 ŷ m

E = 500 x̂ N/C

V(A) − V(B) = E · d = (500 x̂) · (−0.30 x̂ − 0.40 ŷ)

= 500 × (−0.30) + 0 = −150 V

∴ V(A) is 150 V LOWER than V(B). Since E points in +x,

potential decreases in the +x direction.

EXAMPLE 7.4: Potential at Axial Point of a Ring — Finding E from V

Given: A ring of radius a = 0.08 m carries Q = 5.0 μC. Find V and E at x = 0.06 m.

PART 1 — Potential:

r = √(x²+a²) = √(0.06²+0.08²) = √(0.0036+0.0064) = √0.01 = 0.10 m

V = kQ/r = (9×10⁹)(5×10⁻⁶)/(0.10) = 450,000 V = 4.5 × 10⁵ V

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PART 2 — Electric Field from V:

V(x) = kQ/√(x²+a²)

E_x = −dV/dx = −d/dx [kQ(x²+a²)^(−1/2)]

= −kQ × (−1/2)(x²+a²)^(−3/2) × 2x

= kQx/(x²+a²)^(3/2)

At x = 0.06 m: (x²+a²)^(3/2) = (0.10)³ = 0.001 m³

E = (9×10⁹)(5×10⁻⁶)(0.06)/0.001 = 2700/0.001 = 2.7 × 10⁶ N/C ✓

KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER

•​ Electric potential V = U/q₀. Unit: Volt (J/C). It is a scalar — much easier to work with than E.

•​ Point charge: V = kq/r. For multiple charges: V_total = Σ kqᵢ/rᵢ (simple algebra, no vectors).

•​ Ring: V = kQ/√(x²+a²). Disk: V = (σ/2ε₀)[√(x²+R²)−x]. Dipole: V = kp cosθ/r².

•​ Equipotentials: always perpendicular to E. The surface and interior of a conductor are one
equipotential.

•​ Potential gradient: E = −∇V. The field points from high V to low V (direction of steepest
descent).

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CHAPTER 8: COMPREHENSIVE NUMERICAL

PROBLEMS

Section 8.1: Coulomb's Law Problems

EXAMPLE 8.1: Charge Configuration — Finding Zero-Force Point

Given: q₁ = +9.0 μC at x = 0 and q₂ = +4.0 μC at x = 0.30 m.

Find: The point on the x-axis where a third charge q₃ would feel zero net force.

SOLUTION:

Let q₃ be at position x (0 < x < 0.30 m). The forces from q₁ and q₂ must cancel.

Force from q₁: F₁ = k|q₁||q₃|/x² (in +x direction for positive q₃)

Force from q₂: F₂ = k|q₂||q₃|/(0.30−x)² (in −x direction)

Setting F₁ = F₂:

k(9×10⁻⁶)|q₃|/x² = k(4×10⁻⁶)|q₃|/(0.30−x)²

9/(x²) = 4/(0.30−x)²

9(0.30−x)² = 4x²

3(0.30−x) = 2x (taking square root, positive values)

0.90 − 3x = 2x → 0.90 = 5x → x = 0.18 m

ANSWER: Zero-force point is at x = 0.18 m from q₁ (and 0.12 m from q₂).

CHECK: F₁ ∝ 9/0.18² = 9/0.0324 = 278; F₂ ∝ 4/0.12² = 4/0.0144 = 278 ✓

EXAMPLE 8.2: Hanging Charged Balls — Coulomb + Mechanics

Given: Two identical small balls, each of mass m = 0.010 kg, hang from strings of length

L = 0.20 m from the same point. They carry identical charges q and hang at θ = 10°

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from vertical. Find the charge q.

