UNIT Emergence of State

and Empire
4
Learning Objectives
To enable the students to acquire knowledge on
„„the emergence of the first two important empires of India
„„the significance of the invasions of Persians and Greeks
„„the socio-political changes from 6th century to 3rd century BCE.
„„the Pre-Mauryan administration and socio-economic conditions
„„the Dharmic state of Ashoka through his edicts

Introduction waterways for trade and travel. Bimbisara, who

was a contemporary of Buddha, started the
From the sixth century to the third
process of empire building in Magadha. It was
century BCE, North India passed through
strengthened by his son Ajatashatru and then
major political and social changes. Buddhism by the Nandas. The empire reached its glory
and Jainism emerged as prominent religions and peaked with the advent of the Mauryan
having a large number of followers. These Empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya. The
two religious systems were antithetical to the first three Mauryan emperors, Chandragupta,
mainstream Vedic religion. As a consequence Bindusara and Ashoka, were the best known.
of new beliefs and ideas propounded by Jainism After Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire went into
and Buddhism, the social order largely centred decline.
on Vedic rituals underwent a significant change,
Sources
as people of many religious faiths were part of
the emerging society. On the political front, The names of Chandragupta and his two
minor states and federations of clans were successors in the Mauryan period are well
merged through conquests to create an empire known now. But reconstructing their lives and
during this period, resulting in a large state, careers was a laborious and difficult process
ruled by a chakravartin or ekarat (emperor or for the earlier historians. There are hardly
one supreme king). The rise of a centralised any comprehensive contemporary accounts
empire in the Gangetic plains of present-day or literary works which refer to the Mauryan
Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh changed the emperors though they are mentioned in various
social, economic and administrative fabric of Buddhist and Jain texts as well as in some Hindu
the region. works like the brahmanas. The Mahavamsa,
the comprehensive historical chronicle in Pali
The flat plains and the availability of from Sri Lanka, is an important additional
plentiful water from the perennial rivers, such source. The scattered information from these
as the Ganga and its many tributaries, were sources has been corroborated by accounts of
among the favourable ecological conditions Greek historians who left their accounts about
which promoted the rise of a large state in this India following Alexander’s campaign in north-
particular region. Rivers also acted as major western part of the country.
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 Archaeology and epigraphy are the Chandragupta. This is of importance for two
tools that provide rich information for the reasons: (i) it indicates the extent of the Mauryan
historian to understand earlier periods of Empire, which had expanded as far west as Gujarat
history. Archaeology is particularly important and (ii) it shows that more than four centuries
because excavations reveal the nature of urban after his death, the name of Chandragupta was
morphology, that is, layout of the city and still well known and remembered in many parts
construction of buildings. They also provide of the country. A second source is a literary work.
concrete information about the material culture The play Mudrarakshasa by Visakhadatta was
of people in the past, such as the metals that written during the Gupta period, sometime after
were known, materials and tools they used, and the 4th century CE. It narrates Chandragupta’s
the technology they employed. accession to the throne of the Magadha Empire
The archaeological finds in the Gangetic and the exploits of his chief advisor Chanakya
regions give us solid proof about the nature of the or Kautilya by listing the strategies he used to
urban centres established in the region in course counter an invasion against Chandragupta. This
of time. Epigraphical evidence is scanty for the play is often cited as a corroborative source since
period. The most widely known are the edicts of it supports the information gathered from other
Ashoka, which have been discovered in many contemporary sources about Chandragupta. It
parts of the country. In fact, the reconstruction is important to note from both these sources
of the Mauryan period to a great extent became that the fame of Chandragupta had survived
possible only after the Brahmi script of the long after he was gone and became imbibed in
inscriptions at Sanchi was deciphered by James popular lore and memory. They thus attest to
Prinsep in 1837. Information about other the significance of oral traditions, which are now
edicts in other parts of the country also became accepted as an additional valid source of history.
available at that time. It must be remembered
that these were the oldest historical artefacts
4.1  Rise of Magadha under
found in India in the nineteenth century, until the Haryanka Dynasty
archaeological excavations unearthed the Indus Among the 16
valley towns of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro mahajanapadas, Kasi
in the twentieth century. All the edicts began was initially powerful.
with a reference to a great king, “Thus spoke However, Kosala became
devanampiya (beloved of the gods) piyadassi (of dominant later. A
pleasing looks)”, and the geographical spread of power struggle broke
the edicts make it clear that this was a king who out between Magadha,
had ruled over a vast empire. But who was this Kosala, Vrijji and Avanti.
king? Puranic and Buddhist texts referred to a Eventually Magadha
chakravartin named Ashoka. As more edicts emerged as the dominant Bimbisara
were deciphered, the decisive identification that mahajanapada and
devananampiya piyadassi was Ashoka was made established the first Indian empire. The first
in 1915. One more edict when deciphered, which known ruler of Magadha was Bimbisara of the
referred to him as devanampiya Ashoka, made Haryanka dynasty. He extended the territory
reconstruction of Mauryan history possible. of Magadhan Empire by matrimonial alliances
Let us now turn to two later sources. The and conquests. By marrying off his sister to
first is the rock inscription of Junagadh, near Prasenajit, ruler of Kosala, he received Kasi
Girnar in Gujarat. This was carved during the as dowry. He also married the princesses of
reign of Rudradaman, the local ruler and dates Lichchhavis and Madra. He maintained friendly
back to 130–150 CE. It refers to Pushyagupta, relations with Avanti but annexed Anga by
the provincial governor (rashtriya) of Emperor military might. Thus, Magadha became a

