Lesson 1: INTRODUCTION

Identification of the Structures

A. Types of Structures
1. Residential Structures (Houses, Apartments, Townhouse)
2. Commercial Structures (Offices, Retail Stores, Restaurants)
3. Industrial Structures (Factories, Warehouses, Power Plants)
4. Infrastructures Structures (Bridges, Highways, Dams, Tunnels)

B. Structural Elements
1. Beams - Horizontal elements designed to support loads from vertical or horizontal forces.
2. Columns - Vertical elements that transfer loads from beams and slabs to the foundation.
3. Slabs - Flat horizontal surfaces that provide floors or ceilings.
4. Foundation - The part of the structure that transfers loads to the ground and provides stability.

C. Specifications and Building Codes

What is specifications?
It is a detailed description of the quality, standards, materials and completion of work to be
carried out on a building project.

Types of Specification
• Performance specification- In early project stages, the requirements of the building, systems and
products can be captured in a performance specification. This may include acoustic, thermal or
structural requirements.
• Prescriptive specification-specify the standards, grades and materials of component products
• Proprietary specification-includes exact information like product range names, reference codes, and
key properties selected from manufacturer choices.

D. Building Codes
Building codes are regulations that ensure structures are safe, healthy, and durable. They set
minimum standards for design and construction.

Components:
1. Load Requirements: Specifies how much load different elements of a structure must support.
2. Material Specifications: Details on the quality and type of materials used, such as concrete
mix and reinforcement.
3. Construction Practices: Guidelines for construction methods and practices.
4. Importance of specifications and building code
5. Safety: Prevents accidents, ensures fire resistance and structural integrity.
6. Quality: Ensures standardization, durability and performance.
7. Sustainability: Promotes energy efficiency, water conservation and eco-friendly materials.
8. Compliance: Adheres to regulations, simplifies permitting and reduces liability.
9. Economic benefits: Saves costs, increases property value and reduces insurance premiums.
10. Social benefits: Ensures accessibility, community well-being and environmental stewardship.

E. Philosophies of Design
• Working Stress Design (WSD) - Assumes that materials (concrete and steel) behave elastically
under service loads. It focuses on ensuring that stresses in the materials do not exceed their
allowable limits during normal operation.
• Ultimate Strength Design (USD) - Considers the actual ultimate capacity of materials. It is based
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 on the principle that the structure must withstand ultimate (factored) loads before failure. This
philosophy acknowledges the nonlinear behavior of concrete and steel.
• Limit State Design (LSD) - The Limit State Design philosophy is the most widely adopted
method today. It combines the benefits of WSD and USD by addressing both ultimate limit states
(safety) and serviceability limit states (functionality).

F. Safety
The most important thing is making sure that buildings, bridges, and other structures don’t
collapse or fail:
• Load Capacity: Structures must support the maximum weight or force they will encounter.
• Failure Prevention: Designing to prevent problems like cracks or collapses.

G. Functionality
Structures should work well for their intended purpose:
• Buildings: Must be comfortable and usable for their occupants.
• Bridges: Should allow smooth traffic flow

H. Economy
Designs should be cost-effective:
• Material Efficiency: Using materials wisely to avoid wastage.
• Construction Costs: Balancing quality with costs to avoid overspending.

I. Factors of Safety: ASD and LRFD Methods of Design

Factor safety is a key concept in structural engineering, ensuring that a structure remains safe and
functional under uncertain loading conditions, material variations, and other potential risks.

Allowable Stress Design (ASD) is a simple way to ensure safety:

• Safe Stress Levels: Structures are designed so the maximum stress (force) is below a safe
limit.
• Safety Factor: This is a cushion to account for uncertainties. For example, if concrete can
handle 100 units of stress, we might only use it up to 50 units in our design.

Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) is a bit more advanced:

• Load Factors: Adjusts for the possibility that loads might be heavier than expected.
• Resistance Factors: Adjusts for uncertainties in how strong materials might be.

Pros of using LRFD:

More Accurate: Provides a better balance of safety for complex scenarios.

Cons of using LRFD:

Complex: Requires more calculations and understanding of factors.

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Lesson 2: GRAVITY LOADS ON STRUCTURE

Classification of Loads

Loads can be classified based on:

1. The direction of the load
2. Duration of the load,
3. Spatial distribution of the load, and
4. Source of the loading.

I. Direction of the Load

This refers to how the force is applied to a structure. Based on their direction in which they act on a
structure, loads are classified into two major categories. They are:

a. Gravity Loads (Vertical Loads) - These loads act perpendicular to the horizontal plane of a structure.
They primarily affect the bending, shear, and axial forces in structural members such as beams, slabs,
and columns.

Examples:
• The weight of a building acting downward on its foundation.
• Cars exerting force on a bridge deck.
• Snow accumulating on a sloped or flat roof.

b. Lateral Loads (Horizontal Loads) - These loads act parallel to the ground and can cause bending,
shear, and torsion in structural elements. They are crucial in designing tall buildings, bridges, and
infrastructure to resist sway and collapse.

Examples:
• Strong winds pushing against skyscrapers and causing swaying.
• Earthquake tremors generating lateral forces in buildings.
• Water currents exerting force on bridge piers and offshore platforms.

II. Duration of the Load

Refers to how long it acts on a structure, which significantly affects structural integrity and material
behavior.

a. Static Load - These loads remain constant or change very slowly over time. They do not cause
significant vibrations or fluctuations in structural response.

Examples:
• The weight of the structure itself (dead load).
• Fixed equipment and permanent installations (e.g., HVAC systems, built-in furniture).
• Stored materials that do not move frequently.

b. Dynamic Load- These loads change rapidly with time and can cause vibrations or impact forces.
Structures must be designed to absorb or dampen these effects to prevent fatigue or failure.

Examples:
• Moving vehicles on bridges and roads.
• Wind forces fluctuating over time.

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 • Seismic forces acting unpredictably during earthquakes.

c. Short-term Load - These loads act temporarily and do not last for the structure's lifetime. Although
temporary, they can exert high forces that must be considered in design.

Examples:
• Construction loads such as scaffolding, formwork, and workers.
• Temporary storage of materials on-site.
• Equipment used during repairs and maintenance.

d. Sustained Load - These loads act over an extended period, though they may not be permanent. Over
time, they can contribute to creep and fatigue failure.

Examples:
• Heavy furniture and shelving in buildings.
• Water tanks partially filled over long durations.
• Long-term storage of materials or equipment in industrial facilities.

III. Spatial Distribution of the Load

Refers to how forces are applied to a structure in terms of their spread and intensity across different
elements.

a. Point Load - A force that is applied at a single, specific location on a structural member. It creates
high-stress concentrations, which can lead to bending moments and shear forces in beams and slabs.

Examples:
• The reaction force at the base of a column.
• A heavy machine or equipment placed on a floor at a single point.
• The force exerted by a person standing on a beam.

b. Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL) - A load that is spread evenly across the entire length or surface
of a structural element. The intensity of the load remains constant per unit length or area.

Examples:
• The self-weight of a slab, which is evenly spread over its surface.
• The load of books on a long bookshelf.
• Water pressure acting uniformly on the bottom of a tank.

c. Uniformly Varying Load (UVL) - A load whose intensity changes gradually along the length or
surface of the structure. The variation can be linear or nonlinear, forming a triangular or trapezoidal
distribution.

Examples:
• Wind pressure on a sloped roof, where the force increases toward the higher edge.
• Water pressure on a dam wall, increasing with depth due to the weight of the water.

IV. Source of the Loading

Refers to what generates the force acting on a structure. Loads can come from various sources. Here are
the primary load sources:

a. Dead Load - These are loads that remain constant and do not change over time. Dead loads are

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 primarily due to the weight of the structural components and any permanently attached elements.

Examples:
• The weight of concrete beams, columns, slabs, and walls.
• Fixed fixtures such as elevators, HVAC systems, and plumbing.
• Roofing materials and finishes like tiles, insulation, and waterproofing layers.

b. Live Load - These are transient or movable loads that change in magnitude and position over time.
Live loads depend on the building’s usage and occupancy type, such as residential, commercial, or
industrial.

Examples:
• People moving in a building.
• Furniture, storage, and temporary partitions.
• Vehicles on bridges and parking structures.

c. Environmental Load - These loads result from natural phenomena and vary based on geographic
location and climate. Environmental loads are unpredictable and must be accounted for using safety
factors in design.

Types of Environmental Loads:

• Wind Load
• Snow Load
• Earthquake Load (Seismic Load)
• Hydrostatic and Buoyancy Load
• Thermal Load

d. Impact Load - These loads are applied suddenly and last for a short duration, creating high stress on
structures. The rate of application significantly affects the structural response, potentially causing
localized failure.

Examples:
• A vehicle colliding with a bridge pier or guardrail.
• Machinery generating vibrations in an industrial building.
• A dropped heavy object on a floor slab.

What are Gravity Loads?

Gravity loads are forces that act vertically downward on a structure due to the influence of gravity. These
loads can also be categorized as:

• Dead Loads - is the combined weight of all the finishes that give the structure its appearance and the
structural parts that make up the structure.

• Live Loads - are the weights placed on a structure by its occupants and the items they choose to assemble
inside (furniture, storage, etc.).

• Snow loads - The weight of ice and snow accumulation on a building's roof causes a force known as the
snow load. If there is more snow than the building can support, either the roof or the entire structure may

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 collapse. The height of the building, the size and shape of the roof, whether the building is located on a
slope or not, how often snow falls, and other factors all affect how much snow falls.

I. Dead Loads

These are permanent loads that are carried by the structure throughout its lifetime. Dead loads are often
referred to as stationary loads.

Simply put, it is the weight of all the materials, and elements incorporated into the building or other horizontal
and vertical structures. These include:
• Walls built-in partitions
• Beam • Cladding
• Floor • Cranes
• Roofs • Architectural items
• Ceiling • Other fixed service items
• Machines • Etc.
• Stairways

NOTE!

Weight of Materials and Construction

• When computing dead loads the engineer should utilize the actual weight of the materials, or equipment
used in the structure for design.
• Tables 204-1 and 204-2 can be used as a basis if there is an absence of information about the weight of
the material.
Partition Loads and Access Floor System
• Office and other types of buildings except residential, may have partition locations. These require an
addition of a uniformly distributed load of 1 kPa to all other loads.
• Meanwhile a uniformly distributed load of not less than 0.5 kPa shall be added to support an AFS.

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TABLE 204-1 Minimum Densities for Design Loads from Materials (kN/m3)

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TABLE 204-2 Minimum Design Dead (kPa)

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 II. Live Loads

Live loads are also called imposed loads, and they are either moving loads, or movable loads, that do not have
any impact or acceleration. All these loads are part of what an occupant brings into the building. These items are
normally furniture and movable partitions.

Live loads shall be the maximum loads expected by the intended use or occupancy but in no case shall be less
than the loads required.