SOLUTION:

Separation: d = 2L sin θ = 2(0.20)(sin 10°) = 2(0.20)(0.1736) = 0.0694 m

For each ball: Tsinθ = F_E (horizontal); Tcosθ = mg (vertical)

Dividing: tanθ = F_E/mg

F_E = mg tanθ = (0.010)(9.8)(tan10°) = (0.098)(0.1763) = 0.01728 N

Coulomb's law: F_E = kq²/d²

0.01728 = (9×10⁹)q²/(0.0694)²

0.01728 = (9×10⁹)q²/(0.004816)

0.01728 × 0.004816 = (9×10⁹)q²

8.323×10⁻⁵ = (9×10⁹)q²

q² = 9.248×10⁻¹⁵ → q = 9.62×10⁻⁸ C ≈ 96 nC

Section 8.2: Electric Field Problems

EXAMPLE 8.3: Electric Field of a Finite Line Charge

Given: A rod of length 2L carries uniform linear charge density λ = 3.0 μC/m.

Find E at a point P on the perpendicular bisector, distance d = 0.05 m from the rod.

SETUP: Place rod along x-axis from −L to +L. P is at (0, d).

By symmetry, x-components cancel. Only y-component survives.

For element dx at position x: dq = λ dx

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Distance to P: r = √(x²+d²)

dE_y = k(λ dx)/(x²+d²) × d/√(x²+d²) = kλd dx / (x²+d²)^(3/2)

Integrating from −L to +L:

E_y = kλd ∫₋ ᴸ dx/(x²+d²)^(3/2)

= kλd × [x / (d²√(x²+d²))]₋ ᴸ

= kλd × 2L/(d²√(L²+d²))

= 2kλL / (d√(L²+d²))

For infinite rod (L → ∞): E = 2kλ/d = λ/(2πε₀d) ✓

For L = 0.10 m (rod half-length), d = 0.05 m:

√(L²+d²) = √(0.01+0.0025) = √0.0125 = 0.1118 m

E = 2(9×10⁹)(3×10⁻⁶)(0.10) / (0.05 × 0.1118)

= 5400/0.00559 = 9.66 × 10⁵ N/C ≈ 9.7 × 10⁵ N/C

EXAMPLE 8.4: Superposition — Field at Centre of Square Charge Array

Given: Four charges at corners of a square with side a = 0.10 m:

q₁ = +q at (0,0); q₂ = −q at (a,0); q₃ = +q at (a,a); q₄ = −q at (0,a)

where q = 2.0 μC. Find E at centre P = (a/2, a/2).

SOLUTION:

Distance from each corner to centre: r = (a/√2)/... = a√2/2 = 0.0707 m

By symmetry, +q₁ and +q₃ are diagonally opposite; −q₂ and −q₄ are diagonally opposite.

E from q₁ (at origin): points from (0,0) toward (a/2,a/2), i.e., along +45°

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|E₁| = kq/r² = (9×10⁹)(2×10⁻⁶)/(0.0707)² = 18000/0.005 = 3.6 × 10⁶ N/C

E₁ = 3.6×10⁶ (cos45° x̂ + sin45° ŷ) = 2.546×10⁶ (x̂ + ŷ) N/C

E from −q₂ (at (a,0)): points from P toward (a,0) (attraction), i.e., along −45° + 90° etc.

Direction from P to q₂: (a,0)−(a/2,a/2) = (a/2,−a/2) → at −45°

|E₂| = same = 3.6×10⁶ N/C

E₂ = 3.6×10⁶ (cos(−45°) x̂ + sin(−45°) ŷ) ...

NOTE: By the antisymmetry of the charge pattern (alternating signs around the square),

all four fields add constructively. The net field points in the +x direction:

|E_net| = 4 × (kq/r²) × cos45° = 4 × 3.6×10⁶ × (1/√2) ≈ 1.02 × 10⁷ N/C

Section 8.3: Gauss's Law Problems

EXAMPLE 8.5: Field inside and outside a Solid Charged Cylinder

Given: A very long solid cylinder of radius R = 0.05 m has uniform volume charge density

ρ = 4.0 μC/m³. Find E at (a) r = 0.08 m, (b) r = 0.03 m.

SOLUTION:

By symmetry, E is radial. Use coaxial Gaussian cylinder of length L and radius r.

