Integrated Science

ORGANISMS AND LIFE PROCESSES

Units of Life (Cells and Microorganisms)

• Cell Theory: All living things are made of cells; cells are the basic unit of life; cells
come from pre-existing cells.

• Structure of Plant vs Animal Cells:

◦ Common: Cell membrane (selectively permeable), cytoplasm, nucleus (controls
activities, contains DNA), mitochondria (energy production via respiration).
◦ Plant only: Cell wall (cellulose – support), chloroplasts (photosynthesis), large central
vacuole (turgor pressure, storage).

• Levels of Organisation: Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism.

• Microorganisms: Bacteria (prokaryotic – no nucleus, e.g., useful in yogurt or harmful
in diseases), Viruses (non-living outside host, e.g., COVID, HIV), Fungi (yeast, moulds),
Protozoa (e.g., amoeba).

• Diffusion and Osmosis:

◦ Diffusion: Movement of particles from high to low concentration (e.g., oxygen into
cells). No energy required.
◦ Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane from dilute to
concentrated solution.

Diagram of:
 Animal Cell

Reproduction and Growth in Plants

• Asexual Reproduction: Binary fission (bacteria), budding, vegetative propagation (e.g.,
banana suckers, potato tubers). Advantages: Fast, identical offspring. Disadvantages: No variation.
• Sexual Reproduction: Flower structure (sepals, petals, stamens – anther/pollen, pistil –
stigma/style/ovary). Pollination (self vs cross), fertilisation, seed dispersal (wind, animal, water).
• Germination: Conditions – water, oxygen, suitable temperature. Seed structure (testa,
cotyledon, embryo).
• Growth: Measured by height, leaf number; influenced by light, water, nutrients.

Reproduction and Growth in Animals

• Human Reproductive System: Male (testes, sperm, penis); Female (ovaries, ova, uterus,
menstrual cycle ~28 days).
• Fertilisation: Sperm meets egg in fallopian tube → zygote → embryo → foetus.
• Pregnancy and Birth: Placenta (nutrient/oxygen exchange, waste removal), gestation
~9 months.
• Growth and Development: Infancy, childhood, adolescence (puberty – hormones),
adulthood.
• Contraception and STIs: Methods (condoms, pills); diseases (HIV/AIDS, gonorrhoea).
Transport Systems
• Plant Transport: Xylem (water/minerals upward – transpiration pull), Phloem (food
bidirectional).

• Human Circulatory System: Heart (4 chambers), blood vessels (arteries – thick, away
from heart; veins – valves, to heart; capillaries – exchange). Blood components: Red cells
(haemoglobin, oxygen transport), white cells (immunity), platelets (clotting), plasma.

Excretion
• Definition: Removal of metabolic wastes (e.g., urea, CO₂, excess water).
• Human Excretory System: Kidneys (nephron – filtration, reabsorption), skin (sweat),
lungs (CO₂).
• Plant Excretion: Through stomata, lenticels; wastes stored in leaves/vacuoles.
• Kidney Failure: Dialysis or transplant.
Sense Organs and Coordination
• Sense Organs: Eye (lens, retina, optic nerve – accommodation), Ear (sound detection,
balance), Skin (touch, temperature), Tongue (taste), Nose (smell).

• Nervous System: Central (brain, spinal cord), Peripheral; Neurons (impulse transmission).
Reflex arc (fast, involuntary).

• Endocrine System: Hormones (e.g., insulin – blood sugar; adrenaline – fight/flight).

• Coordination: Nervous (fast, electrical) vs Endocrine (slow, chemical).

Health
• Nutrition and Diet: Balanced diet (carbs, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, fibre, water).
Malnutrition (kwashiorkor, marasmus, obesity).

• Diseases: Communicable (bacteria/viruses – e.g., malaria, dengue in Caribbean) vs

Non-communicable (diabetes, hypertension).

• Drugs and Abuse: Alcohol, tobacco, narcotics – effects and addiction.

• Personal and Environmental Health: Hygiene, sanitation, vector control (mosquitoes).

ENERGY

Conservation of Energy
• Forms of Energy: Kinetic (KE = ½mv²), Potential (gravitational PE = mgh), Chemical,
Heat, Light, Sound, Electrical, Nuclear.
• Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted.
• Efficiency: Useful energy output / total input × 100%.