A. Floor Live Loads

Floors shall be designed for the unit live loads as set forth in Table 205-1. These loads shall be taken
as the minimum live loads of horizontal projection to be used in the design of buildings for the
occupancies.

a. Distribution of Uniform Floor Loads

Where uniform loads are involved, consideration may be limited to full dead load on all spans in
combination with full live load on adjacent spans and alternate spans.

b. Concentrated Floor Loads

• Floors shall be designed to support safely the uniformly distributed live loads prescribed or
the concentrated load given in Table 205-1 whichever produces the greatest load effects.
• Otherwise specified the indicated concentration shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed
over an area of 750-mm square and shall be located so as to produce the maximum load
effects in the structural member.
• Vehicles are used or stored for concentrated loads.
• Each load shall be 40% of the gross weight of the maximum size vehicle to be
accommodated. Consisting of two or more loads spaced 1.5m nominally on center without
uniform live loads.
• Parking garages for storage with no repair or refueling shall have a floor system designed for
a concentrated load of not less than 9 kN acting on an area of 0.015 m² without uniform live
loads.

B. Special Loads
Provision shall be made for the special vertical and lateral loads as set forth in Table 205-2.

C. Roof Live Loads

The live loads shall be assumed to act vertically upon the area projected on a horizontal plane.

a. Distribution of Loads
• For those light-gage metal preformed structural sheets serve as the support and finish of
roofs, roof structural members arranged to create continuity shall be considered adequate.
• If designed for full dead loads on all spans in combination with the most critical one of the
following superimposed loads:
• The uniform roof live load, set forth in Table 205-3 on all spans.
• A concentrated gravity load of 9 kN placed on any span supporting a tributary area greater
than 18 m² to create maximum stress in the member. Otherwise, the concentrated load shall
be placed on the member over a length of 0.75 m along the span.
• Water accumulation as prescribed in Section 206.7.

b. Unbalanced Loading
• Unbalanced loads shall be used where such loading will result in larger members or
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 connections. Trusses and arches shall be designed to resist the stresses caused by unit live
loads on one-half of the span or greater in any portion than the stresses produced on the entire
span.
• For roofs whose structures are composed of a stressed shell, framed or solid wherein stresses
in any point loading are distributed, the requirements for unbalanced unit live load design
may be reduced to 50%.

c. Special Roof Loads

• For special purposes shall be designed for appropriate loads as approved by the building
official. Greenhouse roof bars, purlins and rafters shall be designed to carry a 0.45 kN
concentrated load.

D. Reduction of Live Loads

• For roofs may be reduced on any member supporting more than 15 m², including flat slabs, except
for floors in places of public assembly and for live loads greater than 4.8 kPa.

R = r (A-15)

Where:
R = reduction in percentage
r = rate of reduction equal to 0.08 for floors
A = area of floor or roof supported by the member, 𝑚2

• The reduction shall not exceed 40% for members receiving load from one level only, 60% for other
members.

R = 23.1(1+ D/L)

Where:
R = reduction in percentage
D = dead load per m² of area supported by the member, kPa
L = unit live load per m² of area supported by the member, kPa

• For storage loads exceeding 4.8 kPa, no reduction shall be made, except that design live loads on
columns may be reduced to 20%.
• The live load reduction shall not exceed 40% in garages for the storage of private pleasure cars
having a capacity of not more than nine passengers per vehicle.

E. Alternate Floor Live Load Reduction

Unit live loads set forth in Table 205-1 may be reduced in any member, including flat slabs, having
an influence area of 40m²

Where:
𝐴1= influence area, m²
𝐿= reduced design live load per m² of area supported by the member
𝐿0=unreduced design live load per m² of area supported by the member

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III. Other Minimum Loads

In addition to the other design loads specified in this chapter, structures shall be designed to resist
the loads specified in this section and the special loads set forth in. Table 205-2. See Section 207 for
design wind loads and Section 208 for design earthquake loads.

A. Other Loads
Buildings and other structures and portions thereof shall be designed to resist all loads due to
applicable fluid pressures. F, lateral soil pressures, H, ponding loads, P, and self-straining forces. See
Section 206.7 for ponding loads for roofs.

a. Impact Loads
The live loads specified in Sections 205.3 shall be assumed to include allowance for ordinary
impact conditions. Provisions shall be made in the structural design for uses and loads that involve
unusual vibration and impact forces. See Section 206.9.3 for impact loads for cranes, and Section 206.10
for heliport and helistop landing areas.

b. Elevators
All elevator loads shall be increased by 100% for impact

c. Machinery
For the purpose of design, the weight of machinery and moving loads shall be increased as
follows to allow for impact:
• Elevator machinery 100%
• Light machinery, shaft- or motor-driven 20%
• Reciprocating machinery or power-driven units 50%
• Hangers for floors and balconies 33%
• All percentages shall be increased where specified by the manufacturer.

d. Anchorage of Concrete and Masonry Walls

Concrete and masonry walls shall be anchored as required. by Section 104.3.3. Such anchorage
shall be capable of resisting the load combinations of Section 203.3 or 203.4 using the greater of the
wind or earthquake loads required by this chapter or a minimum horizontal force of 4 kN/m of wall,
substituted for E.

e. Interior Wall Loads

Interior walls, permanent partitions and temporary partitions that exceed 1.8 m in height shall be
designed to resist all loads to which they are subjected but not less than a load, L, of 0.25 kPa applied
perpendicular to the walls. The 0.25 kPa load need not be applied simultaneously with wind or seismic
loads. The deflection of such walls under a load of 0.25 kPa shall not exceed 1/240 of the span for walls
with brittle finishes and 1/120 of the span for walls with flexible finishes. See Table 208-13 for
earthquake design requirements where such requirements are more restrictive.

f. Exception:
• Flexible, folding or portable partitions are not required to meet the loud and deflection criteria
but must be anchored to the supporting structure to meet the provisions of this code
• Retaining walls shall be designed to resist loads due to the lateral pressure of retained material
in accordance with accepted engineering practice. Walls retaining drained soil, where the
surface of the retained soil is level, shall be designed for a load, H, equivalent to that exerted by
a fluid weighing not less than 4.7 kPa per meter of depth and having a depth equal to that of the
retained soil. Any surcharge shall be in addition to the equivalent fluid pressure.
• Retaining walls shall be designed to resist sliding by at least 1.5 times the lateral force and

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 overturning by at least 1.5 times the overturning moment, using allowable stress design loads.

g. Water Accumulation
All roofs shall be designed with sufficient slope or camber to ensure adequate drainage after the
long-term deflection from dead load or shall be designed to resist ponding load P, combined in
accordance with Section 203.3 or 203.4. Ponding load shall include water accumulation from any source
due to deflection.

h. Uplift on Floors and Foundations

In the design of basement floors and similar approximately horizontal elements below grade, the
upward pressure of water, where applicable, shall be taken as the full hydrostatic pressure applied over
the entire area. The hydrostatic load shall be measured from the underside of the construction. Any other
upward loads shall be included in the design. Where expansive soils are present under foundations or
slabs-on-ground, the foundations, slabs, and other components shall be designed to tolerate the
movement or resist the upward loads caused by the expansive soils, or the expansive soil shall be
removed or stabilized around and beneath the structure.

B. Crane Loads

The crane load shall be the rated capacity of the crane. Design loads for the runway beams,
including connections and support brackets of moving bridge cranes and monorail cranes shall include the
maximum wheel loads of the crane and the vertical impact, lateral, and longitudinal forces induced by the
moving crane.

a. Maximum Wheel Load

The maximum wheel loads shall be the wheel loads produced by the weight of the bridge, as
applicable, plus the sum of the rated capacity and the weight of the trolley with the trolley positioned on
its runway where the resulting load effect is maximum.

b. Vertical Impact Force

The maximum wheel loads of the crane shall be increased by the percentages shown below to
determine the induced vertical impact or vibration force:
• Monorail cranes (powered) - 25%
• Cab-operated or remotely operated bridge cranes (powered) - 25%
• Pendant-operated bridge cranes (powered) - 10%
• Bridge cranes or monorail cranes with hand-geared ridge, trolley and hoist - 0%

c. Lateral Force
The lateral force on crane runway beams with electrically powered trolleys shall be calculated as
20% of the sum of the rated capacity of the crane and the weight of the hoist and trolley. The lateral force
shall be assumed to act horizontally at the traction surface of a runway beam, in either direction
perpendicular to the beam, and shall be distributed with due regard to the lateral stiffness of the runway
beam and supporting structure,

d. Longitudinal Forces
The longitudinal force on crane runway beams, except for bridge cranes with hand geared
bridges, shall be calculated as 10% of the maximum wheel loads of the crane. The longitudinal force shall
be assumed to act horizontally at the traction surface of a runway beam, in either direction parallel to the
beam.

e. Heliport and Helistop Landing Areas

In addition to other design requirements of this chapter, heliport and helistop landing or
touchdown areas shall be designed for the following loads, combined in accordance with Section

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203.3 or 203.4:
• Dead load plus actual weight of the helicopter.
• Dead load plus a single concentrated impact load, L. covering 0.10 m² of 0.75 times the fully
loaded weight of the helicopter if it is equipped with hydraulic-type shock absorbers, or 1.5 times
the fully loaded weight of the helicopter if it is equipped with a rigid or skid- type landing gear.
• The dead load plus a uniform live load, L, of 4.8 kPa. The required live load may be reduced in
accordance with Section 205.5 or 205.6.

Key Terminology and Definitions

Axial Force - A force applied along the longitudinal axis of a structural member, either in compression or tension.
Bending - A deformation caused in a structural member when an external load is applied perpendicular to its
longitudinal axis, producing internal moments and curvature.
Dead Load - The permanent static weight of a structure itself, including walls, floors, roofs, and fixed equipment.
Dynamic Load - Loads that vary with time, including moving or changing forces such as those from wind,
vehicles, or machinery.
Environmental Load - Loads imposed by natural environmental conditions such as wind, rain, earthquake, and
temperature changes.
Gravity Load - The vertical load due to the weight of the structure and any applied loads such as furniture,
people, and equipment. It includes both dead and live loads.
Impact Load - A high-magnitude, short-duration force resulting from a sudden or rapid application, such as a
falling object or collision.
Lateral Load - Loads that act horizontally on a structure, such as those from wind or seismic activity.
Live Load - Temporary or movable loads imposed on a structure, such as people, furniture, and vehicles.
Point Load - A load applied at a single, specific location on a structural element.
Shear - A type of internal force that acts parallel to the surface or cross-section of a structural element, causing
layers to slide against each other.
Short-Term Load - A load that acts on a structure for a brief period of time, such as wind gusts or construction
equipment weight during building.
Snow Load - The vertical load due to the accumulation of snow on the roof or other surfaces of a structure.
Static Load - A load that is applied slowly and remains nearly constant over time, such as dead or live loads.
Sustained Load - A load that remains applied for an extended period, often contributing to long-term
deformation or creep in materials.
Torsion - A twisting force applied to a structural member, creating shear stresses over its cross-section.
Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL) - A load that is evenly spread along the length or surface of a structural
member, producing consistent stress distribution.
Uniformly Varying Load (UVL) - A load that changes linearly along the length of a member, increasing or
decreasing from one end to the other.

