Design of Machine Elements

Machine design involves creating new and improved machines, aiming for greater cost-effectiveness in
production and operation. The design process is time-consuming and begins with studying existing
ideas, followed by conceiving a new idea. The commercial viability of the idea is considered, and then
it is transformed into drawings. These drawings should account for the availability of resources like
funds, personnel, and materials needed for successful realization. Designing a machine component
requires knowledge in various subjects such as Mathematics, Engineering Mechanics, Strength of
Materials, Theory of Machines, Workshop Processes, and Engineering Drawing.

1. Classifications of Machine Design

Machine design can be categorized into different types based on the nature of the design process and
the methods employed.
1. Adaptive Design: This type involves making minor alterations or modifications to existing
designs. It requires basic technical knowledge and can be undertaken by designers with ordinary
training. An example would be modifying the design of a smartphone case by adding additional
protective features.
2. Development Design: Considerable scientific training and design expertise are necessary for
this type of design. It involves modifying existing designs to create new ideas by incorporating
different materials or manufacturing methods. An example could be developing a more efficient
aircraft wing design by utilizing lightweight composite materials instead of traditional metals.
3. New Design: This type of design demands extensive research, technical proficiency, and
creative thinking. Only designers with exceptional qualities can undertake such projects. An
example would be designing a revolutionary robotic prosthetic limb that incorporates advanced
sensors and artificial intelligence to improve functionality and enhance the user's quality of life.

Designs can also be classified based on the methods used:

(a) Rational Design: This approach relies on mathematical principles and mechanics formulas. An
example would be calculating the stress and strain distribution in a bridge truss design to ensure
structural integrity.
(b) Empirical Design: This method is based on practical experience and empirical formulas. An
example could be determining the appropriate size and shape of a gear tooth profile based on past
successful designs.
(c) Industrial Design: This design type focuses on the manufacturing aspects of machine components.
An example might involve optimizing the production process of a car engine component to increase
efficiency and reduce costs.
(d) Optimum Design: This involves finding the best design solution by minimizing negative impacts
while achieving a specific objective. An example would be designing an energy-efficient heating system
for a building by minimizing heat loss and maximizing thermal insulation.
(e) System Design: This type of design deals with complex mechanical systems such as motor vehicles.
An example could be designing the overall architecture and subsystem integration of an electric car.
(f) Element Design: This focuses on designing specific elements within a mechanical system, like a
piston, crankshaft, or connecting rod. For instance, designing a high-performance bicycle pedal system
that maximizes power transfer and minimizes weight.
(g) Computer-Aided Design (CAD): This design approach utilizes computer systems to assist in
creating, modifying, analyzing, and optimizing designs. An example would be using CAD software to
design and simulate the aerodynamics of an aircraft wing to improve its efficiency.
2. General Considerations in Machine Design
Designing a machine component involves considering several crucial factors:
1. Load and Stresses: Understanding the type of load and the resulting stresses on the component
is essential. This includes analyzing different load types and their effects on the component's
internal stresses.
2. Motion of Parts: The successful operation of a machine relies on arranging its parts to achieve
the required motion. This can involve rectilinear or curvilinear motion, constant velocity, or
acceleration.
3. Selection of Materials: Designers need a comprehensive understanding of material properties
and behavior under working conditions. Factors such as strength, durability, flexibility, weight,
and resistance to heat and corrosion play a vital role in material selection.
4. Form and Size of Parts: Determining the appropriate form and size of a component involves
balancing strength requirements with practical considerations. Anticipating forces and potential
impact loads is crucial to avoid failure.
5. Frictional Resistance and Lubrication: Frictional resistance results in power loss, and proper
lubrication is essential for moving parts to minimize friction. Considering lubrication
requirements for rotating, sliding, or rolling bearings is necessary.
6. Convenience and Economy: Designers must carefully study the operating features of the
machine, ensuring convenient handling, adjustment for wear, easy access for part replacement,
and maximum capacity consistent with good work production.
7. Use of Standard Parts: Utilizing standard parts helps reduce costs compared to custom-made
components. This includes incorporating gears, pulleys, bearings, screws, nuts, and pins readily
available in the market.
8. Safety of Operation: Safety should be a top priority, and designers should incorporate safety
devices to protect operators. Safety measures should not hinder the machine's operation.
9. Workshop Facilities: Understanding the limitations and capabilities of the workshop is
important to avoid the need for outsourcing work. Planning and supervising workshop
operations and developing appropriate methods for casting, handling, and machining special
parts may be necessary.
10. Number of Machines to be Manufactured: The number of machines or articles to be
manufactured impacts the design process. Engineering and shop costs are distributed over the
quantity produced, and standard parts are preferred for small-scale production.
11. Cost of Construction: Cost plays a crucial role in design considerations. High costs may render
an article impractical, but if it shows commercial potential, investment in designing and
developing automatic machines for mass production becomes justifiable.
12. Assembling: Before functioning, every machine or structure needs to be assembled as a unit.
Consideration should be given to the final location and the available facilities for erection.
By carefully addressing these general considerations, designers can create efficient, safe, and cost-
effective machine components.
3. Shighley’s Model for Design