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 powerful and prominent power. During his Nandas. During the process of empire building,
reign, Bimbisara patronised various religious Nandas exterminated many kshatriya clans and
sects and their leaders. He had an encounter subjugated kshatriya-ruled kingdoms, which had
with Buddha as well. still retained a degree of autonomous authority,
thus creating a centralised state. An inscription
His son Ajatashatru ascended the
known as the Hathigumpha (elephant cave)
throne by killing his father. King Prasenajit
from Udayagiri near Bhubaneshwar, Odisha,
immediately took back Kasi, which he had
records the aqueduct built by King Nanda three
handed out as dowry to Bimbisara. This led to
hundred years earlier. This is also indicative of
a military confrontation between Magadha and
the geographical extent of the Nanda Empire.
Kosala. The struggle lasted until Prasenajit was
Though the Nandas were able administrators
overthrown and died at Rajgriha, the capital of
and had strengthened the Magadha Empire,
Magadha Empire. Kosala was then annexed to
they were not popular among the people.
Magadha. Ajatashatru also fought and won the
battle against the Lichchhavis. He defeated the
4.3  Persian and
Lichchhavis and the Mallas. Ajatashatru is also
believed to have met Buddha in his lifetime. By
Macedonian Invasions
the time Ajatashatru died in 461 BCE Magadha The period from the sixth century witnessed
had become undisputedly the strongest power. close cultural contact of the north-west of India
The Haryanka dynasty was succeeded by with Persia and Greece. It might be surprising to
the Shishunaga dynasty. Shishunaga, a viceroy know that Gandhara and its adjoining regions
of Benaras, deposed the last Haryanka king and on the Indus were part of the Achaemenid
ascended the throne. The Shishunagas ruled Empire of Persia. Cyrus, the emperor of Persia,
for fifty years before the throne was usurped by invaded India around 530 BCE and destroyed
Mahapadma Nanda. the city of Kapisha. According to Greek historian
Herodotus, Gandhara constituted the twentieth
4.2  Nandas: The First and the richest satrapy of the Achaemenid
Empire. The region continued to be part of the
Empire Builders of India
Persian Empire till the invasion of Alexander
About a hundred years after Ajatashatru’s the Great. The inscriptions of Darius I mention
demise, the Nandas became the emperors the presence of the Persians in the Indus region
of Magadha in 362 BCE. The first Nanda and include “the people of Gadara, Haravati and
ruler was Mahapadma. It is believed that he Maka” as subjects of the Achaemenid Empire.
usurped the throne by murdering the last of
the Shishunaga kings. Under the Nandas, the Taxila
empire expanded considerably, and the wealth Takshashila or Taxila is situated in
and power of the Nandas became widely present-day Pakistan. Between the fifth century
known and feared. Mahapadma Nanda was and fourth century BCE, it was part of the
succeeded by his eight sons, and they were Achaemenid Empire of Persia. Because of its
together known as the navanandas or the nine strategic location on the trade route between the

A centralised state required a new administrative framework to govern an extensive territory,

the creation of a bureaucracy, resources of money and men for managing the administration
and the army. A system of revenue administration had to be developed to raise the funds needed
for the state through taxation. Such a political formation led to the development of cities as
administrative centres, distinct from villages and rural areas. A large standing army was required
for expanding and retaining the empire.

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 The Mauryan art and architecture show
The word “Hindu” appears for the first traces of Persian influence. Mauryan columns
time in an inscription of Darius I at of the Ashokan Pillar are similar to the columns
Persepolis, Iran. Darius lists “Hindu” as found in the Achaemenid Empire. The bell-
part of his empire. The word “Sindhu”, denoting shaped capital of the columns, especially
a river in general and Indus in particular, became the lion capital of Sarnath pillar and the bell
“Hindu” in Persian. The Greeks dropped the S capital of Rampurval pillar, show resemblance
and called it Indu, which eventually came to be to designs found in the Achaemenid columns.
called Hindu and later India. Similarly, the pillared remains of the Palace
in Pataliputra display a remarkable similarity
East and the West, it emerged as an important to the pillared hall in the Achaemenid capital.
centre of learning and culture. Students However, the craftsmen, though inspired by
came from far and wide to Taxila in search of the Persian art and architecture, gave a definite
knowledge. The city was brought to light by Indian character to their work.
the excavation carried out in the 1940s by Sir
John Marshall. Taxila is considered “one of the Connection between Persian
greatest intellectual achievements of any ancient
and Sanskrit
civilization”. Panini seems to have compiled his
well-known work, Ashtadhyayi, here. There are linguistic similarities between
Rig Veda and Zend Avesta. The term Aryas
Impact of Persian Contact was also used by the ancient Persians.
As the north-western part of India came According to Indologist Thomas Burrow,
under the control of the Persian Empire from only phonetic change had occurred
about middle of the sixth century, the region overtime. The Bogaz Koi (in North-East
became a centre of confluence of Persian Syria) Inscription dating back to 1380 BCE
and Indian culture. The Persian contact left records a treaty between a Hittite and a
its impact on art, architecture, economy and Mitanni King. It mentions the names of a
administration of ancient India. The cultural few Rig Vedic gods such as Indara, Uruvna
impact was felt most in the Gandhara region. The (Varuna), Mitira and Nasatiya (Ashvins).
most significant impact was the development
of the Kharosthi script, used in the north- 4.4 Alexander’s Invasion
western part of India. It was used by Ashoka During Dana Nanda’s reign, Alexander
in his inscriptions in the Gandhara region. The invaded north-west India (327–325 BCE).
Kharosthi script was derived from Aramaic used In many ways, the invasion by Alexander is
widely in the Achaemenid Empire of Persia. a watershed in Indian history. It marked the
Like Aramaic, Kharosthi was written beginning of the interaction between India and
from right to left. Persian sigloi (silver coin) the West, which spanned many centuries to
is an imitation from the region. The earliest follow. Greek historians began to write about
coins in India are traced to the period of the India, and Greek governors and kings ruled
in the north-western region of India, which
mahajanapadas. The Indian word for coin karsa
introduced new styles of art and governance.
is of Persian origin. The coins might have been
After his conquests in the Punjab region,
inspired by the Persian coins. The existence Alexander expressed his desire to march further
of coins in that period suggests trade links east to attack the Magadha Empire. However, his
between India and Persia. The Ashokan edicts already tired troops had heard about the great
might have been inspired by the edicts of the emperor in the east (Nanda) and his formidable
Achaemenid king Darius. The Ashokan edicts army and refused to be engaged in a war against
use the term lipi instead of the Iranian term dipi. such a powerful adversary.

