GENDER IN SOME ENGLISH TEACHING AND

TESTING MATERIALS

Abebech Gutema Murra

Abstract
The present study was designed to investigate some of the factors
that contribute to the prevalence of gender bias in the teaching
learning process. To that end, survey of English For Ethiopia
Grade Ten textbook and two grade ten English language national
exam papers was made. Thirty female and male students of Goro
High School were taken as samples to assess students’ gender
views, perceptions, attitudes, feelings and practices through
questionnaire. Grade ten English teachers of the same school were
also observed, to check their treatment of female and male
students. The same teachers were also interviewed to investigate
their practices, feelings and attitudes towards their students in
relation to gender. The results tend to show that significant
differences were evidenced in the treatment of females and males
both at home and at school environments. Females were less
mentioned, treated as inferior and the occupational roles given to
them both in the textbook and the national exams were of less
respected and minimum. In addition, it was proved that female
students were less trusted by their teachers and families and
undermined by their male counterparts. Finally, based on the
major findings, it was recommended that schools, textbooks, the
examination center and all concerned bodies have to be cautious
in their treatment of females in the teaching learning
environments, for most of the barriers of females education
(particularly in the English language), are observed to spring
from the biases at home and in the school environments.

INTRODUCTION
Education has played a vital role in everyone’s life. There are
numerous ways to be educated, and various environments in which
to learn. Yet, no matter the environment, boys and girls are often
found learning together. Likewise, female and male learners in our
country learn together under the same educational policy.
Nevertheless, this might seem that they are given equal chance.
But, people complain saying that women are discriminated against
and deprived of education. The main cause of the discrimination
of females seems to have its background in the family, for most
parents have preferences of the sexes of their unborn child.
Inherent in such preferences is the assumption that the parents'
expectation for boys and girls are different, and that girls and boys
will be treated differently. Many researchers (Genet, Almaz,
Teshome N., Sunderland etc…) have proved that female learners
are under-served in various ways, particularly, in the teaching
learning process.

For example, in almost all books, these sexist attitudes have been
manifested particularly, in mentioning of males and/or females, in
occupational roles assigned for females and males, order of
mention of females and males and in the illustrations that are
supposed to reinforce the text (McCarthy and Houston (1980).
These researchers have not only shown the gaps but also suggested
ways of solving the problems. Being aware of the fact, the
Ethiopian government also showed concern on females’ education.
As a result, following the formation of the Transitional
Government of Ethiopia in 1991, a new education and training
policy was announced three years later. Though the assumption
seems to provide access of education to all, females’ education has
been observed to encounter several problems (please see Lasonen
J., Kemppainen. R. and Raheem, K. (2005). Researchers like
Hyde, Dehab, Asegedech, Anbesu and Nuri (2005:1) suggested
saying that the concern is not only about girls’ enrolment in
school, but also about their retention, performance, the quality of
the education they receive and the knowledge they gain. For
example in Oromiya, which is the largest and most populated
region in Ethiopia, very many school-age children, of which girls
constitute the largest number, do not have access to education due
to several problems. Even those who have the opportunity of
going to school drop out or fail because of problems like hunger,
lack of educational materials, school-home distance and school
facilities. (Teshome 2005, The Ministry of Education and the
statistics from Oromiya Education Bureau) Even though different
institutions in the region (Oromiya) have played a significant role
to make female learners to come to school and not to drop out so
that they (female learners) can take their full portion with their
male counterparts, when we investigate the gross enrollment rate
and the gender gap, it is as usual in favor of boys (The Ministry of
Education and the statistics from Oromiya Education Bureau).

1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Nowadays, for many reasons, English plays a significant role in
our country. As stated in the book English 3 and 4 (p. 144),
currently, English is used throughout the world for it is an easy
language that one can express her/his idea with only six hundred
words without difficulty. But, even though English (as stated is an
easy language and) serves as a medium of instruction starting from
the junior secondary up to the tertiary level, and even if the
success of students in other subjects largely depends on their
mastery of the English language skills, researches prove that most
female students in senior high schools are found to be low
achievers particularly in the English language. The low
achievement of female learners of the English language, which can
be caused by unfair treatments particularly in school environment,
invites for a study to show not only the problem areas, but also to
suggest a way of balancing the learning opportunities for female
and male learners. Therefore, the purpose of this research paper is
to compare the treatment of females and males in the educational
setting, and to examine critical issues of gender equity based on
the already mentioned topic, ‘Gender in Some English Teaching
and Testing Materials and Factors that Contribute to its
Prevalence’.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main aim of this study is to address the major gender (bias)
problems that affect the achievement of female learners of the
English language and thus contribute to the search for possible
solutions by focusing on the following specific questions:
• Is gender bias minimized in the existing Grade 10 English
textbook? (The previous Grade
Ten English for New Ethiopia was proved to hold gender
bias in another study by the same researcher)
• Are the selected Grade 10 English language National
Examination papers (2002/2005), clean of bias against
females?
• What are some of the specific ways in which sexist
attitudes are conveyed through the language in the
textbooks, if any.

2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

People struggle for freedom and equality. However, much of the
freedom is achieved, and color and other discriminations are
minimized. Even then, though minimal improvements have been
observed here and there, more than half of the world’s population
is still under the oppression of the other half.
These, the oppressed ones are females, who are treated like
second-class citizens. Many researchers like Evans (1994),
Shalon(1971) Munroe(2006), Stanworth(1988), and others, have
proved that females are victims of almost all disaster. But,
compared to the previous decades, it can be said that there is a
higher level of gender awareness among policy makers,
development planners, program implementers, and the population
at large. Much has been achieved in terms of providing more
opportunities to women to access education, health services, legal
protection, employment, as well as participation in decision-
making processes. However, gender inequalities, which need more
action, are still rampant in many areas of life. There are many
factors to explain the difficulties in attaining gender equality.