1. Recognition of Need: This step involves identifying a need or problem that requires a design
solution. For example, let's say a company recognizes the need for a more efficient and
environmentally friendly manufacturing process for their products. They realize that their
current process is causing excessive waste and energy consumption.
2. Definition of Problem: In this step, the identified need is further defined and articulated as a
specific design problem. Using our example, the company defines the problem as developing a
manufacturing process that reduces waste generation by 50% and decreases energy
consumption by 30%.
3. Synthesis: The synthesis step focuses on generating potential design solutions or ideas.
Designers brainstorm and explore various concepts that could address the defined problem.
Continuing with our example, the design team may come up with ideas such as implementing
recycling systems, optimizing production line layouts, and using renewable energy sources.
4. Analysis and Optimization: Once potential design solutions are generated, this step involves
analyzing and evaluating each solution. Designers assess the feasibility, performance, and cost-
effectiveness of each idea. They optimize the designs to enhance their effectiveness and
efficiency. In our example, the design team would analyze the proposed solutions' technical
feasibility, environmental impact, and economic viability. They might perform simulations,
conduct experiments, and perform cost analyses to identify the most promising options.
5. Evaluation: The evaluation step aims to select the best design solution from the analyzed
options. Designers compare the alternatives based on predefined criteria, such as performance,
cost, and environmental impact. In our example, the design team would evaluate the proposed
solutions' waste reduction potential, energy savings, implementation costs, and long-term
sustainability.
6. Presentation: The final step involves presenting the selected design solution to stakeholders or
decision-makers. Designers communicate the rationale behind their choice, including the
benefits and advantages of the selected solution. In our example, the design team would present
the recommended manufacturing process, highlighting how it meets the defined problem's
objectives while reducing waste and energy consumption.
By following this design process, Shighley's approach ensures that design solutions are systematically
developed, evaluated, and optimized to meet specific needs and objectives. This helps designers
to create innovative and efficient designs that address real-world challenges.

4. Engineering Materials
A design engineer must possess a deep understanding of materials and their properties, as it plays a
crucial role in their work. It is essential to select materials that possess suitable properties for the specific
operating conditions of machine elements. Furthermore, a design engineer should also be
knowledgeable about how manufacturing processes and heat treatment can impact the material
properties. This understanding enables them to make informed decisions regarding material selection
and anticipate how these processes may affect the performance and behavior of the designed
components.

4.1 Classification of Engineering Materials

The engineering materials are mainly classified as : 1. Metals and their alloys, such as iron, steel, copper,
aluminium, etc. 2. Non-metals, such as glass, rubber, plastic, etc. The metals may be further classified
as : (a) Ferrous metals, and (b) Non-ferrous metals
The *ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such as cast iron, wrought
iron and steel. The non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their main
constituent, such as copper, aluminium, brass, tin, zinc, etc.

4.2 Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes

The following factors should be considered while selecting the material:
1. Availability of the materials,
2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service,
3. The cost of the materials.