(a) r = 0.08 m > R (outside):

Q_enc = ρ × πR²L = (4×10⁻⁶)(π)(0.05)²L = 3.142×10⁻⁸L C

∮ E·dA = E(2πrL) = Q_enc/ε₀

E = ρR²/(2ε₀r) = (4×10⁻⁶)(0.05)²/(2×8.854×10⁻¹²×0.08)

= (4×10⁻⁶×2.5×10⁻³)/(1.417×10⁻¹²)

= 10⁻⁸/1.417×10⁻¹² = 7,058 N/C ≈ 7.1×10³ N/C

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(b) r = 0.03 m < R (inside):

Q_enc = ρ × πr²L

E(2πrL) = ρπr²L/ε₀

E = ρr/(2ε₀) = (4×10⁻⁶)(0.03)/(2×8.854×10⁻¹²)

= 1.2×10⁻⁷/(1.771×10⁻¹¹) = 6,778 N/C ≈ 6.8×10³ N/C

EXAMPLE 8.6: Concentric Conducting Shells

Given: A solid conducting sphere of radius a = 0.02 m carries charge Q = +5 μC.

It is surrounded by a conducting spherical shell (inner radius b = 0.05 m,

outer radius c = 0.06 m), initially uncharged.

Find: (a) Charge distribution, (b) E in all regions.

SOLUTION:

(a) Charge distribution:

• Inner sphere: +Q = +5 μC on its outer surface (conductor)

• Inner surface of shell: −Q = −5 μC induced (to make E=0 inside shell material)

• Outer surface of shell: +Q = +5 μC (shell was neutral, so if −5μC inside → +5μC outside)

(b) Electric field:

Region r < a (inside inner sphere): E = 0 (conductor)

Region a < r < b (gap): E = kQ/r² (from inner sphere)

At r = 0.03 m: E = (9×10⁹)(5×10⁻⁶)/(0.03)² = 45000/0.0009 = 5×10⁷ N/C

Region b < r < c (inside shell material): E = 0 (conductor)

Region r > c (outside): E = kQ/r² (total charge = Q)

At r = 0.10 m: E = (9×10⁹)(5×10⁻⁶)/(0.10)² = 45000/0.01 = 4.5×10⁶ N/C

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Section 8.4: Electric Potential Problems

EXAMPLE 8.7: Finding Potential at a General Point

Given: Charges q₁ = +4.0 μC at (0, 0) and q₂ = −2.0 μC at (0.30 m, 0).

Find: (a) V at point P = (0.30 m, 0.40 m)

(b) Work done to bring charge q₃ = +1.0 μC from infinity to P.

SOLUTION:

(a) Distances from P:

r₁ = √((0.30)²+(0.40)²) = √(0.09+0.16) = √0.25 = 0.50 m

r₂ = √((0.30−0.30)²+(0.40)²) = 0.40 m

V = kq₁/r₁ + kq₂/r₂

= (9×10⁹)(4×10⁻⁶)/0.50 + (9×10⁹)(−2×10⁻⁶)/0.40

= 72,000 − 45,000 = 27,000 V = 27 kV

(b) W = q₃ × V(P) = (1.0×10⁻⁶)(27,000) = 0.027 J = 27 mJ

EXAMPLE 8.8: Potential Gradient — Finding E from V

Given: In some region, V(x,y) = (200 V/m²)x² − (150 V/m²)y².

Find: (a) E at (2.0 m, 3.0 m), (b) equipotential value at that point.

SOLUTION:

(a) E = −∇V:

Eₓ = −∂V/∂x = −∂[(200)x²]/∂x = −400x

E_y = −∂V/∂y = −∂[(−150)y²]/∂y = +300y

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At (2.0, 3.0):

Eₓ = −400(2.0) = −800 N/C

E_y = +300(3.0) = +900 N/C

E = (−800 x̂ + 900 ŷ) N/C

|E| = √(640000 + 810000) = √1450000 = 1204 N/C ≈ 1.2 kN/C

(b) V at (2.0, 3.0):

V = 200(2)² − 150(3)² = 800 − 1350 = −550 V

→ The equipotential through this point has V = −550 V

EXAMPLE 8.9: Energy of a Charge Accelerated Through a Potential Difference

Given: A proton starts from rest and is accelerated through a potential difference V = 50,000 V.

Find: (a) Final kinetic energy, (b) final speed.

