UNIT -3
POTENTIOMETERS
POTENTIOMETER
The instrument designs for measuring the unknown voltage by comparing it with the known voltage, such type of instrument is known as the
potentiometer.
Characteristics of Potentiometer
The following are the important characteristics of the potentiometer.
The potentiometer is very accurate because its works on the comparing method rather than the deflection pointer method for determining the
unknown voltages.
It measures the null or balance point which does not require power for the measurement.
The working of the potentiometer is free from the source resistance because no current flows through the potentiometer when it is balanced.
Working Principle of Potentiometer
This is a very basic instrument used for comparing emf two cells and for calibrating
ammeter, voltmeter and watt-meter. The basic working principle of potentiometer
is very very simple. Suppose we have connected two battery in head to head and tale
to tale through a galvanometer. That means the positive terminals of both battery are
connected together and negative terminals are also connected together through a
galvanometer as shown in the figure below
It is clear that if the voltage of both battery cells is
exactly equal, there will be no circulating current in the
circuit and hence the galvanometer shows null
deflection. The working principle of potentiometer
depends upon this phenomenon.
Now let's think about another circuit, where a battery is connected across a resistor via a switch and
a rheostat as shown in the figure below voltage-drop-calculation/ across the resistor. As there is a
voltage drop across the resistor, this portion of the circuit can be considered as a voltage source for
other external circuits. That means anything connected across the resistor will get voltage. If the
resistor has uniform cross section throughout its length, the electrical resistance per unit length of
the resistor is also uniform throughout its length.
Voltage drop per unit length of the resistor is also uniform. Suppose the current through the resistor
is ‘I’ A and resistance per unit length of the resistor is r Ω. Then the voltage appears per unit length
across the resistor would be 'ir' ans say it is v volt.
Positive terminal of a standard cell is connected to point A on the sliding resistor and negative
terminal of the same is connected with a galvanometer. Other end of the galvanometer is in contact
with the resistor via a sliding contact as shown in the figure above. By adjusting this sliding end, a
point like B is found where, there is no current through the galvanometer, hence no deflection of
galvanometer.
That means emf of the standard cell is just balanced by the voltage-drop-calculation/ appears
across AB. Now if the distance between point A and B is L, then it can be written emf of standard
cell E = Lv volt. As v (voltage drop per unit length of the sliding resistor) is known and L is
measured from the scale attached to the resistor, the value of E i.e. emf of standard cell can also be
calculated from the above simple equation very easily.
DC POTENTIOMETER CAN COMPARE
EMFS OF TWO DIFFERENT CELLS
Two cells whose emf's are to be compared are joined as shown in the figure below. The positive terminals of
the cells and source battery are joined together. The negative terminals of the cells are joined with the
galvanometer in turn through a two way switch. The other end of the galvanometer is connected to a sliding
contact on the resistor. Now by adjusting sliding contact on the resistor, it is found that the null deflection of
galvanometer comes for first cell at a length of L on the scale and after positioning to way switch to second
cell and then by adjusting the sliding contact, it is found that the null deflection of galvanometer comes for
that cell at a length of L1 on the scale. Let's think of the first cell as standard cell and it's emf is E and second
cell is unknown cell whose emf is E1. Now as per above explanation, E = Lv volt and L1 = L1v volt Dividing
one equation by other, we get
As the emf of the standard cell is known, hence emf of the unknown cell can easily be determined.
BASIC POTENTIOMETER CIRCUIT
A basic DC potentiometer consists of:
Long uniform resistance wire
DC source (battery)
Rheostat (to control current)
Galvanometer
Jockey (sliding contact)
Standard cell (for calibration)
Working
A constant current is passed through the potentiometer wire.
The unknown voltage is connected across a part of the wire.
The jockey is moved until the galvanometer shows zero
deflection.
At null point:
Voltage across the wire length = unknown voltage
Length is noted and voltage calculated.
a) STANDARDISATION/ CALIBRATION
The process of adjusting the working current by adjusting Rh so as to match the voltage drop across the portion of slide wire against a standard
reference source
STEPS- standard cell-1.0186 V
1. Keep the sliding contact at 101.86 cm mark on slide wire . Keep S in calibrate position and close key(k).
2. Now adjust Rh to vary working current .This adjustment is carried on till galvanometer show no deflection then key K
is pressed .Under this condition voltage drop along 101.86 cm portion of slide wire is equal to standard cell voltage
1.0186V
now 101.86 cm correspond to 1.0186 V ==== 1cm= .01V= 10mv
Working current = 1.018 V/ 101.86 Ὼ = 10 mA
Now position of Rh should be locked at that position only
b) Measurement- Now move the switch to operate position and move
The sliding contact to set the balance
Let balance is obtained at 131.46 cm
Unknown voltage= 1.3146 V.