4.3 Physical Properties of Metals

The physical properties of the metals include luster, colour, size and shape, density, electric and thermal
conductivity, and melting point.

4.4 Mechanical Properties of Metals

The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with the ability of the material
to resist mechanical forces and load.
1. Strength. It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without breaking
or yielding. The internal resistance offered by a part to an externally applied force is called
stress.
2. Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus of
elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
3. Elasticity. It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation when
the external forces are removed. This property is desirable for materials used in tools and
machines.
 4. Plasticity. It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load
permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forgings, in stamping images on
coins and in ornamental work.
5. Ductility. It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the application
of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic. The ductility is usually
measured by the terms, percentage elongation and percentage reduction in area. The ductile
materials commonly used in engineering practice (in order of diminishing ductility) are mild
steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead.
6. Brittleness. It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of breaking
of a material with little permanent distortion. Brittle materials when subjected to tensile loads,
snap off without giving any sensible elongation. Cast iron is a brittle material.
7. Malleability. It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or hammered
into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be so strong.
The malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice (in order of diminishing
malleability) are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium.
8. Toughness. It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated. It is measured by the
amount of energy that a unit volume of the material has absorbed after being stressed upto the
point of fracture. This property is desirable in parts subjected to shock and impact loads.
9. Machinability. It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case with which a
material can be cut. The machinability of a material can be measured in a number of ways such
as comparing the tool life for cutting different materials or thrust required to remove the material
at some given rate or the energy required to remove a unit volume of the material.
10. Resilience. It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact loads.
It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within the elastic limit. This
property is essential for spring materials.
11. Creep. When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long period of
time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep.
12. Fatigue. When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield
point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue. The failure is caused by
means of a progressive crack formation which are usually fine and of microscopic size. This
property is considered in designing shafts, connecting rods, springs, gears, etc.
13. Hardness. It is a very important property of metals and has a wide variety of meanings. It
embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching, deformation and
machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to cut another metal. The hardness is
usually expressed in numbers which are dependent on the method of making the test. The
hardness of a metal may be determined by the following tests : (a) Brinell hardness test, (b)
Rockwell hardness test, (c) Vickers hardness (also called Diamond Pyramid) test, and (d) Shore
scleroscope.

5. Simple Stresses in Machine Parts

Simple stresses in machine parts refer to the internal forces or loads experienced by the components due
to various external factors. These stresses are called "simple" because they act in a single direction and
are relatively straightforward to analyze. Some common types of simple stresses include:
1. Tensile Stress: Tensile stress occurs when a component is subjected to forces that try to
elongate or stretch it. It is calculated by dividing the applied force by the cross-sectional area
 of the component. Tensile stress can lead to material deformation or failure if it exceeds the
tensile strength of the material.
Tensile Stress: σ = F/A
where,
σ: Stress (in N/m² or Pa)
F: Applied force (in N)
A: Cross-sectional area (in m²)
2. Compressive Stress: Compressive stress is the opposite of tensile stress. It arises when a
component experiences forces that compress or shorten it. Similar to tensile stress, it is calculated
by dividing the applied force by the cross-sectional area. Excessive compressive stress can cause
buckling or crushing of the material.
Compressive Stress: σ = F/A
where,
σ: Stress (in N/m² or Pa)
F: Applied force (in N)
A: Cross-sectional area (in m²)
3. Shear Stress: Shear stress occurs when forces act parallel to the cross-sectional area of a
component, causing adjacent layers of the material to slide against each other. Shear stress can lead
to shear deformation or failure if it surpasses the shear strength of the material.
Shear Stress: τ = F/A
where,
σ: Stress (in N/m² or Pa)
F: Applied force (in N)
A: Cross-sectional area (in m²)

4. Bending Stress: Bending stress arises in machine parts subjected to bending moments or forces
that cause them to bend. It is highest on the outermost fibers of the component and decreases
towards the neutral axis. Bending stress can result in structural failure if it surpasses the material's
bending strength.