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Lesson 3: LATERAL LOADS

Introduction
Lateral loads are forces that act horizontally on a structure, causing it to sway or displace sideways.
Understanding and properly accounting for these loads is crucial for ensuring structural stability, strength, and
safety.

In structural engineering, lateral loads primarily originate from;

• Wind Loads
• Earthquake Loads
• Soil Lateral Loads
• Rain Loads
• Flood Loads

A. Wind Loads
Wind Loads are produced by the flow of wind around the structure. The magnitude of wind loads that
may act on a structure depend on the geographical location of the structure, obstructions in its surrounding
terrain, such as nearby buildings, and the geometry and the vibrational characteristics of the structure itself.
• Wind Load Calculation Procedures
The calculation of wind loads involves several steps:

1. Determine the Basic Wind Speed: Obtain the basic wind speed (V) for the building's location
using appropriate resources.

2. Determine the Velocity Pressure (Q): This is calculated using the formula: Qz = 0.00256 * Kz *
Kzt * Kd * V² (for windward walls, using Z) or Qh = 0.00256 * Kh * Kzt * Kd * V² (for roofs
and leeward walls, using H). The terms Kz and Kh are height factors, Kzt is the topographic
factor, and Kd is the wind directionality factor. These factors are found in relevant codes (ASCE
7-16, NSCP 2015).

3. Determine the Pressure Coefficients (Cp): These coefficients are obtained from tables and figures
within ASCE 7-16 or NSCP 2015, depending on the geometry of the structure and the wind
direction. Note that the Cp values will differ for windward and leeward surfaces, and the roof
usually experiences suction.

4. Calculate Design Pressure (P): The design pressure is calculated by multiplying the velocity
pressure (Q) by the appropriate pressure coefficient (Cp): P = Q * Cp.
• Consider Internal Pressure: For enclosed or partially enclosed structures, account for internal
pressure (using internal pressure coefficients from ASCE 7-16). NSCP 2015 does not
explicitly address partially open buildings.

5. Combine Loads: Combine the calculated wind pressures with other loads (dead loads, live loads)
according to relevant building codes. Note that ASCE 7-16 explicitly states that wind and
earthquake loads are not typically combined in a single load case.

Defining Key Structural Systems

This section delves into the core concepts of MWF RS and CNC, emphasizing their distinct roles
in resisting wind forces.

• Main Wind Force Resisting System (MWF RS): The MWF RS is the primary structural
system designed to resist the overall wind forces acting on a building. It's the building's
primary defense against lateral wind loads. Components of the MWF RS are designed to

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 work together to transfer wind loads safely to the foundation. Examples include:
a. Shear walls: Vertical elements providing significant lateral stiffness.
b. Braced frames: Systems of diagonal bracing members providing stability.
c. Moment frames: Frames designed to resist wind loads through bending moments.
d. Roof trusses (when integral to overall lateral stability): Roof trusses that are essential for
resisting lateral forces are part of the MWF RS. If removing the truss would significantly
compromise the building's stability, it's part of the MWF RS.

• Components and Cladding (CNC): The CNC encompasses the non-structural elements of the
building envelope that interact directly with the wind. They transfer wind pressures to the
underlying structural components.

a. Components: These are the structural elements that directly support the cladding.
Examples include:
o Purlins: Horizontal members supporting roof sheeting.
o Girts: Horizontal members supporting wall sheeting.
o Studs: Vertical members forming the framework of walls.
o Roof decking: The structural layer beneath the roofing material.

• Cladding: This refers to the outer covering of the building, including:

o Roof sheeting: The material covering the roof.
o Wall sheeting: The material covering the walls.
o Siding: Exterior wall covering.

The Importance of Differentiation

The accurate classification of structural elements as either MWF RS or CNC is critical because
the design procedures and load calculations differ significantly between the two. Incorrect classification
leads to inaccurate load estimations and potentially unsafe designs. The MWF RS is designed to
withstand the major wind forces, while the CNC is designed to resist the pressures transferred from the
cladding. Using the wrong design approach for each system can lead to structural failure.

Wind Load Calculation Procedures: Directional vs. Envelope

The NSCP 2015 and ASCE 7-16 outline different procedures for calculating wind loads based on
the structural system.
a. Directional Procedure: This more accurate method considers wind forces from multiple
directions (e.g., North, South, East, West). It accounts for the directional variability of wind
pressure and provides a more reliable assessment of wind effects. It's generally preferred for
structures highly sensitive to wind loads.
b. Envelope Procedure: A simplified method that doesn't consider wind direction. It uses the
maximum wind pressures from all directions to determine the design loads. This method is
less accurate but simpler to apply, suitable for structures less sensitive to wind effects.

Case Studies and Examples

This section will include detailed examples of various structural systems and how to classify their
elements as either MWF RS or CNC. This will include diagrams and illustrations to clarify the concepts.

Importance of Wind Loads in the Philippines

The Philippines' geographical location makes it highly susceptible to typhoons. Therefore,
understanding and accurately applying wind load calculations is of paramount importance for ensuring the
safety and resilience of buildings. Underestimating wind loads can have catastrophic consequences.

Pressure Coefficients (CP) and Their Significance

Definition of Pressure Coefficient: A pressure coefficient (CP) is a dimensionless factor that

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represents the ratio of the local pressure at a point on a structure to the dynamic pressure of the wind.
a. Impact of CP on Wind Loads: CP values directly influence the magnitude of wind loads on a
building. Higher CP values indicate greater wind pressure, leading to higher wind loads.
b. Variation of CP: CP values vary based on several factors, including:
o Building Geometry: The shape and orientation of the building significantly affect CP values. For
example, a gable roof will have different CP values than a flat roof.
o Wind Direction: The direction of the wind relative to the building's orientation (normal to the
ridge or parallel to the ridge) influences CP values.
o Wind Speed: Wind speed affects the dynamic pressure of the wind, which in turn influences CP
values.

ASCE 7.16 and NSCP 2015 Codes

Codes for Wind Load Calculations: The ASCE 7.16 (American Society of Civil Engineers) and
NSCP 2015 (National Structural Code of the Philippines) codes provide comprehensive guidelines for
wind load calculations for buildings.
• Importance of Code Compliance: Following these codes ensures that buildings are designed to
withstand wind loads safely and meet regulatory requirements.

Internal Pressure in Buildings

Internal Pressure in Enclosed and Partially Enclosed Buildings: Enclosed and partially enclosed
buildings have internal pressure due to the wind's influence on the building's interior. This internal
pressure can either add to or subtract from the external wind pressure, depending on the wind direction
and the building's configuration.
Internal Pressure in Open Buildings: Open buildings, such as covered courts or structures with
large openings, generally do not have significant internal pressure.

Determining CP Values for Different Building Types

a. Gable Roofs: Gable roofs are characterized by two sloping sides that meet at a ridge. ASCE
7.16 and NSCP 2015 provide tables and figures for determining CP values for gable roofs,
considering wind direction (normal to the ridge or parallel to the ridge) and the roof's slope.
b. Hip Roofs: Hip roofs have four sloping sides that meet at a ridge. Similar to gable roofs, CP
values for hip roofs are determined using tables and figures in the codes.
c. Monoslope Roofs: Monoslope roofs have a single slope. CP values for monoslope roofs are
determined using the same principles as gable and hip roofs, considering the roof's slope and
wind direction.
d. Dome Roofs: Dome roofs are curved structures. ASCE 7.16 and NSCP 2015 provide specific
guidance for determining CP values for dome roofs, considering the roof's curvature and
wind direction.
e. Arch Roofs: Arch roofs are curved structures with a distinct arch shape. CP values for arch
roofs are determined using the codes' guidance for curved structures, considering the roof's
curvature and wind direction.

Windward and Leeward Sides

1. Windward Side: The windward side of a building is the side facing the wind. CP values on the
windward side are generally positive, indicating wind pressure pushing on the structure.
2. Leeward Side: The leeward side of a building is the side opposite the wind. CP values on the leeward
side are often negative, indicating suction (wind pulling on the structure).

Interpolation for CP Values

Interpolation: Interpolation is a technique used to estimate CP values when the exact value is not
found in the codes' tables or figures. Linear interpolation is commonly used for CP values.
• Importance of Interpolation: Interpolation is essential for accurately determining CP values for

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 specific building geometries and wind scenarios that may not be directly covered in the codes.

Load Cases and Wind Scenarios

Load Cases: Different wind scenarios create different load cases, requiring multiple CP values to
be considered. For example, a gable roof will have different CP values for wind normal to the ridge and
wind parallel to the ridge.
• Importance of Multiple Load Cases: Considering multiple load cases ensures that the building is
designed to withstand the most critical wind scenarios.

Factors Influencing Wind Loads:

• Wind Speed: The velocity of the wind, which varies with location and time.
• Building Shape and Geometry: The shape and orientation of the building influence the distribution of
wind forces.
• Terrain: The surrounding landscape affects wind flow patterns.
• Building Height: Taller buildings experience higher wind speeds.
• Internal Pressure: The difference in pressure between the inside and outside of a building.

Pressure Coefficients (CP and CN)

a. Pressure Coefficient (CP): A dimensionless factor representing the ratio of the pressure at a specific
point on a building to the velocity pressure of the wind.
b. External Pressure Coefficient (CP): Used for the pressure acting on the exterior of a building due to
wind.
c. Net Pressure Coefficient (CN): Used for open buildings where there's no internal pressure. It
represents the net pressure difference between the windward and leeward sides.
• Positive CP: Indicates a positive pressure, pushing against the building surface.
• Negative CP: Indicates a negative pressure, pulling or sucking on the building surface (suction).

Determining Pressure Coefficients using ASCE 7-16 and NSCP 2015

• ASCE 7-16 (American Society of Civil Engineers): The primary code used in the United States
for wind load calculations.
• NSCP 2015 (National Structural Code of the Philippines): A similar code used in the Philippines.
• Figures in ASCE 7-16 and NSCP 2015: These codes provide figures that specify pressure
coefficients for different building types, roof shapes, and wind scenarios.

Building Classifications:
a. Enclosed Buildings: Buildings with a fully enclosed interior.
b. Partially Enclosed Buildings: Buildings with some openings or partial enclosure.
c. Open Buildings: Buildings with no internal pressure, such as open structures or covered courts.

Wind Directions:
a. Wind Normal to Ridge: Wind blowing perpendicular to the ridge line of a roof.
b. Wind Parallel to Ridge: Wind blowing parallel to the ridge line of a roof.

Figure 27.3-1 (ASCE 7-16) or Figure 207b 0.4-1 (NSCP 2015): Used for gable roofs, hip roofs, mono-
slope roofs, and flat roofs.