According to researchers like Mlama (2005), the common factors

that contribute to this problem (gender inequalities), for example
are: the reluctance of men to change the status quo, which is to
their advantage; the socialization process, which has trained both
sexes to accept the superiority of males and the inferiority of
females; the values, attitudes and practices that are firmly in place
to ensure the continuation of the unequal gender construct. On top
of all, even though many conventions, that call for action to
eliminate gender inequalities have been ratified globally, lack of
adequate gender responsiveness (by the responsible bodies),
largely characterize many policies, development plans and
implementation programs. Munroe (2006: 17), also says, “Even
though legislation might be passed or public policy might change,
you can’t easily change a man’s mindset.” Because of this, many
cases of gender inequalities, gender discriminations and
oppressions still prevail at home, at school, at the work place, and
in the community in general.

2.2 ATTITUDE OF THE SOCIETY

2.2.1 Otherness: Females in almost all society, social life and
activities are exploited, treated differently as others, and are
underserved. According to researchers like Evans (1994), "women
constitute half of the world's population, perform nearly two-thirds
of its work hours, receive one-tenth of the world's income, and
own one-hundredth of the world's property."(Please, see also
Sunderland (1994: 55-56), Munroe (2006: 13), Mead, M. (NY).
Stanworth (1988:16) also says, “…boys and girls – even in similar
family, social class, or school – inhabit, to some extent, separate
social worlds... education – far from being, as it was once
ironically called, ‘an equality machine’ tends to act as a vehicle for
the reproduction of patterns of subordination and domination,
which characterize our society.” (Please see also Mclean, in Genet
(1991: 97), Moasor and Sikes (1992: 148), Warhol and Price
(1991: 58-67). According to the researchers above, what matters
most is that male and female learners are discriminated and treated
differently because of their sex differences in schools where they
were supposed to be judged only by their performance. In a
society where males are treated as norm elements, it may not be
strange for a woman to develop a withdrawn feeling and to
hesitate about her capacity. Othering, according to Dhar (2004:76,
78), is of three kinds: Encounter with the other, Repression of the
other, and Forgetting the other:

2.3 TEACHING MATERIALS

Even though textbooks and other supplementary materials are
supposed to be used by both sexes, directly or indirectly, these
textbooks and supplementary materials are said to serve the male
sex and disfavor female learners. (Please see Hamner (1996,),
Trecker (1971 Otlowski (2003):251), In relation to this,
dictionaries, which are the most, used reference materials are also
contaminated with these bias and disfavor females. (Please see
Millar and Swift (1984:705, in Porreca).
2.3.1 Bias
According to Osaka, (2003 on line), there are seven forms of bias
in instructional materials: Invisibility, Stereotyping, Imbalance and
selectivity, Unreality, Fragmentation and Isolation, Linguistic
Bias and Cosmetic Bias.
Invisibility: this is related to omission, which excludes females
from the teaching /learning process (please sees also Porreca
(1984:706).
Stereotyping: This type of bias, according to Osaka (2003,
Online), is the most familiar form of bias.
Stereotypes cast males as active, assertive and curious, while
portraying females as dependent, conforming and obedient.
(Please see also Shalon (1971:12-13, Alasebu Gebre Sillassie,
cited in Genet (1991: 89), Sunderland (1994: 193), Genet (1991:
92), Zittleman and Sadker (2002/2003).
Imbalance and selectivity: Most of the time, if textbooks at all
mention some courageous females and discuss their achievements,
(Osaka, 2003), they hardly discuss the challenges they
encountered to achieve what they got now.
Unreality: Increasing the enrollment rate of female students is one
positive action. But if they are not treated equally with their male
counterparts, it is unreality. This kind of bias, according to Osaka
is called, Rose Colored Glasses.
Fragmentation and Isolation: Fragmentation emerges when a
group is physically or visually isolated in the text. According to
Osaka, most of the time, minorities, and/or racial and ethnic group
members are isolated from the other group and/or community to
interact only with people like themselves. (Please see also
Zittleman and Sadker (2003). In such kind of bias, Osaka says,
The Parts Are Less Than The Whole.
Linguistic Bias: - Language and gender are inseparable for
language plays a major role in gender bias. For example, Pope, as
cited in Prakash, L. (NY, Online) said, “The study of mankind is
man.” This kind of quotation, even though it is not deliberately
done to offend females, it puts them at an invisible position and its
influence for example, in the socialization process of children is
high. Some of these affect females’ education, which is believed to
be the key to equality, freedom, power and better life. Like wise,
in our country Ethiopia, the society’s views of gender about
female education are reflected in proverbs.

Destructive Amharic Proverbs

These examples from Seyoum (1986: 6-8) can serve as evidence:
1. “ minim set bitawk
bewend Yalk” (in Amharic )
Meaning “however knowledgeable a woman may be
the final decision rests with a man” (1986:6).
2. “ set lij bemajet
wend lij bechilot” (in Amharic)
Which means, “The woman’s place is in the Kitchen
while that of a man is in the court of law” (1986:8)
3. “yeset kedash
yelole alkash yelewum”
Which means, “It is unbecoming for a woman to be a priest,
as it is for a man-servant to be a ceremonial mourner over his
master’s death”
(1986:7).
4. “set ketemarech
beklo ketegebech
amel awetach”
This means, ‘If a woman is educated or a mule is well fed,
she will dev elop a bad habit’ (1986:8)
5. ‘yeset temari
yedoro berari yelewm’
Meaning, ‘as it is impossible to find a flying chicken,
it is also impossible to find a female learner’

Destructive Oromiffa sayings

These proverbs, which are taken from the oral literature of the
speakers of the language, are evidences
of discouraging linguistic bias for females.
1. ‘Dubartiin beekaa hin qabdu
beekaa deessi malee.’
Meaning, a woman is not knowledgeable but,
she gives birth to a knowledgeable man,
2) ‘Dubartiin furduo malee
beekaa hin qabdu’
Meaning, women can be fat but not knowledgeable.
Destructive Tigrigna sayings
The following Tigrigna proverbs are selected from ‘Mislatat’
(1985) by Asmelash W.M., Asmerom G.
S ., and Tsegereda T.1985).
1) ‘lebam sebeytin
werqi tsedfen yelbon’
Meaning, as it is impossible to find gold on a cliff,
it is also impossible to find a knowledgeable woman.
2) ‘lebam sebeytin
qran adgin yelbon’
Meaning, as it is unnatural to find a donkey with horns,
it is also unnatural to find a woman with knowledge.
3) ‘lebam sebeytin
saeri tsedfen yelbon’
Meaning, as there is no grass on a cliff, there is no knowledge in a
woman.