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 routes in use, which facilitated the movement
of Greek merchants and craftsmen to India,
establishing direct contact between India and
Greece. As trade contact increased, many Greek
settlements were established in the northwest of
India. Alexandria near Kabul, Boukephala near
Peshawar in Pakistan and Alexandria in Sindh
were some of the prominent Greek settlements.
Emperor Alexander The Greek accounts of India provide
valuable information but with a bit of
In 326 BCE when Alexander entered the
exaggeration. Alexander’s death created a void
Indian subcontinent after defeating the Persians,
in the north-west, facilitating the accession
Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, surrendered and
of Chandragupta Maurya to the throne of
accepted the suzerainty of Alexander. The
Magadha. It also helped him to conquer the
most famous of Alexander’s encounters was
numerous small chiefdoms in the north-west
with Porus, ruler of the region between Jhelum
and bring the region under his empire.
and Beas. The two armies met in the battle of
Hydaspes in which Porus was imprisoned. 4.5 Mauryan Empire
Later, impressed by the Porus’s dignity,
Alexander restored his throne on the condition Contemporary accounts by Greek
of accepting his suzerainty. His battle-weary historians show that Chandragupta was a youth
soldiers refused to march further. Alexander living in Taxila when Alexander invaded India.
Greek historians have recorded his name as
did not want to proceed against the reluctance
“Sandrakottus” or “Sandrakoptus”, which are
of his army. During his return, Alexander died
evidently modified forms of Chandragupta.
of a mysterious fever in Babylon.
Inspired by Alexander, Chandragupta led
a revolt against the Nandas years later and
overthrew them. Chandragupta achieved it
either by inciting the people to rise against
an unpopular monarch, or by soliciting their
support in overthrowing an unpopular king.
Chandragupta established the Mauryan Empire
and became its first emperor in 321 BCE.

Surrender of Porus to Alexander, 1865

engraving by Alonzo Chappel (modern representation)

The Impact of Alexander’s Ashoka Rock Edict at Junagadh

Invasion We know from the Junagadh rock inscription
Alexander’s invasion led to the establishment (referred to earlier) that Chandragupta had
of Greek satrapies in the north-western region expanded his empire westward as far as Gujarat.
of the Indian subcontinent. Trade routes opened One of his great achievements, according to
up with the West. There were four different trade local accounts, was that he waged war against
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 the Greek prefects (military Nandas and helping Chandragupta to become
officials) left behind by the emperor of Magadha. He is celebrated
Alexander and destroyed as the author of the Arthasastra, a treatise on
them, so that the way was political strategy and governance. His intrigues
cleared to carry out his and brilliant strategy to subvert the intended
ambitious plan of expanding invasion of Magadha is the theme of the play,
the territories. Another Mudrarakshasa.
major event of his reign was Seleucus Nicator
Bindusara
the war against Seleucus,
who was one of Alexander’s generals. After the Chandragupta’s son Bindusara succeeded
death of Alexander, Seleucus had established him as emperor in 297 BCE in a peaceful
his kingdom extending up to Punjab. and natural transition. We do not know what
Chandragupta defeated him in a battle some happened to Chandragupta. He probably
time before 301 BCE and drove him out of the renounced the world. According to the Jain
Punjab region. The final agreement between tradition, Chandragupta spent his last years as
the two was probably not too acrimonious, an ascetic in Chandragiri, near Sravanabelagola,
since Chandragupta gave Seleucus 500 war in Karnataka. Bindusara was clearly a capable
elephants, and Seleucus sent an ambassador ruler and continued his father’s tradition of
to Chandragupta’s court. This ambassador close interaction with the Greek states of West
was Megasthenes, and we owe much of the Asia. He continued to be advised by Chanakya
information that we have about Chandragupta and other capable ministers. His sons were
to Indica, the account written by Megasthenes. appointed as viceroys of the different provinces
The original of this work is lost, but many Greek of the empire. We do not know much about his
historians had reproduced parts of his account military exploits, but the empire passed intact
describing the court of Chandragupta and his to his son, Ashoka.
administration. Bindusara ruled for 25 years, and he must
have died in 272 BCE. Ashoka was not his
Chandragupta
chosen successor, and the fact that he came
Chandragupta was to the throne only four years later in 268 BCE
obviously a great ruler who would indicate that there was a struggle between
had to reinvent a strong the sons of Bindusara for the succession.
administrative apparatus to Ashoka had been the viceroy of Taxila when he
govern his extensive kingdom. put down a revolt against the local officials by
(The system of governance the people of Taxila, and was later the viceroy
and polity is discussed in the of Ujjain, the capital of Avanti, a major city and
next section.) Chandragupta Chandragupta commercial centre. As emperor, he is credited
was ably advised and aided (modern representation) with building the monumental structures that
by Chanakya, known for have been excavated in the site of Pataliputra.
political manoeuvring, in governing his empire. He continued the tradition of close interaction
Contemporary Jain and Buddhist texts hardly with the Greek states in West Asia, and there
have any mention of Chanakya. But popular oral was mutual exchange of emissaries from both
tradition ascribes the greatness of Chandragupta sides.
and his reign to the wisdom and genius of
Chanakya. Chanakya, also known as Kautilya Ashoka
and Vishnugupta, was a Brahmin and a sworn The defining event of Ashoka’s rule was his
adversary of the Nandas. He is credited with campaign against Kalinga (present-day Odisha)
having devised the strategy for overthrowing the in the eighth year of his reign. This is the only