Wind Normal to Ridge:

Windward Wall: CP = 0.8 (positive pressure)
Leeward Wall: CP = -0.5 (negative pressure, suction)
Side Walls: CP = -0.7 (negative pressure, suction)
Roof (H/L < 0.25): CP = -0.3 (negative pressure, suction)
Roof (H/L > 0.25): CP = 0.2 (positive pressure)

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 Wind Parallel to Ridge:
Windward Edge of Roof: CP = -0.9 (negative pressure, suction)
Leeward Edge of Roof: CP = -0.9 (negative pressure, suction)
Roof (H/L < 0.5): CP = -0.9 (negative pressure, suction)
Roof (H/L > 0.5): CP = -1.3 (negative pressure, suction)

Internal Pressure
a. Impact of Internal Pressure: Internal pressure can significantly affect the overall wind load on a
building, especially for enclosed and partially enclosed structures.
b. Internal Pressure Coefficient (GCpi): A factor representing the difference in pressure between the
inside and outside of a building.
• Positive GCpi: Indicates a higher internal pressure than external pressure.
• Negative GCpi: Indicates a lower internal pressure than external pressure.
c. Typical Internal Pressure Values:
• Enclosed Buildings: +0.55 or -0.55
• Partially Enclosed Buildings: +0.18 or -0.18
• Open Buildings: 0

Load Cases
a. Load Case: A specific combination of wind direction, pressure coefficients, and internal pressure that
creates a unique loading scenario on the building.
b. Multiple Load Cases: Wind loading analysis typically involves multiple load cases to account for
different wind directions and internal pressure variations.
Example: For a gable roof with wind normal to the ridge, there could be four load cases:
• Windward roof with positive internal pressure
• Windward roof with negative internal pressure
• Leeward roof with positive internal pressure
• Leeward roof with negative internal pressure

Exposure Categories: B, C, and D

Wind load is a significant force that structural engineers must account for when designing
buildings and structures. To accurately estimate wind loads, we need to consider the exposure category,
which classifies the surrounding environment based on its potential to obstruct or amplify wind forces.
This module will delve into the three main exposure categories: B, C, and D.

Exposure Category B: Obstructed Terrain

Category B represents areas with significant obstructions to wind flow, such as:
• Urban or Suburban Areas: Densely populated areas with buildings, houses, and other structures.
• Wooded Areas: Forests or areas with a high density of trees.
• Terrain with Numerous Obstacles: Areas with closely spaced obstacles like hills, mountains, or
dense vegetation.

a. Key Characteristics of Category B:

• Reduced Wind Loads: The obstructions in Category B areas significantly reduce the velocity and
force of wind compared to more open areas. This results in lower wind loads on structures.
• Distance Criteria: For a site to be classified as Category B, there needs to be a specific distance
between the structure and the obstructing terrain. This distance is determined by the height of the
structure and the type of obstruction.
Example: A building in a densely populated city block would likely fall under Category B
due to the surrounding buildings acting as wind obstructions.

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 Exposure Category C: Intermediate Terrain
Category C represents areas with characteristics that fall between Category B and Category D.
This includes areas with:
• Scattered Obstructions: Areas with sparsely distributed obstacles like trees, hills, or buildings.
• Open Terrain with Some Obstructions: Areas with a mix of open spaces and limited obstructions.

a. Key Characteristics of Category C:

1. Intermediate Wind Loads: Category C areas experience wind loads that fall between the
extremes of Category B and Category D.
2. Conservative Approach: When unsure about the specific category, engineers often err on the
side of caution by using Category C, which leads to a more conservative wind load

Exposure Category D: Open Terrain

Category D represents areas with minimal or no obstructions to wind flow, such as:
• Coastal Areas: Open coastlines and shorelines with minimal or no obstacles to wind flow.
• Flat, Open Land: Vast expanses of flat land with minimal vegetation or structures.
• Near Water Surfaces: Areas located near large bodies of water with minimal land features.

a. Key Characteristics of Category D:

1. Highest Wind Loads: Category D areas experience the highest wind loads due to the
unobstructed path of wind flow. This results in the most demanding design requirements.
2. Distance Criteria: Similar to Category B, there are distance criteria for a site to be classified
as Category D. This depends

B. Earthquake Loads

An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earth's surface. Although the ground surface
moves in both horizontal and vertical directions during an earthquake, the magnitude of the vertical component of
ground motion is usually small and does not have a significant effect on most structures. It is the horizontal
component of ground motion that causes structural damage and that must be considered in design of structures
located in earthquake-prone areas.

Purpose
The provisions in this section primarily aim to design seismic-resistant structures to protect
against major structural damage that could lead to loss of life and property. These provisions do not
guarantee zero damage to structures or their full functionality after a severe earthquake.
All structures (or portions thereof) must, at a minimum, be designed and constructed to resist
seismic ground motions as specified in this section.

Basis for Design

When comparing seismic design and wind design, if the wind design produces greater effects, it
shall govern. However, the detailing requirements and limitations in this section must still be followed.
The design procedures and limitations must consider:
• Seismic zoning
• Site characteristics
• Occupancy type
• Building configuration
• Structural system and height

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 The structure must have adequate strength to withstand lateral displacement caused by ground
motion while considering:
• The inelastic response of the structure
• The inherent redundancy, overstrength, and ductility of the lateral force-resisting system
• The minimum design strength is determined using the static lateral force procedure (Section
28.5) except as modified by Section [Link].4.

For allowable stress design (ASD):

• Load combinations in Section 28.3 shall apply.
• ASD can be used to evaluate sliding and overturning at the soil-structure interface, regardless of the
design approach used.

Design Base Shear Equation

The total design base shear (V) is determined using the equation:

V=CvCbIW/RV = C_v C_b I W / RV=CvCbIW/R

Where:
C_v = Seismic coefficient
C_b = Coefficient
I = Importance factor
W = Building weight
R = Response modification factor
T = Fundamental period of vibration

The design base shear (V) must satisfy:

V≥0.8ZIW/RV \geq 0.8 Z I W / RV≥0.8ZIW/R

Where:
Z = Seismic zone factor
I = Importance factor
W = Building weight

The 2015 NSCP follows similar principles as 2010 and 2001 versions but includes updates based
on new seismic research and Philippine seismic zoning maps.
Seismic Zones in the Philippines
The Philippines is divided into two seismic zones:
• Zone 2: Covers Palawan (except Busuanga), Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi
• Zone 4: Covers the rest of the country

Each structure is assigned a seismic zone factor (C_z) based on Table 208-3:
• Zone 2: Cz=0.2C_z = 0.2Cz=0.2
• Zone 4: Cz=0.4C_z = 0.4Cz=0.4

Seismic Source and Soil Profile Classification

The location and type of seismic sources must be based on geological data. The soil profile type
is determined using Table 208-2:
1. Type SA, SB, SC, SD, SE are predefined soil categories.
2. Type SF requires a site-specific evaluation if the site has:
• Liquefiable soils
• Highly organic clay layers (>3.0m thick)

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 • Very high plasticity clay (PI > 75 or depth > 7.5m)
• Very soft or deep clay deposits (>35m depth)

Occupancy Categories and Importance Factors

Structures are classified into occupancy categories based on Table 103-1:
• Essential Facilities (e.g., hospitals, emergency response buildings)
• Hazardous Facilities (e.g., chemical plants, power stations)
• Special Occupancy Structures
• Standard Occupancy Structures
• Human Assembly Structures

Each category is assigned an importance factor (I), which influences the seismic design.

Structural Systems and Fundamental Period (T)

Structural systems are classified based on Table 208-11 into:
• Concrete systems
• Steel systems
• Wood and masonry systems

The fundamental period of vibration (T) is determined using:

T=CtHn3/4

Where:
Ct = Empirical coefficient
Hn = Building height
Example values for Ct:
0.0853 for steel moment-resisting frames
0.0731 for reinforced concrete moment-resisting frames
0.0488 for all other buildings

For seismic zone 4, the calculated T value should not exceed 30% greater than Method A results.
For seismic zone 2, it should not exceed 40%.

C. Soil Lateral Loads

Basement, foundation, and retaining walls shall be designed to resist lateral soil loads. Soil loads
specified in Table 209-I shall be used as the minimum design lateral soil loads unless specified otherwise in a
soil investigation report approved by the building official. Basement walls and other walls in which horizontal
movement is restricted at the top shall be designed for at-rest pressure. Retaining walls free to move and
rotate at the top are permitted to be designed for active pressure. Design lateral pressure from surcharge loads
shall be added to the lateral earth pressure load. Design lateral pressure shall be increased if soils with
expansion potential are present at the site.

D. RAIN LOADS
1. Roof Drainage
Roof drainage systems shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of the code having
jurisdiction in the area. The flow capacity of secondary (overflow) drains or scuppers shall not be less
than that of the primary drains or scuppers.
2. Design Rain Loads
Each portion of a roof shall be designed to sustain the load of rainwater that will accumulate on it
if the primary drainage system for that portion is blocked, plus the uniform load caused by water that rises
above the inlet of the secondary drainage system at its design flow.

Pa g e | 24
 When the phrase "undeflected roof" is used, deflections from loads (including dead loads) shall
not be considered when determining the amount of rain on the roof.
3. Ponding Instability
For roofs with a slope less than 6 mm per 300 mm, the design calculations shall include
verification of adequate stiffness to preclude progressive deflection.
4. Controlled Drainage
Roofs equipped with hardware to control the rate of drainage shall be equipped with a secondary
drainage system at a higher elevation that limits the accumulation of water on the roof above that
elevation. Such roofs shall be designed to sustain the load of rainwater that will accumulate on them to the
elevation of the secondary drainage system plus the uniform load caused by water that rises above the
inlet of the secondary drainage system at its design flow determined from Section 210.2. Such roofs shall
also be checked for ponding instability in accordance with Section 210.3.

E. FLOOD LOADS
Within flood hazard areas as established in Section 211.3, all new construction of buildings,
structures, and portions of buildings and structures, including substantial improvement and restoration of
substantial damage to buildings and structures, shall be designed and constructed to resist the effects of flood
hazards and flood loads. For buildings that are located in more than one flood hazard area, the provisions
associated with the most restrictive flood hazard area shall apply.

Definition of Substantial Improvement: Substantial improvement refers to any repair, reconstruction,

rehabilitation, addition, or improvement of a building or structure, the cost of which equals or exceeds 50
percent of the market value of the structure before the improvement or repair is started. If the structure has
sustained substantial damage, any repairs are considered substantial improvement regardless of the actual
repair work performed. The term does not include:
• Any project for improvement of a building required to correct existing health, sanitary, or safety
code violations identified by the building official and that are the minimum necessary to assure
safe living conditions.
• Any alteration of a historic structure provided that the alteration will not preclude the structure's
continued designation as a historic structure.