It seems obvious that such kinds of sayings not only discourage

females from performing and achieving equal with the masculine,
but also cause sharp pain. In addition to this, Osaka (2003) says,
“Language can be a powerful conveyor of bias, in both blatant and
subtle...” She says, Words Count.

COSMETIC BIAS: Cosmetic bias offers an illusion of equity to

teachers and students who may casually see the pages of a
textbook. But, beyond the photos, the illustrations and postures,
bias persists. (Osaka, 2003).

3.2.2 OCCUPATIONAL ROLES: In almost all texts, sexism is

again reflected in the portrayal of males and females in
occupational roles. Textbooks contain a variety of occupations for
men and only a limited range of occupational roles for females.
(Please see Gerrity (1978), in Porreca (1984:706- 707), Carroll, in
Sunderland, (1994: 62), McCarthy (1980:109), Geston (1979:77),
All in all, the occupational roles manifested in textbooks, if they
ever include females, will psychologically prepare and limit the
female learners to a house-wife-mother capacity.

2.3.3 ILLUSTRATIONS: Illustrations give impressions more

than words. When females are excluded, they feel that they are
unimportant and shy away from participating freely in the process.
As a result, they will withdraw themselves and develop a feeling
of otherness. (Please see Kato (on line), Basow (in Jinkins 2001 on
line), Porreca (1984: 705)).

2.3.4 ORDER OF MENTION: Whenever males are given the

priority in the order of mention, this brings an impression that
females are less important and/or less visible. Hartman and Judd
(1978:384) regarding this point say, “It was found that, given two
nouns paired for sex, such as male/female, the masculine word
always came first, with the exception of the pair ladies/gentlemen.

2.4 TESTS
Living things as whole, human beings in particular, journey more
or less, through several kinds of tests. Be it solely or mutually,
tests are challenges. They are challenges, challenges of the
spiritual or the secular realm. As the testes are numerous in
number, and different in their kinds, the outcomes also vary. They
can be positive or negative relatively. But, one thing is true that
the testes are of two sexes: females and/or males. The question is,
are they both addressed equally for the challenge, or is one of
them in any way subordinate? Are they given the chance (to
challenge the challenge) in an impartial manner? According to
Heaton (1988: 5), “Both testing and teaching are so closely
interrelated that it is virtually impossible to work in either field
without being constantly concerned with the other.” This implies
that whatever bias available in the teaching process is found in the
testing.

Bachman (1990: 70) says, language test developers and users are
frequently faced with questions regarding what types of tests
would be most appropriate for a given situation. Of course, they
bother for the purpose, content, the frame of reference within
which their results are to be interpreted, the way in which they are
scored and the specific technique or method they employ.
Whenever he is discussing about appropriateness or quality,
female learners seem to be invisible in his mind for he never
mentions about gender. (Please, see Hughes (1989:14) for
Placement test) The question is, do placement tests or, national
exam producers consider female examinees and/or gender when
they are setting these examinations (tests)? Because, Basow (as
cited in Jenkins, 2001 Online), says that some standardized tests
are biased against females and favor the male sex. According to
the researcher, this has an impact in children’s minds. (Please, see
also Coates (1994:196). This seems likely that the anxiety might
not be only from the questions, it could be also from the language
used in the exam papers.

2.5 SCHOOLS
TEACHERS’ ATTENTION TO FEMALE LEARNERS: Boys
and girls spend a lot of time together in school during their
formative years and adolescence. Thus, how they are treated there
at school has impact in their lives. (Please, see also Stanworth
(1988:14,21), Coates (1994:202), Jenkins (2001, on line) Wagner
(1994:8), Levi (2000, on line), West, Anderson and Brophy in
Guidry (2000, on line), Kelly, in Sunderland, (1994: 149). The
citations above indicate that a lot of the biases come from the
teacher. Teachers push students into certain directions based on
their biases, as well as society’s biases. In addition, most teachers
give no equal attention to female learners as they do to the male
students. It then seems obvious that female learners might develop
negative attitude towards the subject, the teacher and even towards
themselves.

2.6 FEMALE LEARNERS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS

THEMSELVES
Self-esteem is one of the important psychological variables that
have a potential influence on verbal participation. (Please see
Fenlerchein and Baer (1975:1187) as cited in Avertett and Donald
(1977), Brown (1977:352), On the other hand, a non assertive
person according to Brodsky (1988:185) is “…fearful of being
foolish or rejected and, as a result, acts as timid, cautious and
passive.”(Please see also Almaz (1990:16), Genet (1991). Taking
these reviewed studies as a base line, this research then aims at
finding ways and means of solving the major barriers of females
education, particularly female learners of the English language, by
identifying the major factors that contribute to the prevalence of
gender bias in the teaching/learning process and recommending
possible measures which could help in solving them, by focusing
the study on Goro High School in Nazareth.

3. METHODOLOGY
The study consists of a pilot survey in which a questionnaire items
were tested in order to develop appropriate instrument for the
study. The analysis of the data was based on comparison of raw
figures and percentage.

3.1 SUBJECTS: The participants of this study were randomly

selected 15 females and 15 male students of grade ten of Goro
High School in Nazareth. In addition, 3 English teachers of the
same grade and school were participated. This study relies on
descriptions. This will be done to fairly represent all evidence
acquired during investigation. However, this study will also be
based on analytical tables and figures that show relations and
summaries of findings in the study.

