CHAPTER 3. ENERGY TRANSPORT BY WORK,HEAT & MASS.
§ Energy is a general term embracing energy in transition and stored energy.
§ The stored energy of a substance may be in the forms of mechanical energy
and internal energy.
§ Other forms of stored energy may be chemical energy and electrical energy.
§ Part of the stored energy may take the form of either potential energy
(which is the gravitational energy due to height above a chosen datum line)
or kinetic energy due to velocity.
§ In a non-flow process, there is no change of potential or kinetic energy and
change of mechanical energy will not enter the calculations.
§ Heat and work are the forms of energy in transition.
§ These are the only forms in which energy can cross the boundaries of a
system.
§ Neither heat nor work can exist as stored energy.
Work
§ Work is said to be done when a force moves through a distance.
§ If a part of the boundary of a system undergoes a displacement under
the action of a pressure, the work done W is the product of the force
(pressure × area), and the distance it moves in the direction of the force.
§ Figure below a) illustrates this with the conventional piston and cylinder
arrangement, the heavy line defining the boundary of the system.
§ Fig. (b) illustrates another way in which work might be applied to a
system.
§ A force is exerted by the paddle as it changes the momentum of the
fluid, and since this force moves during rotation of the paddle work is
done.
cont...
Work is a transient quantity which only appears at the boundary while a
change of state is taking place within a system.
Work is ‘something’ which appears at the boundary when a system changes
its state due to the movement of a part of the boundary under the action of
a force.
Sign convention :
§ If the work is done by the system on the surroundings, e.g., when a fluid
expands pushing a piston outwards, the work is said to be positive. i.e., Work
output of the system = + W
§ If the work is done on the system by the surroundings, e.g., when a force is
applied to a rotating handle, or to a piston to compress a fluid, the work is
said to be negative. i.e., Work input to system = – W
Heat
§ Heat is symbolized by Q and defined in an analogous way to work:
§ “Heat is ‘something’ which appears at the boundary when a system
changes its state due to a difference in temperature between the system
and its surroundings”.
§ Heat, like work, is a transient quantity which only appears at the oundary
while a change is taking place within the system.
cont...
§ It is apparent that neither δW or δQ are exact differentials and therefore any
integration of the elemental quantities of work or heat which appear during a change
from state 1 to state 2 must
§ be written as:
Sign convention :
If the heat flows into a system from the surroundings, the quantity is said to be positive
and, conversely, if heat flows from the system to the surroundings it is said to be negative.
In other words :
Heat received by the system = + Q
Heat rejected or given up by the system = – Q.
Comparison of Work and Heat
Similarities :
§ (i) Both are path functions and inexact differentials.
§ (ii) Both are boundary phenomenon i.e., both are recognized at the boundaries of the
system as they cross them.
§ (iii) Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike properties, work or heat has
no meaning at a state.
§ (iv) Systems possess energy, but not work or heat.
Dissimilarities :
§ (i) In heat transfer temperature difference is required.
§ (ii) In a stable system there cannot be work transfer, however, there is no restriction for
the transfer of heat.
§ (iii) The sole effect external to the system could be reduced to rise of a weight but in
the case of a heat transfer other effects are also observed.
REVERSIBLE WORK
§ Let us consider an ideal frictionless fluid contained in a cylinder above a
piston as shown in Fig. below.
§ Assume that the pressure and temperature of the fluid are uniform and that
there is no friction between the piston and the cylinder walls.
cont...
§ When a fluid undergoes a reversible process a series of state points can be joined up
to form a line on a diagram of properties.
§ The work done by the fluid during any reversible process is therefore given by the
area under the line of process plotted on a p-v diagram (Fig. above).
i.e., Work done = Shaded area on fig below.
Example 1.
An artificial satellite revolves round the earth with a relative velocity of 800 m/s. If
acceleration due to gravity is 9 m/s2 and gravitational force is 3600 N, calculate its
kinetic energy.