5. Torsional Stress: Torsional stress occurs in components that are subjected to twisting or
torsion. It is calculated by dividing the applied torque by the polar moment of inertia of the cross-
sectional area. Excessive torsional stress can cause shear failure or fracture in the material.

Understanding and analyzing these simple stresses is vital for design engineers to ensure that machine
parts can withstand the anticipated loads and operate safely under normal working conditions. Proper
consideration of material properties, geometry, and stress concentrations can help in designing
components that can effectively withstand these stresses and ensure reliable and efficient machine
operation.

6. Combined Stresses
Machine components are often subjected to multiple types of loading simultaneously, resulting in
combined stresses. Combined stresses occur when different types of stresses, such as axial, bending,
torsional, or shear stresses, act on a component concurrently. Understanding and analyzing combined
stresses are essential to ensure the structural integrity and reliability of machine components.
The combined stress should be compared to the material's allowable stress or strength to ensure that it
remains within the acceptable limits. If the combined stress exceeds the material's strength, it may lead
to deformation, failure, or reduced service life of the component.

7. Failure Theories

Equations are in the data book.

8. Factor of Safety
While designing a component, it is necessary to provide sufficient reserve strength in case of an
accident. This is achieved by taking a suitable factor of safety.
The allowable stress is the stress value, which is used in design to determine the dimensions of the
component. It is considered as a stress, which the designer expects will not be exceeded under normal
operating conditions.
There are a number of factors which are difficult to evaluate accurately in design analysis. Some of the
factors are as follows: (i) Uncertainty in the magnitude of external force acting on the component (ii)
Variations in the properties of materials like yield strength or ultimate strength (iii) Variations in the
dimensions of the component due to imperfect workmanship. In addition to these factors, the number
of assumptions made in design analysis, in order to simplify the calculations, may not be exactly valid
in working conditions. The factor of safety ensures against these uncertainties and unknown conditions.
The magnitude of the factor of safety depends upon the following factors:
A. Effect of Failure Sometimes, the failure of a machine element involves only a little
inconvenience or loss of time, e.g., failure of the ball bearing in a gearbox. On the other hand, in
some cases, there is substantial financial loss or danger to the human life, e.g., failure of the valve
in a pressure vessel. The factor of safety is high in applications where failure of a machine part
may result in serious accidents.
B. Type of Load The factor of safety is low when the external force acting on the machine element
is static, i.e., a load which does not vary in magnitude or direction with respect to time. On the
other hand, a higher factor of safety is selected when the machine element is subjected to impact
load. This is due to the fact that impact load is suddenly applied to the machine component, usually
at high velocities.
C. Degree of Accuracy in Force Analysis When the forces acting on the machine component are
precisely determined, a low factor of safety can be selected. On the contrary, a higher factor of
safety is necessary when the machine component is subjected to a force whose magnitude or
direction is uncertain and unpredictable.
D. Material of Component When the component is made of a homogeneous ductile material like
steel, yield strength is the criterion of failure. The factor of safety is usually small in such cases.
On the other hand, a cast iron component has nonhomogeneous structure and a higher factor of
safety based on ultimate tensile strength is chosen.
E. Reliability of Components In certain applications like continuous process equipment, power
stations or defense equipment, high reliability of components is expected. The factor of safety
increases with increasing reliability.
F. Cost of Component As the factor of safety increases, dimensions of the component, material
requirement and cost increase. The factor of safety is low for cheap machine parts.
G. Testing of Machine Element A low factor of safety can be chosen when the machine
component can be tested under actual conditions of service and operation. A higher factor of safety
is necessary, when it is not possible to test the machine part or where there is deviation between
test conditions and actual service conditions.
H. Service Conditions When the machine element is likely to operate in a corrosive atmosphere
or high temperature environment, a higher factor of safety is necessary.
I. Quality of Manufacture When the quality of manufacture is high, variations in dimensions of
the machine component are less and a low factor of safety can be selected. Conversely, a higher
factor of safety is required to compensate for poor manufacturing quality.
Selecting an appropriate factor of safety is a challenging task for designers. Here are the guidelines for
determining quantitative values of the factor of safety:
 (i) For cast iron components, the ultimate tensile strength is considered the failure criterion. Due
to the non-homogeneous structure and potential residual stresses, a large factor of safety of 3 to 5
based on ultimate tensile strength is used in their design.
(ii) Components made of ductile materials like steel, subjected to static forces, use yield strength
as the failure criterion. Since these components have a homogeneous structure and residual stresses
can be relieved through heat treatment, a smaller factor of safety of 1.5 to 2 based on yield strength
is recommended.
(iii) Components made of ductile materials experiencing fluctuating forces and prone to fatigue
failure consider the endurance limit as the failure criterion. Endurance limit is reduced to account
for factors like stress concentration, notch sensitivity, surface finish, and component size. The
recommended factor of safety based on the endurance limit is typically 1.3 to 1.5.
(iv) Certain components, like cams, gears, and rolling contact bearings, are designed using Hertz's
theory to calculate contact stresses. Failure in such components manifests as small surface pits
due to pitting, a form of surface fatigue. The surface endurance limit can be improved by increasing
surface hardness. A recommended factor of safety of 1.8 to 2.5 based on the surface endurance
limit is used.
(v) Components such as piston rods, power screws, and studs are designed considering buckling.
Buckling is elastic instability resulting in sudden large deflection. The critical buckling load
depends on yield strength, modulus of elasticity, end conditions, and radius of gyration. For these
components, a recommended factor of safety of 3 to 6 is based on the critical buckling load.
These guidelines assist designers in determining appropriate factors of safety for different types of
components, ensuring their reliability and performance under specific loading conditions.