3.2 INSTRUMENTS
3.2.1 SURVEY (OF GRADE TEN ENGLISH FOR
ETHIOPIA (EFE) SEMESTER TWO
UNITS 1-7, and THE 2002 AND 2005 ENGLISH
LANGUAGE EXAMINATON PAPERS)
The book and the national exam papers were surveyed to check
whether they hold any gender bias. In the survey made on these
materials, an investigation was made to check if male-marked
pronouns are significantly more common than female-marked
pronouns. A raw count of the frequencies of occurrences of male
and female-marked subject, object and genitive pronoun was
made. In addition, an examination was made of the occupational
roles given for males and females. Illustrations and order of
mention also were checked whether or not they disfavor females.

3.2.2 STUDENTS’ QUESTIONNAIRE

The questionnaire was designed to obtain information about some
psychological, social and educational opinions and attitudes of
each respondent and their views of sexism. In addition, when
filling personal data, the other items were for the students to list
the roles of family members (father, mother, sisters and brothers).
Five blank spaces were given under each family member to be
filled by the respondents. An initial oral introduction to the
questionnaire (which was prepared in Amharic to avoid
communication breakdown) was given for the randomly selected
student respondents. The questionnaire carried about twenty-four
questions. 21 of the questions were designed for the students to
respond by making an ‘X’ on one of the (their) choices given
according to each item (strongly agree, agree, no idea, disagree
and strongly disagree). There were also two open-ended questions
about the preference of the sex of their English teacher and their
own sexes.

3.2.5 CLASSROOM OBSERVATION

Three teachers of Goro High School were observed once each in
different settings for one period (40 minutes) to check their
treatment of students in their classes.

3.2.6 TEACHERS’ INTERVIEW

The interviewees were guided by key questions. This was done to
enable the interviewer to question thoroughly the area she wanted.
The attempt of the researcher was to get information concerning
feelings, attitudes, or emotions in relation to the topic and to
obtain greater depth of response, which would not be possible
through any other means. To sum up, the instruments were
designed to collect data on sexism in relation to the two basic
institutions, the family and the school.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 RESULTS: The survey was the major instrument used in this
study. Thus, the bias The Grade Ten EFE semester two textbook
contains, the bias The Grade Ten 2002/2005 English Language
National Exam papers contain were surveyed, and students’ views,
practices, feelings about themselves, the textbook on practice,
tests, and family role and practices were asked. English teachers’
of Grade Ten were observed and interviewed, to collect data to
prove or disprove what was discussed in the literature review. The
findings are organized to portray the major concern of the study
based on the data collected from different sources. The focus was
on family and schools, for these two institutions are accountable
for the socialization of a child. How these institutions influenced
and shaped the attitude, behavior and practice of the community
towards gender is discussed.

4.1.1 BIAS IN THE TEXTBOOK AND THE SELECTED

EXAMINATION PAPERS
[Link]. Mention of Males and Females and Occupational Roles
Assigned: Having in mind what has been discussed about the
biases textbooks hold in the review literature of this paper, the
present study was designed to check whether English For Ethiopia
(EFE) Grade Ten Textbook (semester two), and the two grade ten
national examination papers have similar bias. The following
tables show the results:
Table 1 A survey of mention of females or males in EFE Grade
Ten textbook

The result suggests that the already discussed bias in the review
literature part of this paper is present in this textbook also. In the
EFE Grade Ten semester Two textbook, males are mentioned
1233 times, and females only 504 times. Regarding occupational
roles, for the males, we find more respected occupations:
chairman, policeman, teacher, farmer, manager, father, pilot, plane
owner, aircraft controller, experienced pilot, lawyer, captain,
courageous general of the world, lecturer, lieutenant, commander,
spy, fighter, greatest footballer, driver, husband and the like. In
addition, modifiers like obedient, sensible, important, brave,
responsible, honest, courageous, bilingual, top of the class etc…
are associated with them. The occupational roles given for females
on the other hand are: secretary, boiling a pot of coffee, fanning
the stove, humming, care taker, girlfriend, visitor, sister, dance,
woke her husband with a cup of hot tea, do house work, should
assist in the ‘idir’, wife (4times), daughter, singing, prepared (the
morning, midday and the late night) meal, went to the market to
buy some fruit, wives of a husband, beggar, owner of eighteen
children, knitting, a very good cook, have the duty to take care for
all kinds of creatures (mamas), take care of the house and children,
fetch water, wakes her husband for food, milk the cows, let the
cattle out to graze, bath and feed the children, clean the house,
collect firewood, wash the clothes, attend the children when they
are restless in the night, etc…in addition, ‘liar and lazy’ were the
modifiers associated with some of these occupations.

Table 2 A survey of mention of females or males in the selected

national exams

The findings show that males are mentioned 132 times and
females only 70 times. In addition, gender bias is increased in the
2005 exam paper by 44(55.7%) than it was in the 2002 exam
paper. The result above shows that these materials are
contaminated with gender bias. In addition, the occupational roles
given for males are: first to fly, winner, guard, professor,
president, policeman, eager to learn, etc… while, the occupational
roles given for females are sister, washing, party furnisher,
dancing, etc…

[Link] Order of Mention: Order of mention (firstness) is one of

the ways of the manifestation of another form of bias. Whenever
females are mentioned next to males (as in he/she and
male/female), it seems obvious that they are treated as inferior.
When examining the materials under investigation, males took the
firstness 28 times while females only 4 times. The female took the
firstness 4 times when mentioned with her twin brother. The ratio
is 7:1 in favor of males. In addition, the firstness observed in the
two examination papers was only one, and it was taken as usual by
male

[Link] Illustrations: The illustrations were also examined if they

ever contain bias and disfavor females. The result shows that in
the EFE semester two, males are illustrated forty nine (49) times
while females only eleven (11) times. In one of the illustrations, a
man was transporting a lion in attempt to protect a goat. Such
kinds of illustrations seem to create a feeling of courage and
daring spirit for the boys and a feeling of inferiority for the girls.
As regards the two examination papers, males are illustrated five
times, but females are not illustrated at all.