LABORATORY TYPE CROMPTON
POTENTIOMETER
Basic slide wire dc potentiometer has following disadvantage
The slide wire is linear and hence occupy more space (2 m) which is not practical
If the length is decreased then the resolution of potentiometer decreases as voltage per unit length increases.
We use Crompton potentiometer in practice to decrease size without compromising the resolution( smallest measurable
voltage)
DC Crompton's Potentiometer - Construction,
Operation & Applications
DC Crompton's potentiometer works on the principle
of a slide wire potentiometer.
It basically consists of a small slide wire which is circular in shape and a dial switch with calibrated resistors.
In the figure shown,B = Battery
Rh = Rheostat
G = Galvanometer
R = Protective resistance which is of order of 10 KΩ
S = Double throw switch
C = Standard cell
In DC Crompton's potentiometer, the dial switch is divided
into fifteen steps with each step having a resistance of 10Ω.
Hence, the total resistance of dial switch is equal to 150Ω
(15 X 10 = 150). The slide wire is in the form of a circular
wire and has a resistance of 10Ω, with a single turn. A
double-throw switch is provided for standardization and for
measuring the unknown emf, one after the other.
A protective resistance is connected in series with the galvanometer in order to protect the galvanometer
and is shorted when the galvanometer reaches the balanced condition. As the working current provided by
the battery is 10 mA, the voltage drop across each step is 0.1 V and hence it has a total range of 1.5 V
if circular slide wire has 200 divisions, then each division in slide wire has a resolution of 0.0005 V
(0.1/200 = 0.0005). Hence, it is possible to measure the readings up to 0.0001 V with great precision
and accuracy by taking readings up to 1/5th division in the scale
PROCEDURE:
First, the potentiometer is to be standardized to the standard cell voltage (1.0186 V) by keeping the dial
switch at 1.0 V and slide wire at 0.0186. After making these adjustments, switch S is operated in
calibrate mode and key k is closed and the rheostat is adjusted in such a way that, the galvanometer
shows null deflection. With this, the potentiometer is standardized to the voltage of standard cell which
is connected between the terminals 1 and 1'.
Now, the switch is thrown into the operating mode for measuring the unknown emf connected between
terminals 2 and 2'. The value of unknown emf can be measured directly from the dial switch and
circular slide wire, after balancing the galvanometer to show null deflection. In this way, an unknown
emf can be measured with great precision using DC Crompton's potentiometer.
IF balance is obtained at 1.2 in dial switch and 0.086 of slide wire
Then unknown voltage= 1.2086V
LIMITATION OF CROMPTON POTENTIOMETER
Crompton pot is single range pot(one fixed maximum range (for example 0–1.5 V or 0–2 V). and
used two measuring dials.
Less precise and accurate.
For some applications high accuracy and precision is required that’s why vernier pot is used.
Vernier Potentiometers
A Vernier potentiometer is a high-precision DC measuring instrument used to measure unknown voltage
(EMF) by comparison with a known reference voltage. It provides very fine adjustment using a vernier
arrangement.
This instrument has two ranges
Normal range- 1.6V to 10µV
Lower range – 0.16V to 1 µV
First dial: 0 to 1.5 V in steps of 0.1V
2nd dial: 0V to 0.1V in steps of .001V
3rd dial : -0.00001V to 0.001V in steps of 0.00001V(10 µV) there is no slide wire
Procedure:
In order to measure unknown emf connect the battery whose emf is to be measured to the terminals
and by adjusting three measuring dials simultaneously ,potentiometer become balanced and
galvanometer show null deflection.
APPLICATION OF DC POTENTIOMETER
Calibration of Ammeter
Calibration of Voltmeter
Calibration of Wattmeter
Measurement of Voltage
Measurement of Resistance
Measurement of Power
Calibration of Ammeter
Calibration of an ammeter using a DC potentiometer is based on Ohm’s Law and the null-balance principle of the
potentiometer. The potentiometer accurately measures the voltage drop across a known standard resistor without
drawing current from the circuit. Since the resistance is known, the true current in the circuit can be calculated and
compared with the reading of the ammeter.
Where
I = true current in the circuit
V = voltage measured across the standard resistor
R = known standard resistance
potentiomete
From the diagram voltage across standard resistance S is measured with
the help of potentiometer and then current
Through S is computed by
Current Is = Vs/ S Amp
Vs- Voltage across S ( in V)
S- resistance of standard resistors.