9. Fatigue
When a material is repeatedly subjected to stress, it can fail at stresses lower than the yield point. This
type of failure is known as fatigue. It occurs due to the progressive formation of cracks, which are
typically small and microscopic. Fatigue failure can happen suddenly without any prior warning signs.
The fatigue of a material is influenced by factors such as the size of the component, the relative
magnitude of static and fluctuating loads, and the number of load reversals.

10. Endurance Limit

The endurance limit, also known as the fatigue limit or fatigue strength, is a critical parameter in the
study of fatigue failure in materials. It represents the maximum cyclic stress that a material can sustain
indefinitely without experiencing fatigue failure. Designers and engineers utilize the endurance limit to
ensure the durability and resistance to fatigue failure of components and structures. It's important to
note that the endurance limit is not universally constant and can be influenced by operating conditions
such as temperature, corrosion, and stress distribution variations.

11. Stress Concentration

Stress concentration refers to the phenomenon where localized areas of a component experience
significantly higher stress levels compared to the surrounding material. It occurs when there are
geometric irregularities, such as sharp corners, notches, holes, or sudden changes in shape. These
irregularities act as stress raisers, causing stress to concentrate and intensify in those areas. Stress
concentrations can weaken the material and increase the likelihood of crack initiation and failure.
Designers must account for stress concentration effects to prevent unexpected failures by incorporating
appropriate design features, such as fillets, gradual transitions, and removing sharp corners or notches.
12. Stress Concentration Factor
The stress concentration factor (SCF) is a dimensionless parameter that quantifies the degree of stress
intensification at a localized stress concentration compared to the nominal or average stress in the
surrounding material. It is calculated by dividing the maximum stress at the stress concentration point
by the nominal stress. The SCF provides a measure of the stress amplification caused by the presence
of geometric irregularities, notches, or discontinuities in a component. It is an essential factor in
designing against failure due to stress concentrations, as it helps engineers accurately assess the strength
and durability of structures and components under various loading conditions. Mathematically,
theoretical or form stress concentration factor
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑚 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝐾𝑡 =
𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

13. Notch Sensitivity

Notch sensitivity refers to how closely the actual effect of stress concentration matches the theoretical
prediction. Notches or fillets in cyclic loading have a lesser impact than predicted by theoretical factors.
This difference is influenced by the stress gradient and material hardness, and it is known as notch
sensitivity.
𝐾𝑓 − 1
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑞 =
𝐾𝑡 − 1
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐾𝑓 = 𝐹𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝐾𝑡 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐹𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐾𝑓 =
𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

14. Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration

The presence of stress concentration cannot be totally eliminated but it may be reduced to some extent.
Stress flow lines provide a visual aid to design engineers in identifying and addressing stress
concentration by showing how stress is distributed in a component. The mitigation of stress
concentration means that the stress flow lines shall maintain their spacing as far as possible. The figures
below show stress concentration and some methods to reduce stress concentration.
15. Factors to be Considered while Designing Machine Parts to Avoid Fatigue Failure
The following factors should be considered while designing machine parts to avoid fatigue failure:
1. The variation in the size of the component should be as gradual as possible.
2. The holes, notches and other stress raisers should be avoided.
3. The proper stress de-concentrators such as fillets and notches should be provided wherever
necessary.
4. The parts should be protected from corrosive atmosphere.
5. A smooth finish of outer surface of the component increases the fatigue life.
6. The material with high fatigue strength should be selected.
7. The residual compressive stresses over the parts surface increases its fatigue strength.

16. Combined Steady and variable stress-Garber criteria.

The Gerber criterion, also known as the Gerber fatigue failure criterion or the Goodman-Gerber
criterion, is a method used to assess the fatigue failure of materials under fluctuating stress conditions.
It is based on the principle that fatigue failure occurs when the combination of mean stress (𝜎𝑚 ) and
alternating stress (𝜎𝑎 ) exceeds a certain critical value.
To assess the safety of a design or component, engineers compare the operating stress conditions
(alternating stress and mean stress) with the Gerber parabola. The Gerber parabola, also known as the
Gerber curve or Gerber envelope, is a graphical representation used in the Gerber fatigue failure
criterion. It plots the relationship between alternating stress (𝜎𝑎 ) and mean stress (𝜎𝑚 ) for a given
material. If the stress point falls within the region bounded by the parabola, it indicates that the
material is expected to withstand the given stress level without fatigue failure. However, if the stress
point falls outside the parabolic envelope, it suggests a higher risk of fatigue failure, requiring design
modifications or material selection changes to reduce stress levels.
By comparing the calculated stress range with the Gerber criterion, engineers can evaluate the
potential for fatigue failure and make informed decisions about design modifications or material
selection to ensure the safety of components.
17. The Goodman fatigue failure criterion

The Goodman fatigue failure criterion is a method used to assess the fatigue failure of materials under
fluctuating stress conditions. It considers the ultimate tensile strength (UTS of the material. The
Goodman criterion states that fatigue failure occurs when the combination of mean stress and alternating
stress exceeds a certain critical value determined by the material's strength properties. A Goodman line
may be used when the design is based on ultimate strength and may be use for ductile or brittle materials.
If the stress combination falls within the allowable region determined by the criterion (Goodman Line),
it suggests that the material is expected to withstand the given stress levels without fatigue failure.
However, if the stress combination exceeds the limits specified by the Goodman criterion, it indicates a
higher risk of fatigue failure, necessitating design modifications or material selection changes to reduce
stress levels.

18. Soderberg fatigue failure criterion

It is based on the principle that fatigue failure occurs when the combination of mean stress and
alternating stress exceeds a certain critical value determined by the material's yield strength. To assess
the safety of a design or component, engineers compare the operating stress conditions (alternating
stress and mean stress) with the Soderberg line. The Soderberg line, also referred to as the Soderberg
curve or Soderberg envelope, is a graphical representation that depicts the relationship between
alternating stress (𝜎𝑎 ) and mean stress (𝜎𝑚 ) for a given material. If the stress point falls within the region
bounded by the Soderberg line and the x-axis (indicating zero mean stress), it suggests that the material
is expected to withstand the given stress levels without fatigue failure. However, if the stress point falls
outside the region or exceeds the limits specified by the Soderberg line, it indicates a higher risk of
fatigue failure, requiring design modifications or material selection changes to reduce stress levels.

