Interpretation of Gravity data
Rock Densities
The sign of the density contrast determines the sign
of the gravity anomaly.
Rock densities are among the least variable of all geophysical
parameters. Most common rock types have densities in the
range between 1.60 and 3.20M𝑔𝑚−3 .
The density of a rock is dependent on both its mineral
composition and porosity. Variation in porosity is the main
cause of density variation in sedimentary rocks.
Thus, in sedimentary rock sequences, density tends to
increase with depth, due to compaction, and with age, due to
progressive cementation.
Most igneous and metamorphic rocks have negligible
porosity, and composition is the main cause of density
variation. Density generally increases as acidity decreases;
thus there is a progression of density increase from acid
through basic to ultrabasic igneous rock types. Density
ranges for common rock types and ores are presented in the
table.
Density of Various Earth Materials
Material Density (gm/cm^3)
Air ~0
Water 1
Sediments 1.7 – 2.3
Sandstones 2.0 – 2.6
Shale 2.0 – 2.7
Limestone 2.5 – 2.8
Granites 2.5 – 2.8
Basalts 2.7 – 3.1
Metamorphic Rocks 2.6 – 3.0
Density Calculation
1- Direct method:
- Density is commonly determined by direct
measurements on rock samples. A sample is weighed
in air and in water. The difference in weights
provides the volume of the sample and so the dry
density can be obtained.
- If the rock is porous the saturated density may be
calculated by following the above procedure after
saturating the rock with water. The density value
employed in interpretation then depends upon the
location of the rock above or below the water table.
Density Calculation (cont..)
2- Indirect methods:
- As well as these direct methods of density
determination, there are several indirect (or in situ)
methods. These usually provide a mean density of a
particular rock unit which may be internally quite
variable.
- The measurement of gravity at different depths
beneath the surface using a special borehole
gravimeter or, more commonly, a standard
gravimeter in a mineshaft, provides a measure of the
mean density of the material between the observation
levels.
Density determination by subsurface gravity
measurements. The measured gravity difference g1
- g2 over a height difference h can be used to
determine the mean density r of the rock separating
the measurements.
2- Indirect methods (Cont…):
• Nettleton’s Method:
A reasonably satisfactory estimate of density of near
surface may be estimated by this method which
needs a representative gravity profile.
The gravity data are reduced to produce Bouger
gravity profile assuming various values of density for
corrections.
Among the resultant Bouger gravity profiles, the
smoothest one which reflects the topography least
corresponds to the approximately correct density.
Nettleton’s method of density determination over an isolated
topographic feature. Gravity reductions have been performed using
densities ranging from 1.8 to 2.8Mgm-3 for both Bouguer and
terrain corrections. The profile corresponding to a value of
2.3Mgm-3 shows least correlation with topography so this density
is taken to represent the density of the feature. (After Dobrin &
Savit 1988.)
Gravity Anomalies
A- The gravity anomalies of simple shapes:
1- The sphere
- The gravity anomaly of a sphere is that of a point
mass at the sphere center equal to the product of the
density and volume of the sphere. This model is also
the simplest example of the non-unique property of
the gravity field: only the ρV product governs the
anomaly and neither the size or density can be
determined individually.
The sphere the maximum anomaly is:
A useful rule of thumb for the depth of the center of
mass can be derived from the half width of the anomaly
at its half height:
Half width at half height is equal to 0.77 z, or
z = 1.3 𝑥1/2
Response of the Sphere
2. The horizontal cylinder
The anomaly of a horizontal cylinder of the same
cross section as the sphere is given by:
- It might be difficult to
distinguish between
these two bodies in a
survey profile, a map
would show the parallel
linear contours of the
cylinder vs. the circular
contours of the sphere.
3. The horizontal truncated thin sheet
The horizontal truncated thin sheet is a useful
approximation for the anomaly of a bedded
formation displaced by a fault. An actual layered
sequence could be modeled by superposing the
contributions of all the layers exhibiting density
contrasts. In the figure below only one layer of
contrasting density is used.