4.1.2 STUDENT’S QUESTIONNAIRE

Table 3 the most frequent roles listed for each family member

Accordingly, twenty-nine (29) respondents out of thirty confirmed

that household chores are assigned according to the stereotype
gender view and practice of the society. On the other hand, the
response of one male respondent was a herald that every one in his
family helps each other in whatever activities it is needed.

The other items, the open ended questions, were about what sex
would they prefer if they were given another chance to choose
their sexes, and why. All male respondents preferred the male sex.
Why they chose the male sex according to their reasoning was that
females are, not allowed to stay out late and enjoy themselves, are
expected to help in the house all the time, are not trusted by the
family and teachers, are victims of rape, and harassment, and are
less respected by the society, etc…Regarding the female
respondents, thirteen (13) of them preferred the male sex, for the
reasons mentioned by the male participants while two of the
respondents hold to prefer their own sex, female, for they say that
they like their sex for it is God given.

The other twenty one items were designed in such a way that each
item was answered on a five point scale ranging from strong
agreement to strong disagreement for the students to decide
whether they agree or disagree with the statements provided
according to each number. There was also another choice for those
who have no idea about the given statement. Most of the students
have responded to all statements. The following tables indicate the
result:
Table 4.1 Females’ workload, permission to visit the library
and to stay out late

In response to Question No. 1, 96.7% of the respondents, of which

45% males, agree that female learners have high work load at
home, although 3.3% (one male) is against it. On the other hand,
according to Question No. 2, 83.4% of the respondents, of which
36.7% are males, favor the statement saying that female learners
are not allowed to stay out late at night like their brothers, whereas
3.3% (one male) of them have no idea. In addition, 10 %( two
males) of the respondents disagree with this idea. In response to
Question No. 14 (permission to the library), 46.7% (30% males)
agree that their parents permit them to go and study in the library,
where 36.7% (26.7% females) disagree with this idea. The
remaining 16.7% have no idea. The results of the data found
suggest that household tasks are associated with females and most
of the female respondents are not allowed to go and study in the
library. On the other hand, males are relatively free and less
demanded in the household routines.

Table 4.2 Females’ success, natural gift and home

management skills

In response to Question No. 16, 26.7% (16.7% females) agree that

females who are successful in their education and career are those
who have been intimate to their fathers, whereas 53.4% (26.7%
females) disagree. But, 16.7% (13.3 % males) of the respondents
have their own reservations. Regarding Question 17, 73.3%
(43.3% males), agree that females have natural gift of childcare,
while 13.4% (10% females) disagree with this idea. For Question
No. 18, 86.6% (43.3% females) agree that the mother contributes a
lot to female child’s skill of home management and cooking. The
other 10% of the respondents (6.7% males) hold indifferent.
The result suggests that, the majority of the respondents (majority
of female respondents) believe that females are good in house hold
tasks and childcare. Possibly, this implies that the same old belief
and practices of the society is still operational. On the other hand,
the respondents’ perception (particularly females’ perception), of
not viewing only fathers as role model for success is encouraging.
Table 4.3 Teachers’ treatment of students

As regards Question No. 4, 46.6% (26.7 females) disagree with the

statement which says that some teachers have negative thought of
female learners’ intelligence to be equal with that of the male
learners, whereas, 36.7% of which (13.3% males) agree with this
idea. The other 16.7% (males) have no idea. In response to
Question No. 5, 53.4% (30% females) of the respondents agree
that their English teacher’s aggressiveness have affected their
participation, although 40% (23.3% males) do not agree. The other
6.7 %( one male and one female) hold indifferent. Regarding
Question No. 6, 50% (30% females), agree that teachers view
female learners’ disturbance in classes as unbecoming, while 33.3
% (16.7% males) disagree. On the other hand, 16.7 %( 13.3%
males) say, they don’t know.

Regarding the attention of their English teachers, (Question 7)

66.7 %( 40% males) of the respondents disagree that their English
teacher is partial, while 23.3% (13.3% female) agree that the
statement is true. On the other hand, 10% (females) have no idea.
The result tends to indicate that their teacher’s aggressiveness and
stereotype gender view have affected female learners’ class
participations and their equality with the male students. On the
other hand, even though the results of the data of the observations
and the interview of teachers with regards attention to female and
male learners and their views of female learners intelligence is
negative, the students’ perception of their English teachers on
these points is positive.

Table 4.4 English tests and female learners

In response to Question No. 8, 56.7% (33.3% females) of the

respondents feel that their English teacher believes that female
learners will not score high marks unless they copy from others,
while 26.7%(13.3% males) disagree. The other 16.7 %( 13.3%
males) hold indifferent. In response to Question No. 11, 46.7%
(23.3% males) say that English tests are more difficult for female
learners than for the boys, while 40 % (26.7% females) disagree
with this idea. The other 10% hold indifferent. The data suggests
that relatively more respondents say that whenever female students
score high marks, teachers do not believe that they did it by
themselves. Similarly, most of the male respondents (26.7) feel
that English tests are more difficult for females than males. But,
53% of the female respondents disagree.

Table 4.5 the English language and the textbook

As regards Question No. 12, 76.7% (40% females) agree that the
English language is easy to learn, whereas 16.7% (3.3%) disagree
with this idea. Regarding the existing English For Ethiopia (EFE)
textbook, (Question No. 13), 53.3% (26.7% females) of the
respondents say that they will agree if the existing textbook can be
substituted by another, while 23.3% (13.3% female) disagree with
this idea. The other 30% (20% males) have no idea. As regards to
Question No. 19, 53.4% (33.3% males) of the respondents agree
that they feel shy to speak in English, whereas 36.7% (23.3%
females) disagree. In response to Question No. 20, 76 % (50%
females) of the respondents are in favor of using English as a
medium of instruction at the secondary level, although 13.3% (all
males) are against it. The other 10% (males) have no idea.