Now we compare this reading with ammeter reading and if they are not
same we adjust the ammeter setting to get the same value as
potentiometer.
This method of calibrating ammeter is very accurate.
Calibration of Voltmeter
Calibration of a voltmeter using a DC
potentiometer is done by comparing the voltmeter
reading with the true voltage measured by the
potentiometer. The potentiometer works on the
null balance principle and does not draw current
from the source, ensuring accurate voltage
measurement. The voltmeter is connected across
the same voltage source, and the balancing point
of the potentiometer gives the actual voltage. The
difference between the two readings indicates the
error in the voltmeter.
Voltage ratio box is used to step down the voltage as suitable for potentiometer specified voltage for accuracy. Potentiomter
measures the true voltage but if the voltage reading of potentiometer is not same as voltmeter connected then by doing some
adjustments voltmeter reading is made equal to the reading of potentiometer.
Actual voltage measured by pot Va = K Vp
K= multiplication factor of voltage ratio box
CALIBRATION OF WATMETER
This type of arrangement is called PHANTOM LOADING to serve huge power consumption
P= Vs/S * KVp
K= multiplication factor of voltage ratio box
AC Potentiometers
The Potentiometer is an instrument which measures unknown voltage by balancing it with a known
voltage. The known source may be DC or AC. The working phenomenon of DC potentiometer and
AC potentiometer is same. But there is one major difference between their measurements, DC
potentiometer only measures the magnitude of the unknown voltage. Where as, AC potentiometer
measures both the magnitude and phase of unknown voltage by comparing it with known reference.
There are two types of AC potentiometers:
Polar type potentiometer.
Coordinate type potentiometer
Polar type Potentiometer
In such type of instruments, two separate scales are used to measure magnitude and phase angle on
some reference of the unknown e.m.f. There is a provision on the scale that it could read phase
angle up to 3600. It has electrodynamometer type ammeter along with DC potentiometer and
phase-shifting transformer which is operated by single phase supply.
In phase-shifting transformer, there is a combination of two ring-shaped laminated steel stators
connected perpendicularly to each other as shown in the figure. One is directly connected to power
supply and the other one is connected in series with variable resistance and capacitor. The function
of the series components is to maintain constant AC supply in the potentiometer by doing small
adjustments init.
Between the stators, there is laminated rotor having slots and winding which supplies voltage to the
slide-wire circuit of the Potentiometer. When currentstart flowing from stators, the rotating field is
developed around the rotor and due to it e.m.f. is induced in the rotor winding. The phase
displacement of the rotor emf is equal to rotor movement angle from its original position and it is
related to stator supply voltage. The whole arrangement of winding are done in such a way that the
magnitude of the induced emf in the rotor may change but it does not affect the phase angle and it
can be read on the scale fixed on the top of the instrument.
The induced emf in rotor winding by stator winding 1
can be expressed as
The induced emf in the rotor winding by the stator
winding 2,
From equation (1) and (2), we get
Therefore, resultant induced emf in the rotor winding due to two stator winding
Where, Ø gives the phase angle.
COORDINATE TYPE POTENTIOMETER
• In coordinate AC potentiometer, two separate potentiometers are caged in one circuit as
shown in the figure.
• The first one is named as the in-phase potentiometer which is used to measure the in-phase
factor of an unknown e.m.f. and the other one is named as quadrature potentiometer which
measures quadrature part of the unknown e.m.f. the sliding contact AA’ in the in-phase
potentiometer and BB’ in quadrature potentiometer are used for obtaining the desired current
in the circuit.
• By adjusting rheostat R and R’ and sliding contacts, the current in the quadrature
potentiometer becomes equal to the current in the in-phase potentiometer and a variable
galvanometer shows the null value. S1 and S2 are signs changing switches which are used to
change the polarity of the test voltage if it is required for balancing the Potentiometer.
• There are two step-down transformers T1 and T2 which isolate potentiometer from the line
and give an earthed screens protection between the winding. It also supplies 6 volts to
potentiometers. Now to measure unknown e.m.f. its terminals are connected across sliding
contacts AA’ using selector switch S3.
• By doing some adjustments in sliding contacts and rheostat, the whole circuit gets balanced
and galvanometer reads zero at the balanced condition. Now the in-phase component VA of
the unknown [Link] obtained from the in-phase potentiometer and quadrature component VB
is obtained from quadrature potentiometer.
Thus, the resultant voltage of the coordinate
Ac Potentiometer is
And the phase angle is given by
Applications of AC Potentiometer
1. Measurement of self-inductance.
2. Calibration of voltmeter.
3. Calibration of Ammeter.
4. Calibration of wattmeter.