19. Types of Riveted Joints

1. Lap Joints
.
2. Butt Joint
20. CAULKING AND FULLERING
In applications such as pressure vessels and boilers, it is important to have riveted joints that are tightly
sealed to prevent leaks. To achieve this, caulking and fullering processes are used. In caulking, the edges
of plates in a lap joint or strap plates in a butt joint are beveled to around 70° to 75°. A caulking tool is
then hammered on the edges, sealing the joint. This can be done manually or with pneumatic or
hydraulic hammers. The rivet head is also hammered down with the caulking tool to ensure a tight seal.
Caulking is not suitable for plates thinner than 6 mm. Fullering is similar to caulking, but the tool used
has a width equal to the plate's thickness. It applies pressure to the entire edge of the plate to create a
tight seal.

21. Advantages of welded joints over riveted joints

1. Riveted joints require additional cover plates, gusset plates, straps, clip angles and a large
number of rivets, which increase the weight. Since there are no such additional parts, welded
assembly results in lightweight construction.
2. Due to the elimination of these components, the cost of welded assembly is lower than that of
riveted joints.
3. The design of welded assemblies can be easily and economically modified to meet the changing
product requirements. Alterations and additions can be easily made in the existing structure by
welding.
4. Welded assemblies are tight and leakproof as compared with riveted assemblies.
5. The production time is less for welded assemblies.
6. When two parts are joined by the riveting method, holes are drilled in the parts to accommodate
the rivets. The holes reduce the cross-sectional area of the members and result in stress
concentration. There is no such problem in welded connections.
7. A welded structure has smooth and pleasant appearance. The projection of rivet head adversely
affects the appearance of the riveted structure.
8. The strength of welded joint is high. Very often, the strength of the weld is more than the
strength of the plates that are joined together.
9. Machine components of certain shape, such as circular steel pipes, find difficulty in riveting.
However, they can be easily welded.

22. Disadvantages of welded joints over riveted joints

1. Since there is an uneven heating and cooling during fabrication, therefore the members may get
distorted or additional stresses may develop.
2. It requires a highly skilled labour and supervision.
 3. Since no provision is kept for expansion and contraction in the frame, therefore there is a
possibility of cracks developing in it.
4. The inspection of welding work is more difficult than riveting work.

23. Types of Welded Joints

1. Fillet Joints
A fillet joint, also called a lap joint, is a joint between two overlapping plates or components. There
are two types of fillet joints— transverse and parallel,
A fillet weld is called transverse, if the direction of the weld is perpendicular to the direction of
the force acting on the joint. There are two types of fillet welds A) single transverse fillet Weld B)
double transverse fillet Weld. A fillet weld is called parallel or longitudinal, if the direction of weld
is parallel to the direction of the force acting on the joint. It is shown in Fig.

In addition to butt and fillet joints, there are some other types of welded joints, which are shown in
Fig. below. A tee-joint is a joint between two components located at right angles to each other in
the form of a T. In this case, the end face of one component is welded to the side of the other
component by means of a fillet weld. A corner joint is a joint between two components, which are
at right angles to each other in the form of an angle. An edge joint is a joint between the edges of
two or more parallel components as shown in Fig. It is used for thin plates subjected to light loads.

2. Butt Joints
A butt joint connects the ends of the two plates. The selection of the types of butt joints depends
upon the plate thickness and the reliability. Some guidelines are as follows:
 1. When the thickness of the plates is less than 5 mm, it is not necessary to bevel the edges of the
plates. There is no preparation of the edges of the plates before welding. The edges are square
with respect to the plates. Therefore, the joint is called square butt joint.
2. When the thickness of the plates is between 5 to 25 mm, the edges are bevelled before the
welding operation. The edges of two plates form a V shape. Therefore, the joint is called V-joint
or single welded V-joint. This joint is welded only from one side.
3. When the thickness of the plates is more than 20 mm, the edges of the two plates are machined
to form a U shape. The joint is welded only from one side. It is called single welded U-joint.
4. When the thickness of the plates is more than 30 mm, a double welded V-joint is used. The
joint is welded from both sides of the plate.
When the welding is to be done only from one side, a single welded V-joint with a backing strip is
used to avoid the leakage of the molten metal on the other side. There are two types of the backing
strip—permanent steel backing and removable copper backing. This type of joint is shown in Fig.
(e).