The result suggests that most of the students feel the English
language is easy to learn. In another response the majority of these
respondents favored the use of English language as a medium of
instruction at the secondary level. Even though relatively more
female respondents say that they don’t feel shy to speak in
English, the class observation and the teachers’ interview proved
the contrary. But, as regards the existing grade ten English
textbook, most of the respondents (the majority of female
participants), show a tendency towards the substitution of a better
one.

Table 4.6 Attitude towards ability, feelings, mixed class

For Question No. 3, 90% of the respondents, of which 50%

females, agree that some male learners view female learners as
inferior, while 10% (males) disagree with this idea. As regards to
Question No.9, 80% (36.7% females) of the respondents favor that
mixed sex class is significant for better learning of the English
language, while 10 %( 6.7% males) of the respondents disagree.
For Question No. 10, 43.4 % (26.7% females) of the respondents
agree that there is natural ability difference between male and
female learners, whereas 53.3% (30% males) disagree with this
idea. On the other hand, one male respondent (3.3%) holds
indifferent.
For Question No. 15, 53.4% (30% females) agree that female
learners feel free to participate in class activities equal with the
boys, but 36.7% (20% males) disagree with this idea.
On the other hand, 6.7% (one male and one female) of the
respondents have no idea. In response to question 21, 60% (30%
males) of the respondents disagree with the statement that says,
females are afraid to play like the boys in school because of their
femaleness, while 36.7% (20% females) confirm that the statement
is true. The data suggests that the majority of the respondents (all
of the female respondents and 40% males) confirm that male
students undermine female learners. Even so, the majority of the
respondents favored learning together in mixed sex classes. As
regards ability difference, though the majority of the male
respondents say that there is no ability difference between females
and males, the majority of the female respondents believe, there is
ability difference between males and females. In addition, though
the majority of the respondents, of which females constitute larger
number, say that females participate actively in all class activities,
the result of the class observation and the teachers’ interview do
not lend hand. On the other hand, discovering that females are not
afraid to play like their male counterparts is another encouraging
finding. In general, the results of questions number 3, 4, 5, 10 and
18 reflect that female learners are suffering discrimination and
abuse by their teachers and by their male counterparts at school.

4.1.3 CLASSROOM OBSERVATION

Three randomly selected Grade Ten English language classes were
observed once each. The observation was made without informing
the teachers about the aims or objectives of the observation and
before the distribution of students’ questionnaire, for the
researcher felt that the teachers might be cautious in giving
attention and using of the pronouns s/he and the like. The
observation was conducted based on pre-planned points
(checklist). During the observation, four major factors were
examined: Whether the English teachers mention the pronoun
‘she’ as they do the pronoun ‘he’, whether the observed English
teachers are impartial in mentioning female and male students’
names, whether teachers give equal attention to the girls as they do
to the boys, the participation of female learners in class activities
in comparison with that of the boys. The following table shows the
result:

Table 5 Classroom Observation Findings

In all the three classes, none of the teachers mentioned the

pronoun ‘she’. The pronoun ‘he’ is also mentioned only once.
Regarding giving attention, more attention was given to the male
learners (34) in all the three classes, and for the female learners, it
was only 11 times. The ratio is therefore 3.09:1 in favor of boys.
In addition, the participation of girls in all the three classes was
only 5 while that of the boys was 26. The ratio, then, is 5.2:1 as
usual in favor of the male students. Regarding mention of
students’ names, none of the observed teachers mentioned a name
of a female student. But, 4 boys were addressed by names. These
findings tend to indicate how female learners are less mentioned
ignored, and/or rejected.

4.1.4 TEACHERS’ INTERVIEW

The interviewed teachers were who were already observed. The
questions were designed to gather data on the feelings attitudes
and practices of English teachers towards their students through
the teaching and learning process in relation to gender. The
questions were based on whether they are happy to teach female
learners, whether they give equal attention to both sexes, whether
female learners are active participants or not, if female learners are
motivated to learn the English language, regarding the
performance of female learners in comparison with that of the
boys, qualities that are generally found only in boys and only in
girls, weaknesses associated only with female learners and only
with male learners.

All of the respondents say that they like teaching female learners
(Question No. 1). For Question No. 2 also, all of them claim that
they give equal attention for both sexes in the classroom. But in
the class observations, let alone equal attention, one of the teachers
was observed discouraging a female learner verbally, when she
raised her hand to answer to a given question. For Question No. 3,
all respondents confirmed that female learners are not participating
as the boys do. In addition, the same respondents say that female
learners are not motivated to learn the English language, but one
respondent hold the opposite. In addition, all respondents agreed
that female learners’ performance is low, when compared with that
of the boys. Regarding the qualities of female learners, the
teachers said that female learners are shy, silent, clean, and don’t
disturb in the class. But regarding the qualities of male learners,
the same teachers said that the boys participate in class, and they
are daring and ask questions. From this response, one can see that
silence and shyness are considered as qualities, particularly for
female learners. This indicates that teachers also are expecting
females to behave according to the society’s beliefs and practices
of gender. Regarding weaknesses, the teachers said that
particularly females simply copy from the board, they think
themselves as idiot and they are not ready to change. As regards
the boys’ weaknesses, inconsistent.

4.2 DISCUSSION
As it is reflected in the result, it seems obvious that the category of
gender was further divided into two: representation and bias, each
of which consisted of male and female subcategories. Based on
this, the results were discussed under two main topics: Gender and
the family environment, and Gender and the school environment
4.2.1. GENDER AND THE FAMILY ENVIRONMENT
The results from students’ questionnaire and the survey verify that
the textbook, the national exams, the family and the school hold
bias and discriminate females on the basis of sex. Stereotyping,
which is the main source of discrimination, is rampant throughout
social activities, including the family, which is the most
accountable in the socialization of a child. The results from
students’ questionnaire, when listing the role of each family
member (during spare times) suggest that household tasks are
associated with females. In addition, it also suggests that females
are discriminated by their parents/guardians with regards of
staying out late and studying in the library at their spare time. This
result proved that female learners are restricted to home and tied
up with household chores. The males on the other hand, are
relatively free, less demanded in house hold routines, and spare
time to do their homework and study at home and/or at the library.
This goes in line with the findings of Genet (1991), Almaz (1990),
Evans (1994), Sunderland (19934) and others.