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 recorded military expedition
of the Mauryas. The number
of those killed in battle, those
who died subsequently, and
those deported ran into tens
of thousands. The campaign
had probably been more
ferocious and brutal than Edicts of Ashoka (238 BCE),
usual because this was a in the Brahmi at British Museum
punitive war against Kalinga,
which had broken away from
Emperor Ashoka the Magadha Empire (the
Devanampiya Hathigumpha inscription
speaks of Kalinga as a part
of the Nanda Empire). Ashoka was devastated
by the carnage and moved by the suffering
that he converted to humanistic values. He
became a Buddhist and his new-found values
and beliefs were recorded in a series of edicts,
which confirm his passion for peace and moral
The Ashoka edicts at Saranath
righteousness or dhamma (dharma in Sanskrit).

Edicts of Ashoka
The edicts of Ashoka thus
constitute the most concrete
source of information about
the Mauryan Empire. There
are 33 edicts comprising 14
Major Rock Edicts, 2 known
as Kalinga edicts, 7 Pillar Edicts, some Minor
Rock Edicts and a few Minor Pillar Inscriptions.
The Major Rock Edicts extend from Kandahar
in Afghanistan, Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra in
north-west Pakistan to Uttarakhand district in
the north, Gujarat and Maharashtra in the west, Rock Edict - Kandahar in Afghanistan
Odisha in the east and as far south as Karnataka
and Kurnool district in Andhra Pradesh. Minor
Pillar Inscriptions have been found as far north
as Nepal (near Lumbini). The edicts were written
mostly in the Brahmi script and in Magadhi
and Prakrit. The Kandahar inscriptions are in
Greek and Aramaic, while the two inscriptions
in north-west Pakistan are in Kharosthi script.
The geographical spread of the edicts
essentially defines the extent of the vast empire
over which Ashoka ruled. The second inscription
mentions lands beyond his borders: “the Chodas Rock Edict of Ashoka, Dhauli, Odisha

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 (Cholas), the Pandyas, the Satiyaputa, the in consonance with the realities of the times.
Keralaputa (Chera), even Tamraparni, the Yona After his death, the Mauryan Empire slowly
king Antiyoka (Antiochus), and the kings who disintegrated and died out within fifty years.
are the neighbours of this Antioka”. The edicts But the two centuries prior to Ashoka’s death
reveal Ashoka’s belief in peace, righteousness and the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire
and justice and his concern for the welfare were truly momentous in Indian history. This
of his people. By rejecting violence and war, was a period of great change. The consolidation
advocating peace and the pursuit of dhamma, of a state extending over nearly two-thirds of the
Ashoka negated the prevailing philosophy of sub-continent had taken place with formalised
statecraft that stressed that an emperor had administration, development of bureaucratic
to strive to extend and consolidate his empire institutions and economic expansion, in
through warfare and military conquests. addition to the rise of new heterodox religions
and philosophies that questioned the established
Third Buddhist Council
orthodoxy.
One of the major events of Ashoka’s reign
was the convening of the Third Buddhist sangha 4.6  The Mauryan State
(council) in 250 BCE in the capital Pataliputra. and Polity
Ashoka’s deepening commitment to Buddhism
meant that royal patronage was extended to the The major areas of concern for the Mauryan
Buddhist establishment. An important outcome state were the collection of taxes as revenue to
of this sangha was the decision to expand the the state and the administration of justice, in
reach of Buddhism to other parts of the region addition to the maintenance of internal security
and to send missions to convert people to the and defence against external aggression. This
religion. Buddhism thus became a proselytizing required a large and complex administrative
religion and missionaries were sent to regions machinery and institutions. Greek historians,
outlying the empire such as Kashmir and South taking their lead from Megasthenes, described
India. According to popular belief, Ashoka sent the Mauryan state as a centralised state. What
his two children, Mahinda and Sanghamitta, to we should infer from this description as a
Sri Lanka to propagate Buddhism. It is believed centralised state is that a uniform pattern of
that they took a branch of the original bodhi administration was established throughout the
tree to Sri Lanka. very large area of the empire. But, given the
existing state of technology in communications
Ashoka seems to have ruled until 232 B.C
and transport, a decentralised administrative
(B.C.E). Sadly, though his revolutionary view of
system had to be in place.
governance and non-violence find a resonance
in our contemporary sensibilities, they were not This bureaucratic set-up covered a
hierarchy of settlements from the village, to the
towns, provincial capitals and major cities. The
bureaucracy enabled and required an efficient
system of revenue collection, since it needed
to be paid out of taxes collected. Equally, the
very large army of the Mauryan Empire could
be maintained only with the revenue raised
through taxation. The large bureaucracy also
commanded huge salaries. According to the
Arthasastra, the salary of chief minister, the
Ashoka’s visit to the Ramagrama purohita and the army commander was 48,000
Sanchi Stupa Southern Gate panas, and the soldiers received 500 panas.
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 If we multiply this by the number of infantry Provincial Administration
and cavalry, we get an idea of the enormous
At the head of the
resources needed to maintain the army and the
administration was the
administrative staff.
king. He was assisted by a
council of ministers and a
Arthasastra
purohita or priest, who was a
Perhaps the most detailed account of person of great importance,
the administration is to be found in the and secretaries known as
Arthasastra (though the work itself is now mahamatriyas. The capital region of Pataliputra
dated to a few centuries later). However, it was directly administered. The rest of the
must be remembered that the Arthasastra was a empire was divided into four provinces based at
prescriptive text, which laid down the guidelines Suvarnagiri (near Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh),
for good administration. If we add to this the Ujjain (Avanti, Malwa), Taxila in the north-
information from Ashoka’s edicts and the work west, and Tosali in Odisha in the south-east.
of Megasthenes, we get a more comprehensive The provinces were administered by governors
picture of the Mauryan state as it was. who were usually royal princes. In each region,

