Modals

Introduction
• Modals are auxiliary (helping) verbs used with the main verb to show the mood of
the speaker (ability, permission, obligation, probability, etc.).
• They are followed by the base form of the verb (without to), except with ought to,
used to, have to.
• They do not change forms (no -s, -ed, -ing).
List of Modals
• Can, Could, May, Might, Shall, Should, Will, Would, Must, Ought to, Need,
Dare, Used to, Have to
Functions of Modals
Can
• Ability → She can speak French.
• Permission → You can use my phone.
• Possibility → It can get very hot in summer.
• Informal Requests/Offers → Can you help me?
Could
• Past ability → When I was young, I could run fast.
• Polite requests → Could you pass me the salt?
• Possibility → He could be at the station.
• Suggestions → You could try restarting your phone.
• Conditional situations → If I had money, I could buy a car.
May
• Permission (formal) → You may leave now.
• Possibility → It may rain tomorrow.
• Wishes/Prayers → May you live long!
Might
• Less possibility → He might come late.
• Suggestions → You might want to check that again.
• Past possibility → She might have forgotten her keys.
Shall
• Future (formal, esp. with “I/We”) → I shall return soon.
• Offers/Suggestions → Shall we dance?
• Determination/Promise → You shall get your reward.
• Legal/official obligation → Candidates shall submit documents on time.
Should
• Advice/Recommendation → You should eat more fruits.
• Duty/Moral obligation → We should respect elders.
• Expectation → The train should arrive by 5.
• Condition → If you should need help, call me.
Will
• Future action → I will call you tomorrow.
• Willingness → He will help you.
• Promise/Determination → We will win this match.
• Certainty → She will be at the party
Would
• Polite request → Would you like some tea?
• Habit in the past → He would walk every morning.
• Unreal condition → If I were rich, I would travel the world.
• Polite offers → I would be happy to help.
Must
• Necessity/Obligation → You must wear a seatbelt.
• Strong advice → You must see a doctor.
• Prohibition (negative: must not) → You must not smoke here.
• Logical deduction → She must be tired after the trip.
Ought to
• Moral duty → We ought to help the poor.
• Advice → You ought to study harder.
• Probability → The new movie ought to be good.
Need
• Necessity → You need to work hard.
• Absence of necessity (negative) → You need not worry.
• Questions → Need I say more?
Dare
• Showing courage → He dared to climb the mountain.
• Challenge (negative or question) → How dare you speak like that?
Used to
• Past habit → I used to play cricket every evening.
• Past state → There used to be a cinema here.
Have to
• Necessity/Compulsion → I have to finish my homework.
• External obligation → She has to wear a uniform at school.
4. Summary Table of Modals
Modal Main Functions Example
Can Ability, possibility, permission She can swim.
Could Past ability, polite request, possibility He could run fast.
May Permission, possibility, wishes You may go now.
Might Less possibility, suggestion It might rain.
Shall Future (formal), offers, legal duty I shall return soon.
Should Advice, duty, expectation You should study.
Will Future, promise, certainty He will call you.
Would Polite request, past habit, unreal condition Would you like tea?
Must Strong necessity, obligation, deduction You must obey rules.
Ought to Moral duty, probability We ought to respect elders.
Need Necessity, absence of necessity You need not worry.
Dare Courage, challenge How dare you!
Used to Past habit/state I used to play cricket.
Have to External obligation, necessity I have to work.
 SUBJECT–VERB AGREEMENT
RULE 1: Basic Rule (Number Agreement)
A singular subject takes a singular verb.
A plural subject takes a plural verb.
Examples:
• The girl runs fast.
• The girls run fast.
RULE 2: Third Person Singular in Present Tense
A verb in the present tense takes –s / –es with third person singular subjects.
Examples:
• He plays cricket.
• She teaches English.
RULE 3: Two Subjects Joined by ‘and’
Two or more subjects joined by and take a plural verb.
Examples:
• Ram and Mohan are friends.
Exception 1:
If the subjects refer to one person or one idea, use a singular verb.
Examples:
• Bread and butter is my breakfast.
• The writer and philosopher is dead.
RULE 4: Each / Every Before Two Subjects
If each or every is used before two subjects joined by and, the verb is singular.
Examples:
• Each boy and girl was rewarded.
• Every man and woman has duties.