When the depth, h, is greater than the thickness, t,
the anomaly in the vertical gravity is:
B. Gravity Anomaly Calculations of Complex Shapes
We can approximate the body with complex shape as a distribution
of point masses. The gravitational attraction of the body is then
nothing more than the sum of the gravitational attractions of all of
the individual point masses as illustrated below.
The Geophysicist needs
to distinguish between
data:
- Processing,
- Enhancement and
- Interpretation
Gravity data analysis and interpretation
The final gravity data are usually plotted and
contoured in the same manner as magnetic data.
The grid of gravity values, contour maps or the
gravity profiles can be used to determine the lateral
location of any gravity variations and thus quantify
the nature (depth, geometry, density) of the
subsurface feature.
The map generated from gravity data and after
correction is called gravity anomaly map.
A gravity anomaly map looks at the difference
between the value of gravity measured at a particular
place and the predicted value for that place.
Gravity anomalies are computed by subtracting a
regional field from the measured field, which result
in gravitational anomalies that correlate with source
body density variations.
Positive gravity anomalies are associated with
shallow high density bodies, whereas gravity lows
are associated with shallow low density bodies.
Thus, deposits of high-density chromite, hematite,
and barite yield gravity highs, whereas deposits of
low density halite, weathered kimberlite, and
diatomaceous earth yield gravity lows.
Uplifts usually bring denser rocks nearer the surface
and thereby create positive gravity anomalies
{denser rock like-Basalt-Granite-Sandstone}.
Faults that displace rocks of different densities also
can cause gravity anomalies.
Salt domes generally produce negative anomalies
because salt is less dense than the surrounding rocks.
Example of positive and Negative anomaly for
anticline (oil) and salt dome:
- The figure below shows a contour map of gravity
data.
The data set has had Latitude, Free air and Bouguer
corrections.
Often gravity results such as these will show a
gradual trend across the area, which will distort local
anomalies.
The gradual trend in gravity values can arise from
deep seated geological variations, and can be
removed from the data.
The high gravity at the west end and the low at the
east end both disappear when a linear regional trend
is removed.
Normally such trend removal is carried out by digital
processing.
Gravity data of with
linear regional trend
removed from data.
Sulphide bodies are usually more dense than the host
rocks, and thus yield local high-gravity anomalies.
Graphite, on the other hand, is less dense than
sulphides, and close in density to typical host rocks.
If the survey area is underlain by rocks of different
densities, then gravity can be used to map the
distribution of each rock type.
Where positive anomalies indicate rocks with high
density than crustal average. Negative anomalies
indicate rocks with low density than the crustal
average.
Regional and Residual
Regional and Residual • Region Anomaly: The
component of gravity anomaly having longer
wavelength (low frequency) which are due to sources
with larger dimension particularly deep seated
structure such as a basin/geo syncline etc.
Residual Anomaly: The component of anomaly
having short wavelength (high frequency) which are
due to smaller structures such as anticline/salt dome
etc.
Regional + Residual = Bouger Gravity Anomaly
Depending upon our objective whether our interest is
deep seated larger structures or shallow depth
smaller structures, we have to proceed for further
processing and interpretation of our data.
Regional Anomaly: The component of gravity
anomaly having longer wavelength (low frequency)
which are due to sources with larger dimension
particularly deep seated structure such as a basin/geo
syncline etc.
Residual Anomaly: The component of anomaly
having short wavelength (high frequency) which are
due to smaller structures such as anticline/salt dome
etc.
Regional and Residual
Regional and Residual Separation
Isolation/extraction/separation of regional and residual
can be done basically by filtering either by High Pass
(HP) filter or Low Pass (LP) filter.
In regional studies, the anomalies from features of small
lateral extent may be removed so as to bring out larger
scale structure
Methods of Separation:
There are several methods by which the separation of
regional & residual can be isolated which are either:
(a) Graphical
(b) Polynomial fitting
(c) Moving average
(d) Upward continuation
(d) Wavelength filtering s more clearly.
Bougeur Regional Residual
Applications of Gravity Surveys
• Determine shape of the Earth
• Hydrocarbon exploration
• Regional geological studies
• Iso-static compensation determination
• Detection of sub-surface cavities (microgravity)
• Location of buried rock-valleys
• Determination of glacier thickness
• Tidal oscillations • Basin Geometry