MAURYAN EMPIRE N

W E
Pushkalavati Mauryan Empire
Taxila
Capital of empire S
Provincial Capital
Kandahar Pillar edict of Ashoka
Other city/town
Delhi-Topra
Delhi-Meerut
Delhi
(Indraprastha)
Shravasti Lumbini
Mathura Rampurva

Patala Vaishall Pataliputra

Gujjara Allahabad
Saranath
Kaushambi Varanasi Rajagriha

Vidisha Rupnath
Ujjain Sanchi Tripuri
Tamralipti
Bharukaccha

Sopara

BAY
ARABIAN Sannati
OF
SEA
Amaravati BENGAL
Suvarnagiri Nittur Yerragudi

Siddapur Brahmagiri
nd A
SA KER

a
TY ALA
L s

m
AP
a

(I n d i a)
a n a n d N ic
UT
k
(I n d i a)

S
LA
RA
h ad w eep

O
PU

CH
S
TR

S
YA
ND
AS

PA
b ar o

Map not to scale

I N D I A N O C E A N

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 the revenue and judicial administration and the by the government. Lands owned by the king,
bureaucracy of the Mauryan state was replicated forests, mines and manufacture of salt, on which
to achieve a uniform system of governance. the state held a monopoly, were also important
Revenue collection was the responsibility sources of revenue.
of a collector-general (samaharta) who was
Judicial Administration
also in charge of exchequer that he was, in
effect, like a minister of finance. He had to Justice was administered through courts,
supervise all the provinces, fortified towns, which were established in all the major towns.
mines, forests, trade routes and others, which Two types of courts are mentioned. The
were the sources of revenue. The treasurer dharmasthiya courts mostly dealt with civil
was responsible for keeping a record of the tax law relating to marriage, inheritance and other
revenues. The accounts of each department aspects of civil life. The courts were presided
had to be presented jointly by the ministers to over by three judges well-versed in sacred laws
the king. Each department had a large staff of and three amatyas (secretaries). Another type
superintendents and subordinate officers linked of court was called kantakasodhana (removal of
to the central and local governments. thorns), also presided over by three judges and
three amatyas. The main purpose of these courts
District and Village Administration was to clear the society of anti-social elements and
At the next level of administration came various types of crimes, and it functioned more
the districts, villages and towns. The district like the modern police, and relied on a network
was under the command of a sthanika, while of spies for information about such anti-social
officials known as gopas were in charge of five to activities. Punishments for crimes were usually
ten villages. Urban administration was handled quite severe. The overall objective of the judicial
by a nagarika. Villages were semi-autonomous system as it evolved was to extend government
and were under the authority of a gramani, control over most aspects of ordinary life.
appointed by the central government, and a
Ashoka’s Dharmic State
council of village elders. Agriculture was then,
as it remained down the centuries, the most Ashoka’s rule gives us
important contributor to the economy, and an alternative model of a
the tax on agricultural produce constituted the righteous king and a just state.
most important source of revenue. Usually, the He instructed his officials, the
king was entitled to one-sixth of the produce. In yuktas (subordinate officials),
reality, it was often much higher, usually about rajjukas (rural administrators)
one-fourth of the produce. and pradesikas (heads of the districts) to go on
tours every five years to instruct people in dhamma
Source of Revenue (Major Rock Edict 3). Ashoka’s injunctions to
The Arthasastra, recommended the officers and city magistrates stressed that all
comprehensive state control over agricultural the people were his children and he wished for
production and marketing, with warehouses his people what he wished for his own children,
to store agricultural products and regulated that they should obtain welfare and happiness
markets, in order to maximise the revenues in this world and the next. These officials should
from this most important sector of the economy. recognise their own responsibilities and strive
Other taxes included taxes on land, on irrigation to be impartial and see to it that men were not
if the sources of irrigation had been provided by imprisoned or tortured without good reason. He
the state, taxes on urban houses, customs and added that he would send an officer every five
tolls on goods transported for trade and profits years to verify if his instructions were carried out
from coinage and trade operations carried on (Kalinga Rock Edict 1).