Design Requirements

a. Design Loads
Structural systems of buildings or other structures shall be designed, constructed, connected, and
anchored to resist flotation, collapse, and permanent lateral displacement due to the action of flood loads
associated with the design flood (see Section 211.3.3) and other loads in accordance with the load
combinations of Section 203.

b. Hydrodynamic Loads
Dynamic effects of moving water shall be determined by a detailed analysis utilizing basic
concepts of fluid mechanics. The equivalent surcharge depth shall be added to the design flood elevation
(DFE) and the resultant hydrostatic pressures applied to, and uniformly distributed across, the vertical
projected area of the building or structure that is perpendicular to the flow. Surfaces parallel to the flow or
surfaces wetted by the tailwater shall be subject to the hydrostatic pressures for depths to the DFE only.

c. Wave Loads
Wave loads shall be determined by one of the following three methods:
• By using the analytical procedures outlined in this section.
• By more advanced numerical modeling procedures.
• By laboratory test procedures (physical modeling).
Wave loads are those loads that result from water waves propagating over the water surface and

Pa g e | 25
 striking a building or other structure. Design and construction of buildings and other structures subject to
wave loads shall account for the following loads: waves breaking on any portion of the building or
structure; uplift forces caused by shoaling waves beneath a building or structure, or portion thereof; wave
run-up striking any portion of the building or structure; wave-induced drag and inertia forces; and wave-
induced scour at the base of a building or structure, or its foundation. Wave loads shall be included for
both V-Zones and A-Zones. In V-Zones, waves are 0.91 m high, or higher; in coastal floodplains
landward of the V-Zone, waves are less than 0.91 m.

Establishment of Flood Hazard Areas

To establish flood hazard areas, the governing body shall adopt a flood hazard map and
supporting data. The flood hazard map shall include, at a minimum, areas of special flood hazard where
records are available.
a. Design and Construction
The design and construction of buildings and structures located in flood hazard areas, including
those subjected to high-velocity wave action, must adhere to the requirements outlined in this section.
b. Flood Hazard Documentation
The following documentation shall be prepared and sealed by an engineer-of-record and
submitted to the building official:
• For construction in flood hazard areas not subject to high-velocity wave action, the elevation
of the lowest floor, including the basement, as required by the lowest floor elevation.
• For fully enclosed areas below the design flood elevation where provisions to allow for the
automatic entry and exit of floodwaters do not meet the minimum requirements, construction
documents shall include a statement that the design will provide for equalization of
hydrostatic flood forces.
• For dry flood-proofed nonresidential buildings, construction documents shall include a
statement that the dry flood-proofing is designed.
• For construction in flood hazard areas subject to high-velocity wave action, the elevation of
the bottom of the lowest horizontal structural member as required by the lowest floor
elevation.
Construction documents shall include a statement that the building is designed, including that the
pile or column foundation and building or structure to be attached thereto is designed to be anchored to
resist flotation, collapse, and lateral movement due to the effects of wind and flood loads acting
simultaneously on all building components, and other load requirements of Section 203.

Key Terminology and Definitions

B - Horizontal dimension of the building perpendicular to the wind direction.

Basic Wind Speed - The reference wind speed for a specific location, usually obtained from meteorological data
or online resources.
Enclosure Classification - Categorization of a building based on its degree of enclosure, impacting internal
pressure coefficients. ASCE 7-16 introduces the "partially open building" classification, absent in NSCP 2015.
Partially open buildings, such as hangars without doors, experience higher internal pressure coefficients than fully
enclosed buildings
Exposure Category - Categorizes the degree of wind obstruction around a structure (A, B, C, D). Exposure D
represents the most open exposure with the highest wind speeds.
Internal Pressure - Pressure build-up inside an enclosed structure, significantly affected by the degree of
enclosure (fully enclosed, partially open).
L - Horizontal dimension of the building parallel to the wind direction.
Leeward - The side of a structure sheltered from the wind.
Main Roof Height (H): The average height between the ridge and the eave.

Pa g e | 26
Positive Pressure: Positive wind pressure, pushing towards the building (typically on windward surfaces).
Pressure Coefficients (Cp): Coefficients that account for the distribution of wind pressure on different parts of a
structure (windward wall, leeward wall, roof). These are crucial for determining design pressures.
Ridge: The highest point of a roof.
Suction: Negative wind pressure, pulling elements away from the building (typically on leeward surfaces).
Topographic Factor (Kzt): A factor accounting for the effect of terrain on wind speed. This often requires
analysis of topographic profiles, potentially using tools like Google Earth.
Velocity Pressure (Q): The dynamic pressure exerted by the wind, a function of basic wind speed, height, and
exposure category. Different formulas exist for windward walls (using Z) and roofs/leeward walls (using H).
Windward: The side of a structure directly facing the wind.
Z: Height above ground level. This is a variable height used primarily in windward wall calculations.

Pa g e | 27
Lesson 4: Fundamentals of [Link]

I. Model Generation

a. The Start Page

Open [Link] by double clicking on the icon on your desktop or navigating to the program location
through the Start menu. The [Link] Start Page is displayed.

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b. The New Project Dialog Box
On the Project Task, start a new [Link] project by clicking on the New Project… option or
navigating through the File menu and then clicking New (ctrl + N). The New Project Dialogue Box is
displayed.

On the New Project Dialog Box, select Space, enter the File Name, choose the File Location, input the
Units, then click Next.

Pa g e | 29
c. Starting a Project
To start a new [Link] project, choose any of the six options on the Where do you want to go?
dialog box. In this case, choose Edit Job Information option.

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d. Getting Started
The [Link] Screen
The components of the [Link] Graphical User Interface (GUI) screen are identified in the figure
below.

Menu Main Toolba

Bar Window r

Page Status Data

Control Bar Area
1. Menu Bar
• Located near the top of the screen.
• Gives access to all of the [Link] menu functions.
• Many of the same functions are also available from the Toolbar and from the Page Control.
2. Toolbar
• Located near the top and left side of the screen.
• Gives access to the most frequently used commands.
• Individual tool bars are dockable - layout can be reconfigured.
• Customized tool bars can be created.
• Hover the cursor over any icon for Tool Tip Help.
3. Main Window
• Central area of screen where the model and graphical results are shown.
• Background color can be set to either white or black using the Configuration… option in the
Project Tasks section of the Start Page.
4. Status Bar
• Displayed at the bottom of the screen.
• Presents helpful information regarding the status of the program.
• Displays pertinent information for the current page, such as hints for using the current

Pa g e | 31
 command, current program operating mode, cursor position, current input units, etc.
5. Page Control
• A set of tabs to the left of the Main Window.
• Page Control can be closed from within the Mode menu to free the screen area for other uses.
• Each tab allows you to perform specific tasks.
• Organization of the Tabs, from top to bottom, represents the logical sequence of
operations in [Link].
• Progress through the tabs from top to bottom and enter all the data that are relevant to your
project.
• Tab names may or may not appear on the tabs depending on screen resolution and size of
[Link] window, but the icons on the Page Control tabs always appear.
• Each tab contains sub-tabs.
• The tabs that display depend on the current Mode of operation, which can be set from the Mode
menu in the Menu Bar.
6. Data Area
• Commonly appears on the right side of the screen.
• Displays dialogs, tables, lists, and so forth.
• Context-sensitive to the type of operation being performed.

e. Setting Up a Job
Setup is the top tab in the Page Control area when in Modeling mode. When the Job sub-tab is
selected, the Job Info dialog is displayed in the Data Area.
The Job Info dialog provides a way to define data such as job name, client, job number, engineer and
checker initials and dates, and so forth. Information entered in the Job Info dialog will be printed in the
output reports and shown in the Recent Files section of the Start Page. The use of this dialog is optional.

Pa g e | 32
f. Creating Structure Geometry
The Beam Sub-tab
On the Geometry tab, create/model the framing system of the building in the Beam Sub-tab by
entering the node coordinates and beam incidences on the corresponding tables. Use the Geometry
toolbar and the Generate toolbar for more efficient modeling.

For more advanced user, you may opt to use the STAAD Editor to create the model. Note that there
are 4 numbers separated by space before a colon below the “JOINT COORDINATES” command
line which stands for “Node Number <space> X <space> Y <space> Z;”. While below the
“MEMBER INCIDENCES” command line, there should be 3 numbers separated by space
before a colon which stands for “Member Number
<space> First Node <space> Second Node;”.

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g. Property Assignment

Assigning General Properties

The Property Sub-tab
On the General tab, create and assign the properties needed for the structure using the Property
Sub-tab. Use the Section Database button to add steel sections, the Define… button to add concrete
sections and the Thickness… button to add plate thickness for walls/floors.

Use the Beta Angle tab to edit the member orientation if necessary.

Pa g e | 34
The Spec Sub-tab
On the General tab, create and assign the member specifications needed for the structure using the
Spec Sub-tab.

Use the Node… button to create a Master/Slave specification in case floors are not modeled to
account for diaphragm action.

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Use the Beam… button to create member specification such as Releases and Offsets if necessary.

Use the Plate… button to create plate specification such as Releases if ever necessary.

Pa g e | 36
The Support Sub-tab
On the General tab, create and assign the support specifications needed for the structure using the
Support Sub-tab.

Click the Create button, then choose the suitable support condition and click Add.

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Pa g e | 38
Creating Groups
Group names are a means for easily identifying a collection of entities like Beams, Plates or Solids
using a single moniker. By grouping these entities, we need to assign attributes such as member
properties and material constants just to the group, a simple process, compared to the task of
assigning them to the individual members.
For easier application of loads, create groups that associate to perimeter beams, floor beams and
other necessary groupings. Select Tools > Create New Group (or ctrl + G).

Enter the Group Name ex. 1STFLOOR, Select Type ex. Floor then click OK. Highlight the member
needed to include in the group then click Associate.

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The Load & Definition Sub-tab
On the General tab, create all types of loadings necessary to analyze the structure using the
Load & Definition Sub-tab.

Select Load Cases Details then click Add….

Enter the load case Number, select the corresponding Loading Type, type the load case Title then
click Add. Repeat the process as many as the load cases needed for analysis.

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Generating Seismic Definitions
On the Load & Definition Sub-tab, select Definitions then click Add.

Select the code Type, enter all the parameters needed for the generation of seismic loads based on
the selected code, then click Add. Select Seismic Definition under Definitions, then click Add to
add the seismic weights to be considered. Note that all values here should be positive.

Pa g e | 41
Add Self Weight, Member Weights (if necessary), and finally the Floor Weights.

Add floor weights (weight of floor plus dead loads). Use Group option to add floor weights easily.

Pa g e | 42
Generating Wind Definitions
On the Load & Definition Sub-tab, select Definitions then click Add.

Enter the Type No., then the description of the wind load type. Repeat the process as many as the
wind load types needed for analysis (consider windward and leeward for both direction of the wind).
Then select the wind load type created under Wind Definitions. Click Add. Then click Calculate as
per ASCE-7 to automate the wind load generation.

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Pa g e | 44
Enter all the needed parameters. Click Apply after completing the dialog box. Click OK after
verifying all the inputted parameters. Repeat the process for all the individual wind load types.

Pa g e | 45
Loading the Structure
Seismic Load Cases
On the Geometry Tab > Load & Definition Sub-tab under Load Cases Details, select Load case
no. 1 (Seismic Along Z) then click Add….

Choose the direction of the seismic load then input the load factor. Click Add when done. Repeat this
process for the other seismic load cases.

