Presented by Nguyễn Hoàng Hạnh

Week 2 “It is concerned with

Language and ethnicity

the relationship
between
language and the
context in which it is

Language and politics

used.”
Holmes, 2013
Language and ethnicity
 What is ethnicity?

● Word ethnic comes from Greek ethnos = “nation.”

● A nation is defined by shared history, culture, and language.
→ Everyone has an ethnic identity.
● Individuals may have multiple ethnic labels:
- Self-chosen wear or dress like ppl in India

- Imposed by others ppl's perception abt you

 Ethnic majority vs. minority

● Ethnic majority = socially dominant culture, often long-established.

socially dominant culture, after long-established

● Ethnic minority = marginalised cultural group, often come from migration.

marginalised cultural group, often come from migration

● Majority/minority is not about numbers

● The dominant group’s beliefs and values become treated as “normal” and
“common sense.”
● Result:
→ Majority = treated as normal
Majority: treated as normal

Minority: invisible, different, or deviant (lech lac)

→ Minority = invisible, different, or deviant

 “Ethnic” and ethnicity

● The term “ethnic” is often used to mean “non-mainstream” and suggests

difference from the dominant group.
● Ethnicity is multilayered
- E.g. In Britain, people may identify as English / Welsh / Scottish / Irish
and still “British”
● Many also have additional heritage (Asian, African, Chinese).
● Labels like British Asian, Black British show this complexity.
 “Ethnic” and ethnicity
● Ethnic identity changes depending on context and comparison.
● People selectively focus on certain features (especially visible ones) to
assign ethnic labels.
● Majority groups control narratives in media, education, and public
discourse.
● Their perspective influences how minority groups are:
- represented
- perceived
- socially understood
 Marking “us” and “them”

● Majority ethnic groups often have their culture and worldview treated as
“normal.”
● Minority groups are portrayed as different, marginal, or “other.”
● Language reinforces this divide through opposition between “us” and
“them.”
 Marking “us” and “them”

● Majority ethnic groups often have their culture and worldview treated as
“normal.”
● Minority groups are portrayed as different, marginal, or “other.”
● Language reinforces this divide through opposition between “us” and
“them.”
 Negative labelling

● Every culture has its own negative labels

● Different countries have different derogatory terms for groups they
see as outsiders.
● These labels
- strengthen stereotypes
- make people feel inferior
- reduce a group's power and dignity
 Media reinforces stereotypes

● Media often:
- emphasizes ethnicity when reporting negative events (crime, riots).
- ignores it when reporting positive events (sports victories,
achievements).
→ This inconsistency reinforces the idea that minorities are outsiders
when something bad happens.
 Language-based identity

● Minority groups can also assert identity and solidarity through:

dialects, slang, accent, and cultural language practices
● But this can also lead to: stereotyping, judgement, and
misunderstanding
 Ethnicity as a marker of speech

● Ethnicity influences how people speak, just like class, gender, or age.
● People often signal ethnic identity through:
- Using an ethnic language (fully or partially)
- Using ethnic greetings, fillers, and discourse markers
e.g., Māori speakers using ‘kia ora, e kī, ae, ne’; Chinese Singaporeans using ‘la’
● Even when an ethnic language is no longer spoken fluently (due to language shift), ethnic
varieties of the majority language (ethnolect) emerge as identity markers.
 Ethnolect

● Ethnolects are varieties of a dominant language that originate in specific ethnic or

cultural groups.
● Ethnolects may spread beyond the origin group. For example,
- Italian features adopted by Greeks in Toronto
- AAVE has become supralocal and used by some non-Black speakers in certain contexts
● Some ethnolects become recognized as distinct varieties
- e.g., AAVE (African American Vernacular English)
 Multi-ethnolect