Formulas:
• Work done = Force × Distance (W = F × d)
• Power = Work / Time (P = W / t) or P = V × I
• Kinetic Energy: KE = 1/2m v^2
• Potential Energy: PE = mgh (g ≈ 10 m/s²)

Energy in Life Processes

• Photosynthesis: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ (light + chlorophyll). Rate
affected by light, CO₂, temperature.
• Respiration: Aerobic: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy. Anaerobic (e.g.,
fermentation in yeast).
• Energy Flow: Food chains/webs, pyramids of energy/biomass (10% rule).

Fossil Fuels and Alternative Sources of Energy

• Fossil Fuels: Coal, oil, natural gas – non-renewable, formed from ancient organisms.
Combustion: Fuel + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + Energy.
• Problems: Pollution (CO₂ – greenhouse effect, global warming), acid rain (SO₂),
depletion.
• Alternatives: Solar (photovoltaic), Wind, Hydro, Biomass, Geothermal, Tidal, Nuclear.
Advantages (renewable, cleaner); Disadvantages (cost, intermittency).

Caribbean: Solar potential in islands; Guyana’s hydropower/oil balance.

Electricity and Lighting
• Current Electricity: Conductors vs Insulators.
• Circuit Components: Cell/battery, switch, lamp, resistor, ammeter (series), voltmeter
(parallel).
• Ohm’s Law: V = I × R (Voltage = Current × Resistance).
• Series vs Parallel Circuits: Current same in series, voltage same in parallel.
• Household Electricity: Wiring (live, neutral, earth), fuses/circuit breakers, power rating
(P = V × I or P = I²R).
• Lighting: Incandescent (inefficient), Fluorescent/LED (efficient).

Formulas:
• ( V = IR )
• Power: ( P = VI ), ( P = I^2 R ), ( P = V^2/R)
• Electrical Energy: E = P × t (in kWh for billing).

Circuit Diagram
Temperature Control and Ventilation
• Heat Transfer: Conduction, Convection, Radiation.
• Temperature Control: Insulation, thermostats (home, refrigerators).
• Ventilation: Natural (windows) vs Mechanical; importance for air quality (remove CO₂,
moisture).
• Greenhouse Effect: Trapping heat (link to climate change).
OUR PLANET

The Universe and Our Solar System

• Solar System: Sun (star), 8 planets, dwarf planets, asteroids, comets. Inner (rocky) vs
Outer (gas giants).
• Earth’s Position: Habitable due to distance from Sun, atmosphere, water.
• Gravity and Orbits: Kepler’s laws basics; seasons due to tilt.
• Stars and Galaxies: Milky Way; light years.

The Terrestrial Environment

• Soil: Formation (weathering), types (clay, sand, loam), components (minerals, organic
matter, air, water).
• Rocks and Minerals: Igneous, Sedimentary, Metamorphic.
• Natural Hazards: Earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides (Caribbean plate boundary).
• Conservation: Deforestation, erosion control.
Guyana: Rainforest soil fragility; bauxite mining impacts.

Water and the Aquatic Environment

• Water Cycle: Evaporation, condensation, precipitation, runoff, infiltration.
• Properties of Water: Universal solvent, high specific heat, density anomaly (ice floats).
• Aquatic Ecosystems: Freshwater (rivers, lakes) vs Marine; pollution (eutrophication,
oil spills).
• Purification: Filtration, distillation, chlorination.

Diagram of:
The water cycle
Filtration Process

Distillation Process

Chlorination Process
Forces
• Types: Contact (friction) vs Non-contact (gravity, magnetism, electrostatic).
• Newton’s Laws: 1st (inertia), 2nd (F = ma), 3rd (action-reaction).
• Moments: Turning effect; Principle of Moments (balanced: clockwise = anticlockwise).
• Pressure: P = F / A (in fluids, increases with depth).
Formulas:
• Force: ( F = m a ) (a in m/s²)
• Weight: W = m g
• Pressure: P = F/A (Pa = N/m²)
• Moment = Force × Perpendicular distance

Metals and Non-Metals

• Properties: Metals (conduct heat/electricity, malleable, ductile, lustrous; e.g., iron,
aluminium); Non-metals (opposite; e.g., sulphur, carbon).
• Reactivity Series: Potassium > Sodium > … > Gold. Displacement reactions.
• Alloys: Mixtures (steel, brass) – stronger/harder.
• Corrosion/Rusting: Iron + O₂ + H₂O → Rust (Fe₂O₃·xH₂O).
Prevention: Painting, galvanising.