Example 2. The specific heat capacity of the system during a certain process
is given by cn = (0.4 + 0.004 T) kJ/kg°C.
If the mass of the gas is 6 kg and its temperature changes from 25°C to
125°C find : (i) Heat transferred ;(ii) Mean specific heat of the gas.
cont...
Example 3
A temperature scale of certain thermometer is given by the relation t = a ln p + b where
a and b are constants and p is the thermometric property of the fluid in the thermometer.
If at the ice point and steam point the thermometric properties are found to be 1.5 and
7.5 respectively what will be the temperature corresponding to the thermometric property
of 3.5 on Celsius scale.
system - surrounding work
Ø When work is done by a system, it is arbitrarily taken to be positive,
and when work is done on a system, it is taken to be negative.
Fig: work interaction between a system and surrounding.
§ The unit of work is N.m or Joule [I Nm= I Joule].
§ The rate at which work is done by, or upon, the system is known as power.
§ The unit of power is J/s or watt.
cont...
§ Work is one of the forms in which a system and its surroundings can interact.
§ There are various types of work transfer which can get involved between them.
pdV-Work or Displacement Work
Path Function and Point Function
§ With reference to Fig. below, it is possible to take a system from state 1 to state 2
along many quasi-static paths.
§ such as A, B or C. Since the area under each curve represents the work for each
process.
§ The amount of work involved in each case is not a function of the end states of the
process, and it depends on the path the system follows in going from state I to state 2.
§ For this reason, work is called a path function, and it dW is inexacr or imperfect
differential.
§ work is a path dependent.
v Work a path function.
§ Thermodynamic properties are point functions, since for a given state, there is
a definite value for each property.
§ The change in a thermodynamic property of a system in a change of state is
independent of the path the system follows during the change or state.
§ It depends only on the initial and final states of the system.
§ The differentials of point functions are exact or perfect differentials, and the
integration is simply,
§ The change in volume thus depends only on the end states of the system
inrrespective of the path the system follows.
cont...
§ On the other hand, work done in a quasi-static process between two given
states depends on the path followed.
Rather,
pdv-Work in various Quast-Static Processes
(a) Constant pressure process (isobaric) process)
(b) Constant volume process (isochoric process)
cont...
(c) Process in which pV = C
Other Types of Work Transfer
§ There are forms of work other than pd V or displacement work.
§ The following are the additional types of work transfer which may get involved in
system-surroundings interactions.
cont...
These are:
ü Electrical work
ü Shaft work
ü Paddle wheel work or stirring work
ü Flow work
ü Work done in stretching a wire
üWork done in changing the area of the surface film.
ü Magnetization work
Heat Transfer
Ø Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred across a boundary by virtue of a temperature
difference.
Ø The temperature difference is the potential or force and heat transfer is the Flux.
Ø The transfer of heat between two bodies in direct contact is called conduction.
Ø Heat may be transferred between two bodies separated by empty space or gases by the mechanism of
radiation through electromagnetic waves.
Ø A third method of heat transfer is convection which refers to the transfer of heat between a wall and a fluid
system in motion.
Ø The direction of heat transfer is taken from the high temperature system to the low temperature system.
Ø Energy transfer by virtue of temperature difference only is called heat transfer.
Ø All other energy interactions may be termed as work transfer.
Specific Heat and Latent Heat
ØThe specific heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to
raise a unit mass of the substance through a unit rise in temperature.
ØThe symbol c will be used for specific heat.
Ø The latent heat is the amount of heat transfer required to cause a phase change
in unit mass of a substance at a constant pressure and temperature.
Ø Three phases in which matter can exist: solid, liquid and vapour or gas.
cont...
§ The latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat transferred to melt unit
mass of solid into liquid or to freeze unit mass of liquid to solid.
§ The latent heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat required to
vaporize unit mass of liquid into vapour, or condense unit mass of vapour
into liquid.
§ The latent heat of sublimation is the amount of heat transferred to
convert unit mass of solid to vapour or vice versa.