RULE 5: Subjects Joined by ‘or’, ‘nor’
The verb agrees with the nearest subject.
Examples:
• Either the teacher or the students are coming.
• Neither the students nor the teacher is coming.
RULE 6: Collective Nouns
Collective nouns take:
• Singular verb when acting as a unit
• Plural verb when individuals are emphasized
Examples:
• The jury has given its verdict.
• The jury are divided in opinion.
RULE 7: Indefinite Pronouns (Always Singular)
Each, everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, one
Examples:
• Everyone is happy.
• Each of the boys has a pen.
RULE 8: Indefinite Pronouns (Always Plural)
Both, few, many, several
Examples:
• Many are absent.
• Several have arrived.
RULE 9: Indefinite Pronouns (Singular or Plural)
All, some, any, none, most
Verb depends on the noun that follows.
Examples:
• All of the sugar is finished.
• All of the students are present.
RULE 10: ‘One of’, ‘Each of’, ‘Either of’, ‘Neither of’
These take a singular verb.
Examples:
• One of the boys is absent.
 • Neither of the answers is correct.
RULE 11: Subjects with Additive Phrases
(Phrases like with, along with, together with, as well as, besides)
The verb agrees with the main subject.
Examples:
• The teacher with his students is present.
• Ram as well as his brothers was punished.
RULE 12: Amount, Distance, Time, Money
When considered as a single unit, take a singular verb.
Examples:
• Ten years is a long time.
• Fifty rupees is enough.
RULE 13: Titles of Books, Films, Newspapers
Titles take a singular verb, even if plural in form.
Examples:
• The Chronicles of Narnia is famous.
• The Times of India is widely read.
RULE 14: Nouns Always Plural in Form
Some nouns look plural and take plural verbs.
Examples:
• The police are investigating.
• The scissors are sharp.
RULE 15: Nouns Always Singular in Form
Certain nouns appear plural but are singular in meaning.
Examples:
• Mathematics is difficult.
• News is important.
RULE 16: ‘A number of’ vs ‘The number of’
• A number of + plural noun → plural verb
• The number of + plural noun → singular verb
Examples:
• A number of students are absent.
• The number of students is increasing.
RULE 17: Relative Pronouns (who, which, that)
The verb agrees with the antecedent.
Examples:
• He is one of the players who play well.
• He is the only one of the players who plays well.
RULE 18: Expletive ‘There’
Verb agrees with the real subject, not with there.
Examples:
• There is a problem.
• There are many problems.
RULE 19: Gerund as Subject
A gerund used as a subject takes a singular verb.
Examples:
• Swimming is good exercise.
• Reading novels is enjoyable.
RULE 20: Nouns with ‘Pair of’
When a pair of is the subject, the verb is singular.
Examples:
• A pair of shoes is missing.
If pairs of is used, the verb is plural.
• Two pairs of shoes are missing.
RULE 21: Agreement with Fractions and Percentages
Verb depends on the noun following.
Examples:
• Fifty percent of the work is done.
• Fifty percent of the students are absent.
RULE 22: ‘More than one’
‘More than one’ takes a singular verb.
Examples:
• More than one student has failed.
RULE 23: Proper Nouns in Plural Form
Proper nouns plural in form but singular in meaning take singular verbs.
Examples:
• The United States is a powerful country.
• The Netherlands is beautiful.
RULE 24: Subject After the Verb (Inversion)
Verb agrees with the subject that follows.
Examples:
• On the table are some books.
• Here comes the bus.
RULE 25: ‘Not only… but also’
The verb agrees with the nearest subject.
Examples:
• Not only the teacher but also the students are present.
• Not only the students but also the teacher is present.
RULE 26: Singular Subjects Followed by Plural Nouns
The verb agrees with the main singular subject.
Examples:
• The quality of the apples is good.
• A basket of mangoes was stolen.
RULE 27: Plural Form with Singular Meaning (Diseases)
Names of diseases take singular verbs.
Examples:
• Measles is contagious.
• Mumps is common among children.
RULE 28: Mathematical Statements
Mathematical facts take singular verbs.
Examples:
• Two plus two is four.
• Ten divided by two is five.
RULE 29: Collective Noun + ‘of’
Verb agrees with the collective noun, not the object.
Examples:
• A group of students is waiting.
• A herd of cattle is grazing.
RULE 30: Use of ‘Who’ After ‘It is’
Verb agrees with the person referred to.
Examples:
• It is I who am responsible.
• It is she who has done this.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