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 EDICTS OF
EDICTS OFASHOKA
ASHOKA N

W E
Manserah
S

Edicts of Ashoka
Shabazgarhi
Major rock edicts
Pillar edicts
Kandahar Minor rock edicts
Kalsi
Territorial limits
Delhi
Lumbini
Meerut
Lauriya-
Nandangarh Rampurva

Kausambi Lauriya-
Araraj
I N D I A
Girnar

Sopara Dhauli
Sannathi Jaugada

Amaravati BAY
ARABIAN OF
SEA BENGAL

Yerragudi
An
L a k sh ad weep

d a m a n a n d N ic
(I n d ia)

(I n d i a)
oba
r

Map not to scale I N D I A N O C E A N

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 Ashoka realised that an effective ruler of cotton throughout India, were the
needed to be fully informed about what was most widespread occupations outside of
happening in his kingdom and insisted that agriculture. A great variety of cloth was
he should be advised and informed promptly produced in the country, ranging from the
wherever he might be (Major Rock Edict 6). coarse fabrics used by the ordinary people for
He insisted that all religions should co-exist everyday use, to the very fine textures worn
and the ascetics of all religions were honoured by the upper classes and the royalty. The
(Major Rock Edicts 7 and 12). Providing Arthasastra refers to the regions producing
medical care should be one of the functions specialised textiles – Kasi (Benares), Vanga
of the state, the emperor ordered hospitals to (Bengal), Kamarupa (Assam), Madurai and
be set up to treat human beings and animals many others. Each region produced many
(Major Rock Edict 2). Preventing unnecessary distinctive and specialised varieties of
slaughter of animals and showing respect for fabrics. Cloth embroidered with gold and
all living beings was another recurrent theme
silver was worn by the King and members
in his edicts. In Ashoka’s edicts, we find an
of the royal court. Silk was known and was
alternative humane and empathetic model of
generally referred to as Chinese silk, which
governance. The edicts stress that everybody,
also indicates that extensive trade was
officials as well as subjects, act righteously
carried on in the Mauryan Empire.
following dhamma.
Metal and metal works were of great
4.7 Economy and Society importance, and the local metal workers
worked with iron, copper and other metals
Agriculture to produce tools, implements, vessels and
Agriculture formed the backbone of the other utility items. Iron smelting had been
economy. It was the largest sector in terms known for many centuries, but there was a
of its share in total revenue to the state and great improvement in technology after about
employment. The Greeks noted with wonder 500 BCE, which made it possible to smelt
that two crops could be raised annually in iron in furnaces at very high temperatures.
India because of the fertility of the soil. Archaeological finds show a great qualitative
Besides food grains, India also grew cash and quantitative improvement in iron
crops such as sugarcane and cotton, described production after this date. Improvement in
by Megasthenes as a reed that produced iron technology had widespread implications
honey and trees on which wool grew. These for the rest of the economy. Better tools like
were important commercial crops. The axes made more extensive clearing of forests
fact that the agrarian sector could produce possible for agriculture; better ploughs
a substantial surplus was a major factor in could improve agricultural processes; better
the diversification of the economy beyond nails and tools improved woodwork and
subsistence to commercial production. carpentry as well as other crafts. Woodwork
was another important craft for ship-
Crafts and Goods
building, making carts and chariots, house
Many crafts producing a variety of construction and so on. Stone work–stone
manufactures flourished in the economy. We carving and polishing–had evolved as a
can categorise the products as utilitarian or highly skilled craft. This expertise is seen in
functional, and luxurious and ornamental. the stone sculptures in the stupa at Sanchi
Spinning and weaving, especially of cotton and the highly polished Chunar stone used
fabrics, relying on the universal availability for Ashoka’s pillars.
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 and growth. Production of a surplus beyond
subsistence is futile unless the surplus has
exchange value, since the surplus has no use value
when subsistence needs have been met. Thus, as
the economy diversified and expanded, exchange
becomes an important part of realising the
benefits of such expansion. Trade takes place in a
hierarchy of markets, ranging from the exchange
of goods in a village market, between villages
and towns within a district, across cities in long-
distance overland trade and across borders to
Sanchi Stupa other countries. Trade also needs a conducive
A whole range of luxury goods was political climate as was provided by the Mauryan
produced, including gold and silver articles, Empire, which ensured peace and stability over
jewellery, perfumes and carved ivory. There is a very large area. The rivers in the Gangetic
evidence that many other products like drugs plains were major means for transporting
and medicines, pottery, dyes and gums were goods throughout northern India. Goods were
produced in the Mauryan Empire. The economy transported further west overland by road. Roads
had thus developed far beyond subsistence connected the north of the country to cities and
production to a very sophisticated level of markets in the south-east, and in the south-west,
commercial craft production. passing through towns like Vidisha and Ujjain.
Crafts were predominantly urban-based The north-west route linked the empire to
hereditary occupations and sons usually followed central and western Asia. Overseas trade by ships
their fathers in the practice of various crafts. was also known, and Buddhist Jataka tales refer
Craftsmen worked primarily as individuals, to the long voyages undertaken by merchants.
though royal workshops for producing cloth Sea-borne trade was carried on with Burma and
and other products also existed. Each craft had a the Malay Archipelago, and with Sri Lanka. The
head called pamukha (pramukha or leader) and ships, however, were probably quite small and
a jettha (jyeshtha or elder) and was organised in might have hugged the coastline.
a seni (srenior a guild), so that the institutional We do not have much information about
identity superseded the individual in craft the merchant communities. In general, long-
production. Disputes between srenis were resolved distance overland trade was undertaken by
by a mahasetthi, and this ensured the smooth merchant groups travelling together as a caravan
functioning of craft production in the cities. for security, led by a caravan leader known as
Trade the maha-sarthavaha. Roads through forests
and unfavourable environments like deserts
Trade or exchange becomes a natural were always dangerous. The Arthasastra,
concomitant of economic diversification however, stresses the importance of trade and