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Gravity Load Cases
On the Geometry Tab > Load & Definition Sub-tab under Load Cases Details, select Load case
no. 3 (Dead Load) then click Add….

For the load case of Dead Load do

not forget to add Selfweight. Add
all the necessary loadings (Nodal
Load, Member Load, Floor Load)
for every gravity load cases.

Note that all values for the gravity

load cases (Dead Load, Live Load,
Roof Live Load) should be negative
(-GY) indicating a downward
direction.

All loadings must be assigned

accordingly after.

Pa g e | 47
Wind Load Cases
On the Geometry Tab > Load & Definition Sub-tab under Load Cases Details, select Load case
no. 6 (Wind Load Along +Z) then click Add…. (Note that you can add wind load manually if you
prefer, below is another option to automate the load.)

On the Add New: Load Items dialog box, select Wind Load. Select the wind load type (remember
that all values in the dropdown box is pertaining to the wind load types under the Definition. In this
case, choose type 1:Regular for windward along positive Z direction.) Then choose Z (Windward
Face). The factor should be 1. Then click Add. Do not close the dialog box yet. Remember that for
any wind direction, there is always a suction force (Leeward wind load). So we need to change the
type to 2: Regular then choose –Z (Leeward/Sidewall Face). Click Add then Close. Repeat this
for other wind load cases.

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Generating Load Combinations
On the Load & Definition Sub-tab, select Load Cases Details then click Add. Select Auto Load
Combination.

Select the Load Combination Code then click Generate Loads. You may opt to check the Create
Repeat Load Cases checkbox if you want to use PDelta Analysis. Note that it is required to use
Repeat Loads for any iterative analysis like PDelta Analysis. Click Add the Close.

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The Material Sub-Tab
On the General tab, verify and create all materials associated with the structure using the Material
Sub-tab.

On the Material dialog box, click Create. Choose the Material Title then edit the Label to change the associated
Material Properties. Choose the Type of Material then edit the value of Strength. Click OK. Repeat as
necessary. Apply the Materials to the specified members of the structure.

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Analyzing the Model

The Analysis/Print Tab

After all the steps above, the model is ready for analysis. Click the Analysis/Print tab on the Page
Control area.

The goal is to use the PDelta Analysis to consider the effect of small deltas on the structure. On The
Analysis/Print Commands dialog box, select the PDelta Analysis tab. Enter the number of iterations
(minimum of 3). Check the Small Delta checkbox. Choose any of the Print Option if needed. Click Add
then Close.

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 The Post-Print Sub-Tab
Printing Support Reactions
Click the Post-Print sub-tab. On the dialog box in the right, click the Define Commands… button. On
the Load List
tab, select the Load Cases needed for the output. Click Add.

Click the Support Reactions tab, Click Add. Then click Close. Assign the command to ALL.

Run Analysis
Select Analysis in the Menu bar. Click Run Analysis (ctrl + F5). Wait till analysis is complete.

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 Keyboard Shortcuts and Functions

shift+k show nodes shift+ctrl+a display axis window

shift+n node numbers shift+ctrl+g design group
shift+s shows supports shift+ctrl+m member number
shift+e beam starting and end points shift+ctrl+b design brief
shift+r release provided shift+ctrl+e design brief
shift+t plate orientations ctrl+1 section outline
shift+w wind load ctrl+2 solid section
shift+y floor loads ctrl+4 render
shift+i origin of model ctrl+0 no outline
shift+o local axis of individual members ctrl+o open file
shift+p plate number ctrl+p print file
shift+a specifications of beam ctrl+s save file
shift+d shows dimensions ctrl+g define group dialog box
shift+f floor loading ctrl+z undo
shift+g diagram information ctrl+c copy
shift+h wind load contribution ctrl+v paste
shift+l master and slave nodes ctrl+y redo
shift+x property assigned ctrl+n run structural wizard
shift+j property reference number f9/ctrl+f5 run analysis
shift+b beam number alt+v+v view selected objects only
shift+m material assigned alt+f4 close
shift+c display solid number f2 move
shift+ctrl+t surface orientation f4 change orientation
shift+ctrl+p surface number f1 help
f5 check syntax in STAAD editor
f12 view animation in full screen

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Lesson 5: STRUCTURAL FRAMING SYSTEM

I. Introduction

Over many years, engineers have observed that some structural systems perform better in
earthquakes than others. Based on these observations, the Provisions design criteria for building structures
are based on the structural system used. The term “structural system” or “structural frame” in structural
engineering refers to the load-resisting sub-system of a building or object. The structural system transfers
loads through interconnected elements or members.

Materials of Construction
Structural systems are categorized based on the material of construction:
• Concrete
• Masonry
• Steel
• Wood
Resistance of the Structure
Lateral forces induced by earthquake shaking are resisted by the structure and by the relative
quality of seismic-resistant design and detailing provided.
• by Walls
• by Frame
Components of Framed Structure
These are the key components for Structural Framing Structure:
• Beams - Horizontal members that transfer loads across a span, supporting weight from above
and distributing it to columns or load-bearing walls.
• Columns - Vertical members that provide vertical support, carrying the weight of beams and
upper floors, and transferring loads down to the foundation.

II. Structural Framing System

1. Bearing Wall System
2. Building Frame System
3. Moment-Resisting Frame System
4. Dual System
5. Dual System with Intermediate Moment Frame
6. Cantilevered Column Building Systems
7. Shear-wall Frame Interaction Systems

1. Bearing Wall System

A structural system with bearing walls providing support for all or major portions of the vertical
loads. Shear walls or braced frames provide seismic-force resistance. Resistance to lateral loads is
provided by shear walls or braced frames. In bearing wall systems, structural walls located throughout the
structure provide the primary vertical support for the building's weight and that of its contents as well as
the building's lateral resistance.
Bearing wall buildings are commonly used for residential construction, warehouses, and low-rise
commercial buildings of concrete, masonry, and wood construction.

2. Building Frame System

A structural system with an essentially complete spaceframe providing support
for gravity loads. Resistance to lateral loads is provided by shear walls or braced frames
separately. Building frames are a common structural system for buildings constructed of
structural steel and concrete.

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 In building frame structures, the building’s weight is typically carried by vertical elements called
columns and horizontal elements called beams.
Lateral resistance is provided either by diagonal steel members (termed braces) that extend
between the beams and columns to provide horizontal rigidity or by concrete, masonry, or timber shear
walls that provide lateral resistance but do not carry the structure’s weight.
In some building frame structures, the diagonal braces or walls form an inherent and evident part
of the building design. In most buildings, the braces or walls may be hidden behind exterior cladding for
interior partitions

Types of Building Frame System:

a. Post and Beam Frame
b. Steel Frame
c. Concrete Frame - A concrete frame, also known as a concrete skeleton, is a common
structural system composed of interconnected beams, columns, and slabs, forming the
structural backbone of a building.

3. Moment-Resisting Frame System

According to NSCP 2015, A structural system with an essentially complete space frame
providing support for gravity loads. The horizontal beams and vertical columns provide both
support for the structure’s weight and the strength and stiffness needed to resist lateral loads.

Stiffness and strength are achieved through the use of rigid connections between the
beams and columns that prevent these elements from rotating relative to one other. They do not
require braced frames or structural walls, therefore large open spaces and facades with many
unobstructed window openings.

Types of MRFS
Moment resisting frames also provide resistance to lateral load primarily by flexural
action of members, and may be classified as one of the following types:
a. Ordinary Moment-Resisting Frame (OMRF) - A structural system designed to resist lateral
loads, primarily through the flexural action of beams and columns, but it doesn't require the
special detailing needed for ductile behavior in high seismic zones, making it suitable for low
to moderate seismic risk areas.
b. Intermediate Moment Resisting Frame (IMRF) - A concrete moment-resisting frame designed
with detailing requirements that fall between those of Ordinary Moment Resisting Frames
(OMRF) and Special Moment Resisting Frames (SMRF), offering a balance of ductility and
performance.
c. Special Moment-Resisting Frames (SMRF) - A type of structural system designed to provide
enhanced seismic resistance and ductility, often used in high-rise buildings and critical
facilities in seismic zones.

4. Dual Framing System

A dual framing structural system (also called frame-shear wall
interactive systems) is a combination of moment-resisting frames and
shear walls to efficiently resist both lateral and gravity loads in buildings.
The moment resisting frames provide vertical support for the
structure’s weight and a portion of the structure’s lateral resistance while
most of the lateral resistance is provided either by concrete, masonry, or
steel walls or by steel braced frames.
Note that the dual frame-wall system is a Hybrid Lateral Load-
Resisting System, however it has been identified as a separate system in
this taxonomy. It may be difficult to distinguish a Dual system from the Wall system in a reinforced
concrete building. The user will need to have additional information related to the building design and

Pa g e | 55
 local building codes and design practices.

Dual frame-wall systems are common for contemporary reinforced concrete building construction in Algeria (M.
Farsi)
Advantages of Dual Framing System
a. Improved Structural Performance: The combination of frames and shear walls distributes forces
effectively.
b. Seismic Resistance: Offers enhanced ductility and energy dissipation in earthquake-prone areas.
c. Optimized Material Use: Reduces the size of structural elements compared to using only moment
frames or shear walls.
Design Considerations
a. The shear walls/braced frames should carry at least 25% of the lateral load to be considered a dual
system (as per seismic codes like ASCE 7).
b. Proper connection detailing between frames and walls to ensure efficient load transfer.
c. Foundation design must accommodate both high moment loads from frames and concentrated
forces from shear walls.
Types of Dual System

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System Type Moment Frame Type Seismic Performance Common Applications

Dual System with Special High-ductility SMFs + Shear Best for high seismic Skyscrapers, hospitals,
Moment Frames (SMFs) Walls/Braced Frames regions (Zone D, E, F) critical structures

Dual System with

Moderate-ductility IMFs + Suitable for moderate Mid-rise buildings, schools,
Intermediate Moment
Shear Walls/Braced Frames seismic zones (Zone C) apartments
Frames (IMFs)

Limited seismic capacity,

Dual System with Ordinary Low-ductility OMFs + Shear Low-rise offices,
used in low-risk areas
Moment Frames (OMFs) Walls/Braced Frames warehouses
(Zone A, B)

5. Cantilevered Column Building System

A structural system where columns act as vertical cantilevers fixed at their base to
resist both gravity and lateral loads.
This system is primarily used for low-rise structures, especially in regions with low
to moderate seismic activity or where architectural flexibility is a priority.

Limitations & Challenges

a. Limited Lateral Stiffness – More flexible than other lateral force-resisting
systems, leading to higher drifts.
b. Height Restrictions- Typically used for one to three-story buildings due to
stability concerns.
c. High Foundation Demand- Needs a strong fixed-base foundation to prevent
excessive movement.
d. Not Suitable for High Seismic Zones- Lacks the energy dissipation capacity
needed for strong earthquakes.