1. Introduction
Direct Speech
The exact words of the speaker are reported and are enclosed in quotation marks (“ ”).
Example:
• She said, “I am tired.”
Indirect (Reported) Speech
The speaker’s words are reported without quotation marks, and necessary grammatical
changes are made.
Example:
• She said that she was tired.
2. Parts of a Sentence in Narration
1. Reporting Verb – said, told, asked, exclaimed, ordered, etc.
2. Reported Speech – the words spoken by the speaker.
Example:
• He said (reporting verb), “I will come tomorrow” (reported speech).
3. Basic Rules of Indirect Speech
When converting Direct → Indirect, observe:
1. Change of tense
2. Change of pronouns
3. Change of time/place words
4. Removal of quotation marks
5. Use of appropriate conjunctions
4. Change of Tenses
Rule:
If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the tense of the reported speech usually changes.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
Present Simple → Past Simple
Present Continuous → Past Continuous
Present Perfect → Past Perfect
Past Simple → Past Perfect
Will/Shall → Would/Should
Examples:
• He said, “I write a letter.”
→ He said that he wrote a letter.
• She said, “I am reading.”
→ She said that she was reading.
• Ram said, “I have finished my work.”
→ Ram said that he had finished his work.
5. Exceptions to Tense Change
Exception 1: Universal Truth
No tense change if the statement is a universal fact.
Example:
• He said, “The sun rises in the east.”
→ He said that the sun rises in the east.
Exception 2: Habitual or Permanent Fact
If the fact is still true, tense may remain unchanged.
Example:
 • She said, “I live in Delhi.”
→ She said that she lives in Delhi.
Exception 3: Reporting Verb in Present or Future
If the reporting verb is in present or future tense, no tense change occurs.
Example:
• He says, “I am busy.”
→ He says that he is busy.
6. Change of Pronouns
Rule:
Pronouns change according to the speaker, listener, and person spoken about.
Direct Indirect
I / We he / she / they
You he / she / they
My his / her
Our their
Examples:
• She said, “I am happy.”
→ She said that she was happy.
• He said to me, “You are late.”
→ He told me that I was late.
7. Change of Time and Place Words
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
now then
today that day
yesterday the previous day
tomorrow the next day
here there
this that
these those
ago before
Example:
 • He said, “I will go tomorrow.”
→ He said that he would go the next day.
8. Statements (Assertive Sentences)
Rules:
• Use that as a conjunction
• Reporting verbs: said, told, explained, replied
Examples:
• She said, “I am fine.”
→ She said that she was fine.
• He said to me, “I trust you.”
→ He told me that he trusted me.
9. Interrogative Sentences (Questions)
Rules:
1. Remove question mark
2. Use if / whether for Yes–No questions
3. Use the same wh-word for Wh-questions
4. Use statement order, not question order
Examples:
Yes–No Question
• He said, “Are you ready?”
→ He asked if I was ready.
Wh-Question
• She said, “Where do you live?”
→ She asked where I lived.
10. Imperative Sentences (Commands, Requests, Advice)
Rules:
• Reporting verbs: ordered, requested, advised, told, warned
• Use to + verb or not to + verb
Examples:
• The teacher said, “Work hard.”
→ The teacher advised the students to work hard.
• He said, “Do not touch it.”
→ He warned me not to touch it.
11. Exclamatory Sentences
Rules:
• Remove exclamation mark
• Use verbs like exclaimed with joy/sorrow/surprise
• Change interjections into expressions
Examples:
• She said, “Alas! I am ruined.”
→ She exclaimed with sorrow that she was ruined.
• He said, “How beautiful the place is!”
→ He exclaimed with admiration that the place was very beautiful.
12. Optative Sentences (Wishes, Prayers)
Reporting verbs:
prayed, wished, blessed, cursed
Examples:
• He said, “May you succeed!”
→ He wished that I might succeed.
• She said, “May God bless you.”
→ She prayed that God might bless me.
13. Use of ‘Say’ and ‘Tell’

Say Tell

Say + to + object Tell + object

He said to me He told me

Examples:
• He said to me, “I am late.”
→ He told me that he was late.
14. Conversion of Modal Verbs
Direct Indirect
will would
shall should
can could
may might
 must had to
Example:
• She said, “I must go.”
→ She said that she had to go.
15. Common Errors to Avoid

He said that I am tired.

✔ He said that I was tired.

She asked that where I lived.

✔ She asked where I lived.

He told to me that he was busy.

✔ He told me that he was busy.
16. Summary Table
Type Key Change
Statement that
Question if/whether / wh-word
Command to + verb
Exclamation exclaimed that
Wish prayed/wished that