SOLUTION:

(a) Work done by electric field = q × ΔV = e × V

KE = eV = (1.602×10⁻¹⁹)(50,000) = 8.01×10⁻¹⁵ J = 50 keV

(b) ½mv² = eV

v = √(2eV/m) = √(2 × 8.01×10⁻¹⁵ / 1.673×10⁻²⁷)

= √(9.58×10¹²) = 3.09×10⁶ m/s

This is about 1% of the speed of light — non-relativistic treatment is valid.

EXAMPLE 8.10: Dipole in a Field — Torque, Energy and Alignment

Given: A molecule has dipole moment p = 2.0×10⁻²⁹ C·m in a field E = 4.0×10⁵ N/C.

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Find: (a) Max torque, (b) PE when aligned vs. anti-aligned, (c) energy to flip the dipole.

SOLUTION:

(a) Max torque (at θ = 90°):

τ_max = pE = (2×10⁻²⁹)(4×10⁵) = 8.0×10⁻²⁴ N·m

(b) PE when aligned (θ = 0°): U = −pE = −8.0×10⁻²⁴ J (minimum)

PE when anti-aligned (θ = 180°): U = +pE = +8.0×10⁻²⁴ J (maximum)

(c) Energy to flip from θ=0° to θ=180°:

ΔU = U(180°) − U(0°) = +pE − (−pE) = 2pE

= 2(2×10⁻²⁹)(4×10⁵) = 1.6×10⁻²³ J

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CHAPTER 9: MASTER FORMULA REFERENCE

SHEET

Complete List of All Key Formulas

A. Electric Charge

CHARGE FORMULAS

Quantization: q = ne (n = integer, e = 1.602×10⁻¹⁹ C)

Conservation: ΣQ_initial = ΣQ_final (in any closed system)

Coulomb's Law: F = k|q₁q₂|/r² = |q₁q₂|/(4πε₀r²) k = 9×10⁹ N·m²/C²

Vector form: F₁₂ = k(q₁q₂/r²) r̂ repulsive if q₁q₂ > 0

ε₀: ε₀ = 8.854×10⁻¹² C²/(N·m²) = 8.854×10⁻¹² F/m

B. Electric Field

ELECTRIC FIELD FORMULAS

Definition: E = F/q₀ [N/C = V/m]

Point charge: E = kq/r² (away from + q; toward − q)

Superposition: E_total = Σ kqᵢ/rᵢ² r̂ᵢ (vector sum)

Ring (on axis): E = kQx/(x²+a²)^(3/2) a = ring radius

Disk (on axis): E = (σ/2ε₀)[1 − x/√(x²+R²)] R = disk radius

Infinite plane: E = σ/(2ε₀) uniform, both sides

Parallel plates: E = σ/ε₀ (between plates)

Dipole (on axis): E = 2kp/r³

Dipole (bisector): E = kp/r³

Long line charge: E = λ/(2πε₀r) = 2kλ/r

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C. Gauss's Law

GAUSS'S LAW FORMULAS

Gauss's Law: ∮ E · dA = Q_enc/ε₀

Outside sphere: E = kQ/r² r>R

Inside solid sphere: E = kQr/R³ = ρr/(3ε₀) r<R

Inside shell: E = 0 inside hollow shell

Cylindrical: E = λ/(2πε₀r) distance r from axis

Surface of conductor: E = σ/ε₀ (outward, perpendicular)

Inside conductor: E = 0

D. Electric Potential

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL FORMULAS

Definition: V = U/q₀ [J/C = V (Volt)]

PE / Potential: U = qV; ΔU = qΔV

From field: V(a) − V(b) = ∫_b^a E · dl

Point charge: V = kq/r V → 0 as r → ∞

Multiple charges: V = Σ kqᵢ/rᵢ (scalar sum!)