● Multi-ethnolect = A language variety that arises in cities where many ethnic groups mix
and interact.
● The variety shows distinctive linguistic features contributed by the multiple languages
and dialects spoken by community members.
● Example:
- Kiezdeutsch in Germany
- Multicultural London English (MLE)
 African American Vernacular English (AAVE)/Ebonics
● AAVE = A distinct variety of American English spoken in many African American
a distinct variety of American english spoken in many African american communities

communities
● It emerged through language contact and language shift during slavery and segregation.
● It functions as a marker of ethnic identity and “in-group” belonging.
● AAVE is a highly developed ethnic variety with distinctive grammar, not merely a set of
slang terms.
● It has a number of features which do not occur in standard mainstream US English, and
others which occur very much less frequently in the standard variety.
 Major grammatical features of AAVE
● Copula deletion
- She very nice, He a teacher - Standard English contracts: She’s nice
she very nice, he a teacher - standard english contracts: She's nice

● Invariant / habitual ‘be’ - marks repeated actions (not present tense)

- She be at school on weekdays
- she be at school

- The children do be messin’ around

● Multiple negation
- He don’t know nothing
● Consonant cluster reduction
- las’ time, tes’ for test
Language and politics
 What is meant by ‘politics’?

● Politics is unavoidable and affects every aspect of life, not just government.
● Politics = Power (to make decisions, control resources, influence or control
people’s behaviour, and shape values and belief systems)
● Everyday decisions can have political implications.
● Political communication operates continually in daily life, shaping decisions,
attitudes, and interactions.
 Politics and power
● Politics is deeply connected to power — controlling decisions, resources,
and behaviour.
● Power can be enforced through:
- Physical force (e.g., wars, dictatorships).
- Legal rules (fines, laws, restrictions in democracies).
● Persuasion is often more effective than force → people follow rules
willingly.
 Ideology

● Ideology = a set of beliefs people see as “normal” or “common sense.”

a set of beliefs people see as "nomal" or "common sense"

● People may accept unfair systems because they see them as natural.
● Almost everything we believe may be shaped by ideology.
● Questioning dominant ideologies is difficult and may cause social stigma.
 Language and ideology
● Language shapes how we understand reality.
● The words available to us reflect our culture’s ideologies.
● Language can be used to reinforce certain beliefs and make alternatives
seem strange.
● Linguistic determinism:
- The idea that language shapes or limits what we can think.
- This makes language a powerful political tool.
 Newspeak (Orwell’s 1984)

● A fictional language designed to restrict thought by removing

unwanted words.
● Goal: make rebellious ideas unthinkable.
● Example: “free” only means “free from lice,” not political freedom.
● Extreme illustration of how controlling language could control
thought.
 Political correctness (PC)
● Real-world effort to change perceptions by using new, respectful labels
(e.g., “visually impaired,” “African-American”).
● Idea: changing words can change attitudes toward minority groups.
● Critics often use dramatic terms (“thought police,” “Orwellian”), showing
they also believe language affects thinking.
→ Both Newspeak and PC show how language can influence how people think,
though in very different ways—one oppressive, one aimed at inclusion.
 Presupposition & Implicature

What is presupposition?

● Presupposition = a background assumption built into a sentence that

a background assumption built into a sentence that remains true even if the

remains true even if the sentence is denied.

sentence is denied

● Example: “We want to set people free…” presupposes that people are not
free now.
– Negating the sentence still carries the same assumption.
 Presupposition & Implicature

What is presupposition?

● Presupposition is powerful because it

- makes debatable ideas seem like established facts.
- pushes politicians into defending hidden assumptions.
- allows speakers to influence audiences without stating claims openly.
 Presupposition & Implicature

What is implicature?

● A way of implying meaning without stating it directly.

a way of implying meaning without stating it directly

● Unlike presuppositions, implicatures

- work across multiple sentences
- rely on shared knowledge and context
- let politicians hint at ideas while avoiding direct responsibility.
 Presupposition & Implicature
What is implicature?