Mauryan coin with arched hill symbol on reverse Karshapana-Bindusara

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 ensuring its smooth functioning. Trade has to agricultural workers and craftsmen, who seek
be facilitated through the construction of roads employment, thereby forming the workforce
and maintaining them in good condition. Since for the production of manufactured goods
tolls and octroi were collected on goods when and services of various kinds. These goods, in
they were transported, toll booths must have addition to the agricultural products brought
been set up and manned on all the trade routes. in from the rural countryside, are traded in
Urban markets and craftsmen were generally markets. Cities also tend to house a variety
closely monitored and controlled to prevent of persons in service-related activities. The
fraud. The Arthasastra has a long list of the sangam poetry in Tamil and the Tamil epics
goods – agricultural and manufactured – which provide vivid pictures of cities like Madurai,
were traded in internal and foreign trade. These Kanchipuram and Poompuhar as teeming with
include textiles, woollens, silks, aromatic woods, people, with vibrant markets and merchants
animal skins and gems from various parts of selling a variety of goods, as well as vendors
India, China and Sri Lanka. Greek sources selling various goods including food door to
confirm the trade links with the west through the door. Though these literary works relate to
Greek states to Egypt. Indigo, ivory, tortoiseshell, a slightly later period, it is not different in
pearls and perfumes and rare woods were all terms of the prevailing levels of technology,
exported to Egypt. and these descriptions may be taken as an
accurate depiction of urban living. The only
Coins and Currency
contemporary pictorial representation of
Though coinage was known, barter was the cities is found in the sculptures in Sanchi,
medium of exchange in pre-modern economies. which portray royal processions, and cities are
In the Mauryan Empire, the silver coins known seen to have roads, a multitude of people and
as pana were the most commonly used currency. multi-storeyed buildings crowded together.
Hordes of punch-marked coins have been found
in many parts of north India, though some of these Urbanisation in Sixth Century BCE
coins may have been from earlier periods. Thus One of the first pre-requisites for urbanisation
while coins were in use, it is difficult to estimate is the development of an agricultural base. This
the extent to which the economy was monetised. had evolved in the Indo-Gangetic plain and
from very early on there are references to cities
Process of Urbanisation
like Hastinapura and Ayodhya. By about sixth
Urbanisation is the process of the century BCE, urbanization had spread to the
establishment of towns and cities in an doab and many new city centres like Kaushambi,
agrarian landscape. Towns can come up Bhita, Vaishali and Rajagriha, among others, are
for various reasons – as the headquarters mentioned in the region. Buddhist texts about
of administration, as pilgrim centres, as Buddha’s preaching were always located in urban
commercial market centres and because of centres. Cities developed primarily because of
their locational advantages on major trade the spread of agriculture and wet rice cultivation,
routes. In what way do urban settlements in particular in the doab region, after the marshy
differ from villages or rural settlements? To land was drained and reclaimed for cultivation.
begin with, towns and cities do not produce The fertile soil and plentiful availability of water
their own food and depend on the efficient from the perennial rivers made it possible to
transfer of agricultural surplus for their raise even two crops of rice, and the production
basic consumption needs. A larger number of a large agricultural surplus to feed the cities.
of people reside in towns and cities and The improvements in iron technology also had
the density of population is much higher an impact on economic life both in rural and
in cities. Cities attract a variety of non- urban areas. As Magadha grew, many regional
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 centres like Ujjain were also incorporated into were enriched by the work of the grammarian
the empire. Panini (c. 500 BCE), and Katyayana, who was a
contemporary of the Nandas and had written a
Housing and Town Planning commentary on Panini’s work. Buddhist and Jain
Towns were often located along the rivers, texts were primarily written in Pali. Evidently
presumably for ease of access to transportation. many literary works in Sanskrit were produced
They were surrounded by moats and a rampart during this period and find mention in later
to provide defensive protection. They were always works, but they are not available to us.
open to attacks since treasuries holding government The Arthasastra notes the performing arts of
revenue were housed in them, in addition to the the period, including music, instrumental music,
fact that as trading centres, the local people and bards, dance and theatre. The extensive produc-
merchants were also wealthy. As the towns became tion of crafted luxury products like jewellery, ivo-
more prosperous, the quality of the houses, which ry carving and wood work, and especially stone
were built of mud brick and even of fired brick, carving should all be included as products of
improved. Towns also had other facilities like Mauryan art.
drains, ring wells and mud pits, testifying to the
Many religions, castes and communities lived
development of civic amenities and sanitation.
together in harmony in the Mauryan society. There
Excavations from the Mauryan period show that is little mention of any overt dissension or disputes
the standard of living had improved as compared among them. As in many regions of that era
to the earlier period. The houses were built of brick, (including ancient Tamil Nadu), courtesans were
and the cities had ring wells and soak pits. There accorded a special place in the social hierarchy
was a quantitative increase in the use of iron and and their contributions were highly valued.
the variety of iron artefacts.
Decline of the Mauryan Empire
City of Pataliputra
„„The highly centralized administration
Pataliputra was the great capital city in the became unmanageable when Ashoka’s
Mauryan Empire. It was described as a large and successors were weak and inefficient. A
wealthy city, situated at the confluence of the weakened central administration with a
Ganga and Son rivers, stretching in the form of large distance to communicate led to the
a parallelogram. It was more than 14 kilometres rise of independent kingdoms.
in length and about 2 kilometres wide. It „„After Ashoka’s death, the kingdom split into
was protected by an outer wall made of wood, two. There were invasions from the north-
with loopholes for shooting arrows at enemies. west. The notable groups that undertook
There were 64 gates to the city and 570 watch military expeditions and established
towers. There was a wide and deep moat outside kingdoms on Indian soil were the Indo-
the wall, which was fed by water from the river, Greeks, the Sakas and the Kushanas.
which served both as a defence and an outlet for „„The last ruler Brihadratha was killed in
sewage. There were many grand palaces in the (c.185 B C (BCE)) by his commander-in-
city, which had a large population. The city was chief Pushyamitra Sunga who founded the
administered by a corporation of 30 members. Sunga dynasty that ruled India for over
Ashoka added to the magnificence of the city hundred years.
with the monumental architecture that he
   SUMMARY
added to the capital, like the many-pillared hall.
„„Gana-sanghas in course of time became
Art and Culture the larger mahajanapadas and of the 16
Most of the literature and art of the period kingdoms, Magadha eventually emerged as
have not survived. Sanskrit language and literature the most powerful.