Ring (on axis): V = kQ/√(x²+a²)

Disk (on axis): V = (σ/2ε₀)[√(x²+R²) − x]

Dipole (far field): V = kp cosθ/r² p = qd

Uniform field: ΔV = −E·d = −Ed cosθ

E. Field from Potential — Gradient

POTENTIAL GRADIENT

General: E = −∇V = −(∂V/∂x, ∂V/∂y, ∂V/∂z)

x-component: Eₓ = −∂V/∂x

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y-component: E_y = −∂V/∂y

Radial: E_r = −dV/dr spherical/cylindrical symmetry

Direction: E points from HIGH V to LOW V

F. Dipole

DIPOLE FORMULAS

Dipole moment: p = qd [C·m] (from −q to +q)

Torque in field: τ = p × E = pE sinθ

PE in field: U = −p · E = −pE cosθ

Force (non-uniform): F = ∇(p · E)

Potential (far): V = kp cosθ / r²

Field on axis: E = 2kp/r³ ∝ 1/r³

Constants at a Glance
Constant Value

Coulomb's constant k 8.9875 × 10⁹ N·m²/C² ≈ 9 × 10⁹

Permittivity ε₀ 8.854 × 10⁻¹² C²/(N·m²) = 8.854 × 10⁻¹² F/m

Elementary charge e 1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ C

Mass of electron mₑ 9.109 × 10⁻³¹ kg

Mass of proton m 1.673 × 10⁻²⁷ kg

1 μC 10⁻⁶ C

1 nC 10⁻⁹ C

1 eV 1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ J

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CHAPTER 10: BIG PICTURE — CONNECTING THE

CONCEPTS

The Logical Flow of Electrostatics

HOW ALL THE TOPICS CONNECT

STEP 1: CHARGE exists (quantized, conserved). Two types: positive and negative.

STEP 2: COULOMB'S LAW gives the force between two point charges: F = kq₁q₂/r².

Superposition: total force = vector sum of all Coulomb forces.

STEP 3: ELECTRIC FIELD E = F/q₀ describes the effect of charge on surrounding space.

E field of a point charge: E = kq/r².

For distributions: integrate dE = k dq/r² over the distribution.

→ This gives ring formula, disk formula, plane formula.

STEP 4: GAUSS'S LAW: ∮ E·dA = Q_enc/ε₀ — a powerful shortcut when symmetry exists.

→ Sphere: E = kQ/r² outside; E = kQr/R³ inside.

→ Cylinder: E = λ/(2πε₀r).

→ Plane: E = σ/(2ε₀).

→ Conductor: E = 0 inside; all charge on surface; E = σ/ε₀ just outside.

STEP 5: POTENTIAL V = U/q₀ — scalar field, much easier to compute than E.

V from point charge: V = kq/r. From distribution: V = ∫ k dq/r.

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ELECTROSTATICS — Complete Study Guide | Based on Young & Freedman + Resnick Halliday Krane

→ Ring: V = kQ/√(x²+a²). Dipole: V = kp cosθ/r².

STEP 6: EQUIPOTENTIALS — surfaces of constant V, always ⊥ to E lines.

Conductor surface = equipotential. Inside conductor = equipotential.

STEP 7: GRADIENT RELATION: E = −∇V. Field from potential by differentiation.

Potential from field by integration: V(a)−V(b) = ∫ E·dl.

The entire subject builds from CHARGE → FORCE (Coulomb) → FIELD (E) →

FLUX (Gauss's Law) → POTENTIAL (V) → GRADIENT (back to E).

Master this logical chain and you master electrostatics. Every formula is a consequence of Coulomb's law plus
the definitions of field and potential. Gauss's law is Coulomb's law in disguise. The gradient relation E = −∇V is
just a restatement of how work and force are related. Nothing is arbitrary — everything follows from a few
simple starting points.

KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER

•​ The 7 most important equations: (1) F=kq₁q₂/r², (2) E=kq/r², (3) ∮E·dA=Q_enc/ε₀, (4)
V=kq/r, (5) V=∫b→a E·dl, (6) E=−∇V, (7) U=−pE cosθ.

•​ The 3 symmetries: spherical (use sphere), cylindrical (use cylinder), planar (use pillbox).

•​ The 2 scalar advantages: V adds as numbers; work = qΔV (no vectors needed for energy
problems).

•​ The 1 golden rule: E always points from high potential to low potential.

END OF STUDY GUIDE — GOOD LUCK!

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