6. Shear Wall-Frame Interaction System

A structural system that combines shear walls and moment-resisting frames to efficiently resist
both gravity and lateral loads. The key advantage of this system is the synergistic behavior between shear
walls (which provide stiffness and strength) and frames (which provide ductility and flexibility).

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 Load Sharing Mechanism

• At Low Lateral Loads: The moment frames carry a greater portion of the load since they are more
flexible.
• At High Lateral Loads: The shear walls become more dominant due to their higher stiffness,
reducing drift.
• During Seismic Events: The moment frames dissipate energy through plastic deformation, while
shear walls prevent excessive displacements.

The Shear Wall-Frame Interaction System and the Dual System are similar but not exactly the
same. Both involve moment-resisting frames and shear walls (or braced frames) working together to resist
lateral loads, but they differ in their design intent, force distribution, and code requirements.

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Lesson 6: STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

Structural Elements
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load. Important examples
related to civil engineering include buildings, bridges, and towers. When designing a structure to serve a
specified function for public use, the engineer must account for its safety, esthetics, and serviceability,
while taking into consideration economic and environmental constraints. Often this requires several
independent studies of different solutions before final judgment can be made as to which structural form
is most appropriate. This design process is both creative and technical and requires a fundamental
knowledge of material properties and the laws of mechanics which govern material response. Once a
preliminary design of a structure is proposed, the structure must then be analyzed to ensure that it has its
required stiffness and strength.

A. Design of Beams
Reinforced concrete beams are structural elements used to support transverse external loads.
Across the length of the beam, the loads generate bending moments, shear forces and in some cases,
torsion. Furthermore, concrete is very strong in compression but very weak in tension. Steel
reinforcement is thereby used to counter the tensile stresses in reinforced concrete beams. Beams also
support the loads from slabs, other beams, walls, and columns. They distribute the loads to the columns
that support them. They can be either singly reinforced beams or doubly reinforced beams. If the depth of
the beam is limited, the latter is used while carrying out the process of design of beams. Beams can be
designed in a variety of ways. The most well-known methods are the Working Stress Method and the
Limit State Method.
Beams are members that bend under load, known as flexural members, and are responsible for
carrying both bending moment and shear force. As a result, beam design must consider all three aspects:
bending moment, shear force, and torsion. The design of reinforced concrete beams is a crucial aspect of
structural engineering and involves a vast range of methods. In the design of beams, it is assumed that
concrete can withstand compressive loads only, while tension is carried by reinforcements.

a. Singly Reinforced Beams

In singly reinforced simply supported beams or slabs reinforcing steel bars are placed
near the bottom of the beam or slabs where they are most effective in resisting the tensile stresses.

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Steps in Solving Singly Reinforced Beams

1. Compute balanced steel ratio

Since, f’c < 28MPa then β1 = 0.85

2. Compute actual steel ratio

3. Compute the depth of the equivalent rectangular concrete stress block, a

4. Check the section condition, Es= 200 000 MPa

5. Compute nominal moment capacity, øMn

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b. Doubly Reinforced Beams
A doubly reinforced beam has reinforcement on both the tension and compression sides.
While the tension reinforcement handles tensile stresses, compression reinforcement provides
additional support in the compression zone. These beams are used in scenarios where the cross-
sectional dimensions are constrained, or the beam is subjected to heavy loads.

Steps in Solving Doubly Reinforced Beams

1. Compute Maximum steel ratio

Since, f’c < 28MPa then β1 = 0.85

2. Case 1: When Compression Steel Yields; (fs ≥ fy; fs′ ≥ fy)

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Case 2: When Compression Does Not Steel Yields; (fs′ ≠ fy).

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c. Shear Beam Design
Shear design for beams involves ensuring a structure can withstand forces acting
perpendicular to its length. This is crucial because shear failure can lead to brittle, sudden
collapses. Design calculations for shear strength of concrete beams consider both the concrete's
inherent shear resistance and the contribution of shear reinforcement like stirrups or ties.

Shear Failure

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Types of Shear Failure
1. Diagonal Tension Failure
Diagonal tension failure begins with the development of vertical crack (flexural cracks) at
the bottom of the beam due to flexural tensile stress. Then, as the load on the beam increases, this
crack growth both in width and length and bends in a diagonal direction as it moves to the upper
part of the beam toward the loading point.

2. Shear-Compression Failure
Shear compression failure begins by initiation and development of cracks in the beam
cross-section. Then, these cracks propagate and penetrate the compression zone of the beam, and
the final stage of the failure occurs when the compressive strength of the concrete is exceeded.

3. Splitting Shear (True Shear) Failure

When the shear span to depth ratio of a beam is less than one, splitting shear failure can
be expected. Commonly, this type of beam is called deep beam in which loads are directly
transferred to supports, and shear strength is much higher than in ordinary flexural beams.

Spacing Limits of Shear Reinforcement, S

According to NSCP Table [Link].2, maximum spacing of shear reinforcement depends
on the value of the shear strength carried by the reinforcement, Vs.

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 Table 1. Maximum Spacing (NSCP Table [Link].2)

1. Minimum Shear Reinforcement, Avmin

According to NSCP Section 409.6.3, a minimum of shear reinforcement shall be provided
in all regions where Vu > 0.5ΦVc, except:

2. Shear Strength of Non-Prestressed Members (Torsion Neglected)

3. Nominal Shear Strength of Concrete, Vc

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 4. Nominal Shear Strength of Reinforcement, Vs
According to Section [Link].3, for non-prestressed members without axial force,
shear strength of reinforcement can be calculated as:

B. Design of Column
A column is a vertical structural member supporting axial compressive loads, with or without
moments. The cross-sectional dimensions of a column are generally considerably less than its height.
Columns support vertical loads from the floors and roof and transmit these loads to the foundations.

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 a. Axially Loaded Columns
If the compressive vertical loads act along the centroidal axis of the column, it is
termed as an axially loaded column. This type of column without bending is not found
practically so much.

b. Based on Column Ties

1. Tied Columns
In the tied column, the longitudinal bars are tied together with smaller bars.
These smaller bars column confine the main longitudinal bars. Over 95 percent of all
columns in buildings in non- seismic regions are tied columns.

2. Spiral Columns
Spiral columns contain spirals to hold the main longitudinal reinforcement. Spiral
is spring type reinforcement. The main bars are placed in a circle and ties are replaced by
spirals. Spiral columns are used when high strength and/or high ductility are required.
Because the spiral acts to resist the lateral expansion of the column bars under high axial
loads. The main bars are placed in a circle and ties are replaced by spirals. Spiral columns
are used more extensively in seismic regions.

Analysis and Design of Axially Loaded Column

An axially loaded column transmit force without an explicit design requirement to carry lateral
loads. Forces pass through the center of gravity of the column. It is mainly focused on axial forces with
moments and buckling are neglected that is why columns subjected to pure axial load rarely, if ever,
exists.

Required Strength and Design Strength

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NSCP Code Requirements for Tied Columns
1. Gross Steel Ratio, ρg =0.01 to 0.08
2. min. cross-sectional area: Ag = 60,000mm2
3. min. thickness of column = 200 mm
4. min. vertical bars = 4-16 mm ⌀
5. lateral ties:
• 10 mm ⌀ for bars 32 mm or smaller
• 12 mm ⌀ for bars larger than 32 mm
6. spacing of lateral ties
• not more than 16 bar ⌀
• not more than 48 tie ⌀
• not more than least dimension of column
7. clear distance between longitudinal bars
• 1.5 times bar diameter
• 1.5 times max. size of coarse aggregate
8. minimum covering of ties
• 40 mm for interior columns
• 50 mm for exterior columns
• 1.5 times max. size of coarse aggregate
9. When there are more than four vertical bars, additional ties shall be provided so that every
longitudinal bar will be held firmly in position. No bar can be located at a greater distance
than 150 mm clear in either side from a laterally supported bar.

NSCP Code Requirements for Spiral Columns

1. ρg =0.01 to 0.08
2. minimum diameter = 250 mm
3. min. vertical bars = 6 - 16 mm ◻
4. minimum spiral = 10 mm ◻
5. clear distance between vertical bars:
• 1.5 times bar diameter
• 1.5 times max. size of coarse aggregate
6. spacing of spirals:
• not more than 75 mm
• not less than 40 mm
• not more than one-sixth core diameter
7. minimum spiral percentage

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8. Volume of spiral in one loop,

9. Volume of concrete core,

10. Spiral reinforcement ratio,

11. Spacing of spiral,

Axially Loaded Short Columns

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Pa g e | 70
Lesson 7: NSCP Sections 407.1 – 407.9: Details of Reinforcement

This module provides a comprehensive overview of the details of reinforcement as outlined in Sections
407.1 to 407.9 of the National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP). These sections are critical in ensuring
that reinforced concrete structures are designed and constructed in compliance with national safety and durability
standards. Proper reinforcement detailing contributes significantly to structural strength, performance during
loading, and resistance to environmental exposure.

I. 407.1 Notations

• d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement, mm

• db = nominal diameter of bar, wire or prestressing strand, mm
• fci = compressive strength of concrete at time of initial prestress, Mpa
• fy = specified yield strength of non-prestressed reinforcement, Mpa
• Ld = development length, mm. See Section 412

II. 407.2 Standard Hooks

“Standard Hook” as used in this code is one of the following:

407.2.1 180-degree bend plus 4db extension, but not less than 60 mm at
free end of bar.

407.2.2 90-degree bend plus 12db extension at free end of bar.

407.2.3 For stirrup and tie hooks:

• ɸ16 mm bar and smaller, 90-degree bend plus 6db extension at free end of bar; or
• ɸ ɸ 20 mm and 25 mm bar, 90-degree bend, plus 12db extension at free end of bar; or
• ɸ25 mm bar and smaller, 135-degree bend plus 6db extension at free end of bar 407.2.4 Seismic
hooks as defined in Section 402.

III. 407.3 Minimum Bend Diameters

Diameter of bend measured on the inside of the bar, other than for stirrups and ties in sizes 10 mm
through 16 mm, shall not be less than the ɸ ɸ values in Table 407 – 1.

Inside diameter of bends for stirrups and ties shall not be less then 4db for 16 mm bar and smaller.
For bars larger than 16 mm, diameter of bend ɸ ɸ shall be in accordance with Table 407 – 1.

Inside diameter of bends in welded wire fabric (plain or deformed) for stirrups and ties shall not be
less than 4db for deformed wire larger than MD40 and 2db for all other wires. Bends with inside diameter of

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 less than 8db shall not be less than 4db from nearest welded intersection.

IV. 407.4 Bending of Reinforcement

407.4.1 All reinforcement shall be bend cold, unless otherwise permitted by the engineer-of-record.
.
407.4.2 Reinforcement partially embedded in concrete shall not be field bent, except as shown on the
design drawings or permitted by the engineer-of-record.

V. 407.5 Surface Conditions of Reinforcement

407.5.1 At the time concrete is placed, reinforcement shall be free from mud, oil or other nonmetallic
coatings that decrease bond. Epoxy coatings of steel reinforcement in accordance with Sections [Link]
and [Link] shall be permitted.