From these findings, it seems possible to deduce that the society’s

views and practices of gender have put females in an inferior and
overworked position and males to relax at the expense of females.
The responses for other items also proved that the students,
including female respondents, believe that females have special
gift of childcare, cooking and home management.
The other item was about sex choice and the respondents were
asked about what sex they would chose if they were given another
chance. All male respondents and 86.7% of the female
respondents confirmed that they would chose the male sex for the
reasons that they wanted to be free and did not want to be treated
like females. As their responses indicate females are not allowed
to stay out late and enjoy themselves, they are expected to help in
the house all the time, they are not trusted by the family and
teachers, they are victims of rape and harassment and, they are less
respected by the society.

From these findings, it seems possible to deduce that children are

trained according to traditional sex role stereotypes and females
are victims of discrimination. Whether the discrimination is
conscious or unconscious, it limits choice. Females and/or males
are not free to do whatever they want, for the traditional
expectations in the society are quite straightforward. No
crossovers are allowed. This section then has reconfirmed what
other researchers (McCarthy (1980), Genet (1991), Almaz (1990),
Osaka (2003), Evans (1994), Sunderland (1994) etc…) have found
out.

In addition, the result shows that the majority of the respondents,

including the majority of female participants, think that there is
natural ability difference between female and male learners. This
corresponds with the findings of other researchers like Almaz
(1990), Genet (1991), Moasor and Sakes (1992).
4.2.2 GENDER AND THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT
As the results indicate, the school environment, which
incorporates female and male learners, teachers, teaching materials
and other supplementary materials is another setting where female
learners are misjudged, harassed and maltreated by almost all
parties. As can be observed from the result, the textbook and the
national exams under investigation are proved to disfavor females
with regards to mention of females and males and in the
occupational roles assigned to males and females. The result
indicates that males are mentioned 1233 times in the textbook and
132 times in the two examination papers and females on the other
hand, are mentioned only 504 times in the textbook and 70 times
in the examination papers. In general, males are mentioned 1365
times and females 574 times. The ratio is 2.38:1 in favor of males.
These findings go in line with the findings of many researchers
like Hamner (1996), Osaka and Millar & Swift as quoted in
Porreca (1984), and others, who proved that textbooks and other
supplementary materials are defective and disfavor females.

On top of all, the problem is not only that males are mentioned
more. But, in the minimal chances females are given, what matters
most is how they are mentioned and how they are treated in the
texts. For example,
a) Unit one, section seven, is about two courageous, eager to
learn and high achiever sons and their classical mother. It
was possible to make one of the characters female and the
parent a father.
b) In unit two, section seven, the woman is discussed like
mother, caretaker, powerless, harassed and abused
(beaten) by her husband, etc… But her son, who is HIV
positive and sick, is discussed as courageous, brave,
caring, considerate, loving, responsible etc… This is
obvious that the previous unit and this one are
representations of the stereotype gender view and practice
of the society. In addition, what other researchers (Genet,
Evans, Porreca, Osaka and the like) have proved is
confirmed here in this book.
c) Unlike the other units, in unit three, the frequency of
mention of females, is greater than mention of males:
192:108 respectively. But, the females mentioned (section
seven) are one unnatural, crazy like and unpredictable
beggar who has been harassed and hated by all members
of the community but accepted only by one woman, who
is described as a hotel owner. These two women,
according to Osaka, are fragmented or isolated from the
large community to understand each other.
d) In unit five, the men escaped from the deadly prison in a
group. After a long journey, they met another female
escapee and continued their journey together. Even though
 she was there with them, nothing has been said about her.
She is treated there as inferior and unimportant. The story
has been revolving only around the males. This according
to Osaka is ‘a story half told’, which is another kind of
bias.
e) In addition, in unit seven, the topic is “Women’s Work”
but the woman under discussion is discussed to prove that
the tiresome household work is the empire of females.
Even though this passage clearly showed the endless work
load of females, it also has a connotation that males are
not good in handling the household chores, which is the
reflection of the same old belief of the gendered society.
f) On section seven of unit seven, the famous scientist is
discussed as a wife. This implies that she became famous
because her husband also contributed. This famous
scientist’s achievement is degraded and masked by her
husband’s presence in the discussion. But in reality,
successful males are not observed to be discussed with
their wives unless deliberately to magnify their public
image by providing the female character an inferior
position. This kind of bias is called ‘shiny cover’.

Regarding occupational roles, for the males, we find the best

selected and respected occupations like chairman, pilot, lawyer,
manager etc., even if it is known that females also can do these
jobs. The occupational roles assigned for females on the other
hand, are mother (16 times), secretary, care taker, wife, wives of a
husband, party furnisher etc…In addition, while modifiers like
obedient, sensible, important, honest, courageous and the like are
associated with the males, lazy and liar are associated with
females. The result of this is obvious that females are omitted
and/or portrayed as inferiors and less important in the textbook
and the exam papers under investigation. These findings confirm
what Sunderland, Genet, Osaka, Porreca, Hamner, zittleman and
Sadker, Gaston, Kato, etc. have found out. As regards order of
mention (firstness), which is one of the ways of the manifestation
of otherness, males took the firstness 29 times while females (one
female) got the chance only 4 times. The female took the firstness
when mentioned with her twin brother. The ratio, which is 7.25:1
in favor of the masculine, in my opinion, puts females in less
important and inferior position. As a result, female learners will
withdraw themselves out of the process suffer from lack of
belongingness, and develop feelings of otherness.