Household Chemicals
• Acids, Bases, Salts: pH scale (0–14); Indicators (litmus, universal). Neutralisation:
Acid + Base → Salt + Water.
• Common Chemicals: Soaps, detergents, bleaches, fertilisers, pesticides.
• Mixtures and Separation: Filtration, evaporation, distillation, chromatography.

Diagram of pH scale
Pollutants and Environment
• Air Pollution: Sources (vehicles, factories), effects (acid rain, smog, respiratory issues).
• Water/Land Pollution: Plastics, chemicals, sewage.
• Climate Change: Greenhouse gases (CO₂, CH₄); impacts (sea-level rise affecting
Caribbean coasts).
• Sustainable Practices: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle; renewable energy shift.
Formula List

Organisms and Life Processes

Photosynthesis:
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ (in the presence of light and chlorophyll)
(Word: Carbon dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen)

Aerobic Respiration (energy release in cells):

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy
(Word: Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy)

Anaerobic Respiration (e.g., in yeast or muscle):

C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₂H₅OH + 2CO₂ + Energy (limited)
(Word: Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon dioxide + Energy)
or in muscles: Glucose → Lactic acid + Energy (limited)

Neutralisation (in household chemicals or digestion topics):

Acid + Base → Salt + Water
Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O
Energy
Conservation of Energy & Energy Conversions
• Work done (energy transferred):
W=Fxd
(Work = Force × Distance moved in the direction of the force; Unit: Joules, J)

• Mechanical Advantage (MA) of simple machines (levers, inclined planes):

MA = LOAD/EFFORT (divide)
• Efficiency of machines/devices:
eta = Useful Energy Output/Total Energy Output x 100

Kinetic and Potential Energy (basic applications)

• Kinetic Energy (KE):
KE = 1/2mv^2 )
(Unit: Joules)
• Gravitational Potential Energy (PE):
PE = mgh
(Unit: Joules)

Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted

Electricity and Lighting

• Ohm’s Law (relationship between voltage, current, resistance):
V = IR
(Voltage = Current × Resistance; Unit: V = A × Ω)
• Power (electrical):
P = V x I or ( P = I^2 R ) or ( P = V^2}/R )
(Unit: Watts, W)
• Electrical Energy consumed (for billing/cost calculations):
E=Pxt)
(Often in kWh: 1 kWh = 1000 W × 1 hour)
• Current from Power (for fuses/flexes):
( I = P/V or ( I = W/V ) (W here means power in watts)

Household applications: Calculate wattage of appliances, cost of electricity (energy × rate), choice
of fuse rating.
Our Planet
Forces and Pressure
• Pressure:
P = F/A
(Pressure = Force / Area; Unit: Pascal, Pa or N/m²)
• Moment (turning effect):
Moment = Force × Perpendicular distance from pivot
• Weight:
W = mg
(Weight = Mass × Acceleration due to gravity)

Momentum (basic collisions or motion)

• Momentum:
p=mxv
(Momentum = Mass × Velocity; Unit: kg m/s)

Other Occasional Formulas

• Density (sometimes linked to materials or buoyancy):
rho = m/V
(Density = Mass / Volume; Unit: kg/m³)

Most Frequently Tested Formulas

1 ( V = I R ) (Ohm’s Law)
2 ( P = V I ) (Electrical Power)
3 ( I = P/V ) or ( I = W/V } ) (Current for fuses)
4 ( E = P x t ) (Electrical Energy)
5 (W = F x d ) (Work done)
6 ( MA = Load/Effort ) (Mechanical Advantage)
7 ( P = F/A ) (Pressure)
8 ( W = mg ) (Weight)
9 ( p = mv ) (Momentum)
10 Photosynthesis & Respiration balanced equations (word + symbolic)
11( PE = mgh ) and ( KE = 1/2 m v^2 ) (Energy forms – less common but useful)