407.5.2 Reinforcement, except prestressing tendons, with rust, mill scale or a combination of both,
shall be considered satisfactory, provided the minimum dimensions (including height of deformations)
and weight of a hand-wire-brushed test specimen comply with applicable ASTM specifications referenced
in Section 403.6.

407.5.3 Prestressing tendons shall be clean and free of oil, dirt, scale, pitting and excessive rust. A
light coating of rust shall be permitted.

VI. 407.6 Placing of Reinforcement

407.6.1 Reinforcement, prestressing tendons and ducts shall be accurately placed and adequately
supported before concrete is placed, and shall be secured against displacement within tolerances of this
section.

407.6.2 Unless otherwise specified by the engineer-of-record, reinforcement, prestressing tendons and
prestressing ducts shall be placed within the following tolerances:

[Link] Tolerance for depth d, and minimum concrete cover in flexural members, walls and
compression members shall be as follows:

except that tolerance for the clear distance to formed soffits shall be minus 6 mm and tolerance for cover
shall not exceed minus one-third the minimum concrete cover required by the approved plans or
specifications.

[Link] Tolerance for longitudinal location of bends and ends of reinforcement shall be ±50 mm
except at discontinuous ends of members where tolerance shall be ±12 mm at the discontinuous ends of

Pa g e | 72
 brackets and corbels, and ±25 mm at the discontinuous ends of other members. The tolerance for concrete
cover of Section [Link] shall also apply at the discontinuous ends of members.

407.6.3 Welded wire fabric (with wire size not greater than MW30 or MD30) used in slabs not
exceeding 3 m in span shall be permitted to be curved from a point near the top of slab over the support to
a point near the bottom of slab at midspan, provided such reinforcement is either continuous over, or
securely anchored at, support.

407.6.4 Welding of crossing bars shall not be permitted for assembly of reinforcement.
Exceptions:
1. Reinforcing steel bars are not required by design.
2. When specifically approved by the engineer-of-record, welding of crossing bars for assembly
purposes in Seismic Zone 2 may be permitted, provided that data are submitted to the
engineer to show that there is no detrimental effect on the action of the structural member as a
result of welding of the crossing bars.

VII. 407.7 Spacing Limits for Reinforcement

407.7.1 The minimum clear spacing between parallel bars in a layer shall be db but not less than 25
mm. See also Section 403.4.2.

407.7.2 Where parallel reinforcement is placed in two or more layers, bars in the upper layers shall be
placed directly above bars in the bottom layer with clear distance between layers not less than 25 mm.

407.7.3 In spirally reinforcement or tied reinforced compression members, clear distance between
longitudinal bars shall not be less than 1.5 db or less than 40 mm. See also Section 403.4.2.

407.7.6 Bundled Bars

[Link] Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact to act as a unit shall be limited to four
bars in one bundle.

[Link] Bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups or ties.

[Link] Bars larger than ɸ 36 mm shall not be bundled in beams.

407.7.6.4Individual bars within a bundle terminated within the span of flexural members shall
terminate at different points with at least 40 db stagger.

[Link] Where spacing limitations and minimum concrete cover are based on bar diameter db, a
unit of bundled bars shall be treated as a single bar of a diameter derived from the equivalent total area.

407.7.7 Prestressing Tendons and Ducts

[Link] Center-to-center spacing of pre-tensioning tendons at each end of a member shall not be
less than 5db for wire, nor 4db for strands, except that if concrete strength at transfer of prestress, fci is 28
MPa or more, minimum center to center spacing of strands shall be 45 mm for strands of 12 mm nominal
diameter or smaller and 50 mm strands of 16 mm nominal diameter. See also Section 403.4.2. Closer
vertical spacing and bundling of tendons shall be permitted in the middle portion of a span.

[Link] Bundling of post-tensioning ducts shall be permitted if it is shown that concrete can be
satisfactory placed and if provisions is made to prevent the tendons, when tensioned, from breaking
through the duct.

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VIII. 407.8 Concrete Protection for Reinforcement
407.8.1 Cast-in-Place Concrete (Non-prestressed)
Unless a greater cover is required by Section 407.8.6 or 407.8.8, specified cover for reinforcement
shall not be less than the following:

Category Condition Bar Size / Type Minimum Cover

(mm)
1. Concrete cast against 75
and permanently exposed
to earth

2. Concrete exposed to ɸ20 mm through ɸ36 mm 50

earth or weather
ɸ16 mm, MW200 or 40
MD200 wire, and
smaller
3. Concrete not a) Slabs, walls, ɸ42 mm and ɸ58 mm 40
exposed to weather or in joists
contact with ground
a) Slabs, walls, ɸ36 mm and smaller 20
joists
b) Beams, columns Primary reinforcement, 40
ties, stirrups, spirals
c) Shells, folded ɸ20 mm and larger 20
plate members
c) Shells, folded ɸ16 mm, MW200 or 12
plate members MD200 wire, and smaller

407.8.2 Precast Concrete (Manufactured Under Plant Control Conditions) Unless a greater cover is
required by Section 407.8.6 or 407.8.8, specified cover for prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement,
ducts, and end fittings shall not less than the following:

Category Condition Bar Size / Type Minimum

Cover
(mm)
1. Concrete cast a) Wall panels ɸ 42 mm and ɸ 58 mm bars 40
against and
permanently ɸ36 bar and smaller, prestressing 20
exposed to earth tendons larger than 40 mm and
smaller, MW200 or MD200 wire
and smaller
b.) Other ɸ 42 and ɸ 58 mm bars, prestressing 50
members: tendons larger than
40 mm
ɸ 20 mm through ɸ 36 mm bars, 40
prestressing tendons larger than 16 mm
through 40 mm

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 ɸ16 mm bars and smaller, prestressing 30
tendons 16 mm diameter and smaller,
MW200 or
MD200 wire, and smaller
2. Concrete not a.) Slabs, walls, ɸ 42 mm and ɸ 58 mm bars, 30
exposed to weather joists: prestressing tendons larger than
or in contact with 40 mm
ground: Prestressing tendons 40 mm and 20
smaller
ɸ36 mm bar and smaller, MW200 15
or MD200 wire and smaller
b.) Beams, Primary reinforcement db but not less 40
columns than 15 mm and need not exceed

Ties, stirrups, spirals 10

c.) Shells, folded Prestressing tendons 20
plate members ɸ20 mm bar and larger 15
ɸ16 mm bar, MW200 or MD200 wire 10
and smaller

407.8.3 Cast-In-Place Concrete (Prestressed)

[Link] Unless a greater cover is required by Sections 407.8.6 and 407.8.8, specified cover for
prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement, ducts and end fittings, shall not less than the following:

Category Condition Bar Size / Type Minimum

Cover
(mm)
1. Concrete cast 75
against and
permanently
exposed to earth
2. Concrete a.) Wall panels, slabs, 25
exposed to earth or joists
weather
b.) Other members 40
3. Concrete not a) Slabs, walls, joists ɸ36 mm and smaller 20
exposed to weather or
in contact with b) Beams, columns Primary reinforcement 40
ground: Ties, stirrups, spirals 25
c) Shells, folded plate ɸ16 mm bars, MW200 or 10
members MD200 wire, and smaller
Other reinforcement db > 20 mm

[Link] For prestressed concrete members exposed to earth, weather or corrosive environments,
and in which permissible tensile stress of Section 418.5.1, Item 3, is exceeded, minimum cover shall be
increased 50 percent.

[Link] For prestressed concrete members manufactured under plant control conditions, minimum
concrete cover for non-prestressed reinforcement shall be as required in Section 407.8.2.

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 407.8.4 Bundled Bars
For bundled bars, minimum concrete cover shall not be less than the equivalent diameter of the
bundle, but need not be greater than 50 mm; except for concrete cast against and permanently exposed to
earth, minimum cover shall not be less than 75 mm.
407.8.5 Headed Shear Stud Reinforcement
For headed shear stud reinforcement, specified concrete cover for the heads or base rails shall not be
less than that required for the reinforcement in the type of member in which the headed shear stud
reinforcement is placed. 407.8 Concrete Protection for Reinforcement.

407.8.6 Corrosive Environments In corrosive environments or other severe exposure conditions,

amount of concrete protection shall be suitably increased, and the pertinent requirements for concrete
based on applicable exposure categories in Section 404 shall be met, denseness and nonporosity of
protecting concrete shall be considered, or other protection shall be provided.

[Link] For prestressed concrete members exposed to corrosive environments or other severe
exposure categories such as those defined in Section 404, and which are classified as Class T or C in
Section 418.4.3, specified concrete cover shall not be less than 1.5 times the cover for prestressed
reinforcement required by Section 407.8.2 and 407.8.3. This requirement shall be permitted to be waived
if the pre-compressed tensile zone is not in tension under sustained loads. 407.8 Concrete Protection for
Reinforcement.

407.8.7 Future Extensions Exposed reinforcement, inserts and plates intended for bonding with
future extensions shall be protected from corrosion.

407.8.8 Fire Protection If the National Building Code, of which the National Structural Code of the
Philippines forms a part, requires a thickness of cover for fire protection greater than the minimum
concrete cover specified in Sections 407.8.1 through 407.8.7, such greater thickness shall be specified.

IX. 407.9 Special Reinforcement Details for Columns

407.9.1 Offset Bars Offset bent longitudinal bars shall confirm to the following: •

[Link] Slope of inclined portion of an offset bar with axis of column shall not exceed 1 in 6.

[Link] Portions of bar above and below an offset shall be parallel to axis of column.

[Link] Horizontal support at offset bends shall be provided by lateral ties, spirals or parts of the
floor construction. Horizontal support provided shall be designed to resist one and one-half times the
horizontal component of the computed force in the inclined portion of an offset bar. Lateral ties or spirals,
if used, shall be placed not more than 150 mm from points of bend. 407.9 Special Reinforcement Details
for Columns.

[Link] Offset bars shall be bent before placement in the forms. See Section 407.4.

[Link] Where a column face is offset 75 mm or greater, longitudinal bars shall not be offset bent.
Separate dowels, lap spliced with the longitudinal bars adjacent to the offset column faces, shall be
provided. Lap splices shall conform to Section 412.18. 407.9 Special Reinforcement Details for Columns.

407.9.2 Steel Cores Long transfer in structural steel cores of composite compression members shall
be provided by the following:

[Link] Ends of structural steel cores shall be accurately finished to bear at endbearing splices, with
positive provision for alignment of one core above the other in concentric contact.

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 [Link] At end-bearing splices, bearing shall be considered effective to transfer not more than 50
percent of the total compressive stress in the steel core.

[Link] Transfer of stress between column base and footing shall be designed in accordance with
Section 415.9.

[Link] Base of structural steel section shall be designed to transfer the total load from the entire
composite member to the footing; or, the base may be designed to transfer the load from the steel core
only, provided ample concrete section is available for transfer of the portion of the total load carried by
the reinforced concrete section to the footing by compression in the concrete and by reinforcement.

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