Example 1: Oliver Letwin → David Blunkett

● Letwin’s implicature
- suggests the government is using: “obscurity”, “spin”, lack of clarity over identity card plans
- doesn’t directly accuse Blunkett, but strongly implies deception.
● Blunkett’s response
- recognizes the implicature and challenges it.
- claims the Opposition uses “spin” to make people assume wrongdoing.
- reclaims the term: “The only thing I am spinning is the right of the British people…”
 Presupposition & Implicature
What is implicature?

Example 2: Jeremy Paxman → Tony Blair

● Implied meanings in Paxman’s questions
- suggests Bush and Blair may see the war through a religious lens (“good and evil”).
- implies they might pray together about political decisions.
● Blair’s reaction
- denies the suggestions (“We don’t pray together”).
- challenges Paxman: “Why do you ask me the question?”
 Presupposition & Implicature

What is implicature?

● Implicature relies on subtle suggestion and shared understanding.

● It is more flexible and context-dependent than presupposition.
● It can
- insert sensitive or controversial ideas indirectly
- put politicians under pressure without direct accusations
- create media controversy due to implied meanings
 Persuasive language – The power of rhetoric

● What is rhetoric?

- Art of using language to persuade or influence others.

- Origin in ancient Greek rhetorical traditions.

- Modern politicians follow broader rhetorical habits to make messages

impactful.
 Metaphor
● Compares two different things by stating one is the other.
● Similes = comparisons with like / as, but function similarly.
● Goal: make abstract concepts concrete and relatable.
● Politicians use metaphors to simplify complex ideas (especially in speeches and
media).
● Economy described as a machine to make it feel concrete, controllable, and
knowable.
 Personification
● Gives human qualities to countries or abstract ideas.
● Examples:
- “The heart of America is heavy.”
- Germany as “the bully in the playground.”
● Frames international events in emotional, familiar terms.
● Simplifies complex international relations.
● Creates immediate emotional resonance.
● Can promote ideological framing (e.g., bully = threat, danger).
 How metaphors shape ideology

● Different metaphors → different interpretations.

● Example: Germany as conductor vs bully.
● Shows metaphors are not neutral; they guide public
attitudes.
● Our thinking is shaped by dominant metaphors.
→ language structures thought.
 Euphemism

● Euphemism = mild or vague language used to make something

negative seem more acceptable.
● Helps make taboo, uncomfortable, violent or controversial topics
(e.g., death, sex) seem acceptable or normal.
● Avoids emotional or political escalation
● Reduces public backlash by softening the message.
● Helps maintain negotiation progress without provoking conflict.
 The ‘Rule of three’

● A widely used structural rhetorical device in political language.

● Involves presenting ideas in three-part statements, which audiences
tend to find aesthetically pleasing and memorable.
● Makes messages feel balanced, complete, and persuasive.
● Enhances memorability for audiences.
● Helps convey strength, clarity, and conviction.
● Reinforces arguments with rhythmic, dramatic structure.
 Parallelism

● Parallelism = repeating similar grammatical structures to emphasise ideas.

● Creates symmetry, rhythm, and memorability in speeches.
● Helps highlight that several ideas are equally important.
● Makes key messages stand out from the rest of the speech.
● Adds a sense of strength, unity, and momentum to the rhetoric.
● Ensures the speech feels more cohesive and persuasive.
● Helps frame political ideas with greater clarity and power.
 Antithesis - A special type of parallelism

● Antithesis = using parallel structures to show contrast between opposing ideas.

● Highlights complexity or tension in political issues.
● Makes differences between ideas more striking and memorable.
● Example: Richard Nixon (1969)
- “Rich in goods but ragged in spirit”
- “Caught in war wanting peace”
→ Uses opposites to capture national contradictions during the Vietnam War.
 Pronouns

● Pronouns (I, we, you) are strategic tools in political rhetoric.

● They can highlight responsibility or hide it.
● They shape how listeners understand agency, ownership, and collective identity.
- “We” → builds unity, spreads responsibility, softens blame.
- “I” → claims credit, shows leadership, reinforces authority.
- “You” → emotionally engages the audience, encourages identification with the speaker.
● Pronoun choices can subtly shape public perception, emotion, and accountability.