In applications like pressure vessels, the reliability of the joint is an important consideration. Single
welded V-joint is more reliable than square butt joint. Single welded V-joint with backing strip is
more reliable than single welded V-joint without backing strip. Double welded V-joint is more
reliable than single welded V-joint with backing strip. The cost also increases with the reliability of
the joint.

24. Springs
A spring is defi ned as an elastic machine element, which deflects under the action of the load and
returns to its original shape when the load is removed.
Applications:
1. Springs are used to absorb shocks and vibrations, e.g., vehicle suspension springs.
2. Springs are used to store energy, e.g., springs used in clocks.
3. Springs are used to measure force, e.g., springs used in weighing balances and scales.
4. Springs are used to apply force and control motion. There are a number of springs used for
this purpose. In engine valve mechanism, spring is used to return the rocker arm to its normal
position when the disturbing force is removed. The spring used in clutch provides the required
force to engage the clutch.

25. Types of Springs

1. Helical compression springs.
In helical compression spring, the external force tends to shorten the spring. In other words, the
spring is compressed. The external force acts along the axis.
2. Helical extension (Tension)springs
In helical extension spring, the external force tends to lengthen the spring. In other words, the
spring is elongated. The external force acts along the axis.

3. Closely coiled helical springs

The helical springs are said to be closely coiled when the spring wire is coiled so close that the plane
containing each turn is nearly at right angles to the axis of the helix and the wire is subjected to
torsion. In other words, in a closely coiled helical spring, the helix angle is very small, it is usually
less than 10°
4. Open coiled helical springs
In open coiled helical springs, the spring wire is coiled in such a way that there is a gap between the
two consecutive turns, as a result of which the helix angle is large.
5. Conical and volute springs
The conical and volute springs are used in special applications where a telescoping spring or a spring
with a spring rate that increases with the load is desired. The conical spring is wound with a uniform
pitch whereas the volute springs are wound in the form of paraboloid with constant pitch and lead
angles.

6. Torsion springs
 These springs may be of helical or spiral type. These may be used in applications where the load
tends to wind up the spring and are used in various electrical mechanisms. Helical torsion spring is
used in door-hinges, brush holders, automobile starters and door locks.

7. Leaf springs
The laminated or leaf spring (also known as flat spring or carriage spring) consists of a number of
flat plates (known as leaves) of varying lengths held together by means of clamps and bolts, as
shown in Fig. These are mostly used in automobiles. The major stresses produced in leaf springs
are tensile and compressive stresses.

26. Advantages of helical springs

The helical springs have the following advantages:
(a) These are easy to manufacture.
(b) These are available in wide range.
(c) These are reliable.
(d) These have constant spring rate.
(e) Their performance can be predicted more accurately.
(f) Their characteristics can be varied by changing dimensions.

27. Surge in springs

When a helical spring is supported on one end and suddenly loaded on the other end, the deflection of
the coils is not uniform. It takes time for the stress to propagate along the spring wire. Initially, the
coils in contact with the load deflect the most, and then they transmit some of their deflection to the
adjacent coils. This compression wave travels through the coils towards the supported end and reflects
back to the deflected end. This compression wave continues to travel indefinitely along the spring.
If the applied load fluctuates, like in the case of a valve spring in an internal combustion engine, and
the time interval between load applications matches the time for the wave to travel from one end to the
other, resonance can occur. This leads to significant deflections of the coils and high stresses. Under
these conditions, there is a risk of spring failure. This phenomenon is known as surge.
In simple terms, when a helical spring is loaded suddenly, the stress and deflection do not distribute
evenly across all coils initially. Instead, a wave of compression moves through the coils, and if the
load fluctuates at the right timing, it can cause resonance and potentially lead to excessive deflections
and high stresses, which can result in spring failure. This phenomenon is called surge.