This goes in line with what Kato (NY), Jenkins (2000) and Porreca
(1984) said. Regarding illustrations, males are illustrated 49 times
in the textbook and 5 times in the examination papers, while
females on the other hand, are illustrated 11 times in the textbook
and zero in the examination papers. The ratio 4.9:1 in favor of
males is evidence that females are excluded. It has an impact that
female learners will withdraw themselves from the process for it
will put them in an inferior, less important and invisible position.
On top of all, it brings a feeling of otherness and lack of
belongingness on females in general, and on female learners in
particular as it has been discussed with Dhar (2004) Kato, Porreca
(1984) and Jenkens (2000). In addition, even though it is
unintentional, the result of this kind of treatment discourages
female learners from envisioning the best out of life, and prepares
them (females) psychologically for a future wife-mother capacity.
No more, no less. The result of each teacher’s class observation
and the interview findings contradict in some points and falsify
some of the students’ questionnaire findings. Even though all of
the interviewed teachers claim that they give equal attention to
male and female students, the results of the observation have
proved that the opposite is true. They neither mentioned females’
names nor the pronoun she. The attention given for males was 34
and for females, it was only 11 times. The ratio is 3.01:1
respectively. In the response to the questionnaire, the majority of
the student respondents said their teacher was impartial in giving
attention to female and male learners. But, the observation proved
the opposite. The same is true of the class participation of female
learners. The majority of the student respondents agreed that
females participate actively equal with the males in class activities.
But the result of the teachers’ interview and the class observation
in which females’ participation in all the three classes was only 5
while that of the boys 26 (5.2:1 in favor of the boys), confirmed
that what the students have said is untrue. In addition, even though
one of the teachers said that females are motivated to learn the
English language (in his response to question number four), on
another response, the same teacher said that female learners do not
participate in class and do not perform well.

Regarding qualities of male and female learners, the teachers

associated silence, shyness, cleanness and not disturbing in the
class as qualities of female learners. On the other hand, they
associated good participation, asking questions and daring as
qualities of the boys. Teachers’ associations of silence and shyness
as qualities for female students imply that teachers themselves are
facilitating the same old belief and practice of the society in the
class. As regards weaknesses, the teachers said that female
learners do not do well in their learning and one of the teachers in
addition to this said that, female students are not ready to change;
they think they are idiot, and they copy from the board. Such
teachers, who already have their own biases against female
students, in my opinion, are one of the reasons for female learners’
poor performances.

So, one of the barriers of females’ education is not only the

teachers’ labeling of females and males to the society’s ready
made assigned behaviors (to males and females), but her/his being
an actor to facilitate this is the worst of all. As regards the attitude
of female students towards themselves, it is obvious that children
develop their identity directly and indirectly from the family and
the society at large, and the society has different treatment to
males and females. (McCarthy, Gaston, and others). As a result of
this, females in general and female learners in particular, are
influenced to accept the discrimination and abuse of the society
and act accordingly, even when they shouldn’t. Because of this, in
the response to the questionnaire, most of the female respondents
feel that there is natural ability difference between male and
female students (10), and they feel that house-hold tasks are the
responsibilities of females (1, 17, 18). From the results above, it
seems possible to deduce that females have not only developed
attitude of inferiority and lack of confidence in themselves, but
have also accepted the belief and practice of the gendered society
and abide by its rules. In my opinion, this is the basic barrier to
females’ achievement and success in education, particularly to the
English language, which needs more speaking, participation and
practice.

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the findings, the following conclusions are made:
1. The family system is highly influenced by traditional
gender role expectations and females are expected to
perform the household’s routine and care for children or
their younger siblings. In addition, their
parents’/guardians’ discrimination (maltreatment) has
made female learners to enjoy less freedom in staying out
late and visit the library during their spare time.
2. At school, where students were supposed to enjoy
freedom and equality, female learners are exhibited to be
undermined and maltreated by their teachers and their
male counterparts.
3. Although schools seem to serve both sexes equally, the
traditional gendered view and the various kinds of biases
are reflected all through the teaching learning process.
Moreover, teachers’ gendered views, practices and
expectations have made female learners to suffer more in
being deprived of the teachers’ attentions.
4. The discriminations that the family, the school and the
society at large practices between females and males has
been accepted as normal by female students, and this has
made them less assertive.
5. The unbalanced portrayal of females and males in the
teaching materials, in the national exam papers and the
stereotyping and narrowness of female roles in the text
directly or indirectly affect not only females’ education,
but also their future life. This psychologically limits and
prepares female learners for a housewife and mother
capacity only.
6. As it is evident from the results, females in general and
female learners in particular are omitted, treated as others,
 as inferior and/or as magnifying mirror for the masculine
in both the textbook and the exam papers.
7. To sum up, females are omitted from the textbook, treated
as others, their achievements masked, their story half told
and portrayed in the classical mother-wife position, and
the like.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings, the following recommendations are
suggested:
1. Improvement in females’ education is largely within the
control of the education system:
The policy makers, curriculum developers, textbook
writers and subject specialists must, therefore, analyze
female learners’ needs and give them equal attention with
the boys.
2. All teachers, particularly English teachers, must believe
that there is no natural ability difference between male and
female students and they should change their negative
attitudes and assist female learners to realize their
academic potential. This must start early at primary school
level and continue throughout the school years.
3. Teachers in general and English teachers in particular
have to be cautious about their approach especially
towards female learners for females are exhibited to be
victims of all disaster. Moreover, they must decide to
solve this problem by giving due attention to
femalelearners, for It is certainly manageable and
possible.
4. The English For Ethiopia textbook, particularly the grade
ten English textbook, needs reformation or substitution by
a new one for it largely disfavors female learners.
5. Gender clubs, for the purpose of normalization (to train
boys in cooking and related skills) need to be established
and strengthened in schools. In addition, Schools must
work with the community in order to bring change in
females’ life.
6. Responsible bodies must design trainings that focus in
bringing positive change in attitude and practice of
teachers and students towards gender. In addition, gender
must be mainstreamed in school curriculum for schools
play a vital role in the socialization of a child.
The following area is recommended for further study:
1) What are the academic needs of female students in
education, particularly in English?
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