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 „„The first known ruler of Magadha was 3. 
A comprehensive historical chronicle in
Bimbisara, followed by his son Ajatashatru. Pali from Sri Lanka serving as an important
Mahapadma Nanda started the Nanda source for the Mauryan Period is ______.
dynasty. (a) Mahavamsa (b) Deepavamsa
„„The invasion of north-west India by Alexander
(c) Brahmanas (d) Mudrarakshasa
in 326 BCE opened up trade with the West.
After the death of Alexander, Chandragupta 4. The play ______ by Visakadatha describes
founded the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta and his accession to the throne
„„The three notable Mauryan rulers, of the Magadha Empire.
Chandragupta, Bindusara and Ashoka, (a) Mudrarakshasa (b) Rajatharangini
established a centralised state. The system
(c) Arthasastra (d) Indica
of Mauryan administration came to light
through the accounts of Arthasastra and 5. Megasthenes’work ______describes the court
Indica. of Chandragupta and his administration.
„„Mauryan Empire set in a new phase in Indian (a) Indica (b) Mudrarakshasa
history as trade and commerce grew manifold (c) Ashtadhyayi (d) Arthasastra
during this period.
6. The ______ was a prescriptive text for good
„„Mauryan Empire continued the earlier
administration.
tradition of consolidation of the empire. The
truly revolutionary change that was attempted (a) Arthasastra (b) Indica
was Ashoka’s exhortations to his officials and (c) Rajatharangini (d) Mudrarakshasa
people to follow dhamma, abjure violence
and lead a moral life. II. Write Brief Answers
„„Mauryan Empire marked a distinct phase 1. How did Bimbisara extend the territory of
in Indian history with significant advances Magadhan Empire?
in technology and economic and social
2. Write a note on Mahapadma Nanda.
development, and created the framework for
a large, centrally administered, state. 3. What made Alexander the Great to restore
the throne of Porus ?
4. What are the features of a centralised state?
EXERCISE 5. Give a brief note on the literary sources for
the study of Mauryan state.
[Link]
I. Choose the 6. In what ways did the invasion of Alexander
Correct Answer make a watershed in Indian history?

1. Brahmi script in Ashoka’s III. Write Short Answers

pillar inscription was deciphered by _____. 1. Mention the urban features revealed by
(a) Thomas Saunders archaeological findings.
(b) James Prinsep 2. Explain the features of the monarchies or
kingdoms on the Gangetic plains.
(c) Sir John Marshal
3. Highlight the impact of the invasion of
(d) William Jones
Alexander the Great on India.
2. The first known ruler of Magadha was ______ 4. What do you know of Ashoka’s campaign
of the Haryanka dynasty. against Kalinga?
(a) Bimbisara (b) Ajatashatru 5. Discuss the extensive trade on textiles carried
(c) Ashoka (d) Mahapadma Nanda on during the Mauryan period.
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 6. 
Write a note on the commodities traded 2. Abraham Eraly, Gem in the Lotus: The Seeding
between India and West and Central Asia. of Indian Civilization, Penguin, 2000.
3. B.M. Barua, The Ajivikas, University of
IV. Answer the following in detail
Calcutta, 1920.
1. Explain the sources for the study of the 4. D.N. Jha, Ancient India in Historical
Mauryan Empire. Outline, Manohar, New Delhi, 2010.
2. Describe the salient features of Mauryan 5. Dhammika, Ven. S. The Edicts of King
polity. Ashoka – an English Rendering. 1993/94.
3. Highlight the impact of Persians on India. 6. John Keay, India: A History. 2000.
7. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, (ed.) The Age of the
4. Give an account of the edicts of Ashoka.
Nandas and Mauryas (reprint), 1996.
Activity 8. Romila Thapar, Ashoka and the Decline of
the Mauryas (rev. ed.), 1997.
1. Preparing a chart with information on the
9. Romila Thapar, The Penguin History of
edicts of Ashoka.
Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300,
2. Discussion on the outcome of the conquest
Penguin Books, 2002.
of Kalinga.
10. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, vol.
3. Comparing the present-day system 1, George, Allen & Unwin, London
of administration with the Mauryan 11. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and
administration. Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age
4. Making an album with pictures of Sanchi- to the 12th Century, Pearson, Delhi, 2008.
Saranath pillars and Magadha and Mauryan 12. Wm. Theodore D. Bary, ed., Sources of
kings. Indian Tradition, vol. 1, Columbia
University Press, New York, 1958.
REFERENCE BOOKS
INTERNET RESOURCES
1. A.L. Basham, The Wonder That Was
India: A Survey of the History and 1. [Link]
Culture of the Indian Sub-continent hindu/ascetic/[Link]
before the Coming of the Muslims, 2. [Link]
Picador, 2004. f2001/edit/docs/[Link]

GLOSSARY

antithetical contrasting முரண்பட்ட

inciting inducing தூண்டும்
acrimonious bitter கசப்பான
manoeuvring planned action சூழ்ச்சி
adversary enemy விர�ோதி
negate nullify செயல்படாததாக்கு
proselytizing attempt to convert one’s religion மதமாற்ற முயற்சி
empathetic showing concern for others மற்றவர் உணர்வினை மதித்தல்

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